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DESCRIPTIONS OF SEVERAL INDIVIDUAL MOLD SPECIES Acremonium spp. Where It Is Found: Acremonium spp. is naturally found in soils, decaying organic matter, and plant debris. It is also an agricultural contaminant. This genus can be parasitic or saprophytic to plants and other living fungi, and some species cause vascular wilts in trees. Physical Characteristics: The growth rate of Acremonium colonies is moderately rapid, maturing within 5 days. The texture of the colony is compact, flat or folded, and occasionally raised in the center. It is glabrous, velvety, and membrane-like at the beginning. Powdery texture may also be observed. By aging, the surface of the colony may become cottony due to the overgrowth of loose hyphae. The color of the colony is white, pale grey or pale pink on the surface. The reverse side is either uncolored or a pink to rose colored pigment production is observed. Physical characteristics of Acremonium spp. are the production of conidiophores and long, slender phialide. The conidia are hyaline, single-celled, and are collected in a slime drop. Variations/Species: There are approximately Acremonium spp. in existence today. 100 different species of Possible Health Effects: Acremonium spp. has been known to produce a toxin from the trichothecene group and may also give off an unpleasant odor due to the production of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). This fungus is associated with occupant complaints such as nausea, vomiting and diarrhea. Acremonium spp. has been isolated from cases of mycetoma, onychomycosis, mycotic keratitis, infection of the cornea, and infections of artificial implants. Alternaria spp. Where It Is Found: Alternaria spp. grows on organic debris in soil and also parasitizes leaves, flowers, fruits or vegetables, grains, and ornamental plants. Outdoors, it may be isolated from samples of soil, seeds and plants, and is frequently reported in the air. Alternaria spp. has been isolated from sewage, leather, stone monuments, optical instruments, cosmetics, computer disks, and jet fuel. It is commonly found indoors in house dust, carpets, textiles, on horizontal surfaces in building interiors, and window frames. Alternaria spp. is found in great abundance during the summer and early fall. Physical Characteristics: Alternaria spp. grows rapidly. The colony is flat, downy to woolly and is covered by grayish, short, aerial hyphae in time. The surface is grayish white at the beginning which later darkens and becomes greenish black or olive brown with a light border. The reverse side is typically brown to black due to pigment production. Variations/Species: There currently are 50 species of Alternaria in existence today. Alternaria spp. is one of the most common fungi worldwide. Possible Health Effects: Alternaria spp. spores can deposit in the nose, mouth and upper respiratory tract causing nasal septum infections. Alternaria spp. has also been associated with pneumonitis. Alternaria spp. is a common cause of extrinsic asthma. Acute symptoms include edema and bronchiospasms; chronic cases may develop pulmonary emphysema. Baker’s asthma is associated with inhalation of Alternaria spp. conidia present in flour. Other diseases caused by Alternaria spp. include: Farmer’s lung, mycotic keratitis, skin infections, and osteomyelitis. Also, the species A. alternata is capable of producing tenuazonic acid and other toxic metabolites that may be associated with disease in humans or animals. Arthrinium spp. Where It Is Found: Arthrinium is a widespread saprobe. It is found on plants including sugarcane and especially swamp grasses & sedges. This genus is often isolated from air near grassy places in the autumn. Physical Characteristics: Conidiophores are simple, mostly hyaline except for thick dark septa. Conidia are dark, singlecelled, broadly fusoid, ovoid with an equatorial germ slit, and are attached on the side and apex of conidiophore. Colonies grow rapidly and they usually occur in grape-like masses. The colonies appear woolly to cottony and white with brown spots on the surface. The reverse side of a colony is pale. Variations/Species: There are approximately 20 different species of Arthrinium spp. Possible Health Effects: Only one species of Arthrinium spp. is considered to be allergenic. There have been no reported cases of infections or toxin related diseases in humans or animals. Aspergillus niger Where It Is Found: It is a very common environmental isolate found in a great variety of substrates including textiles, grains, fruits and vegetables, and soil. Physical Characteristics: Aspergillus niger appears powdery in texture. The surface color of Aspergillus niger colonies is black, while from the reverse side they appear from white to yellow. Possible Health Effects: Aspergillus niger is the third most common Aspergillus species associated with invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. It is commonly associated with "fungus ball", a condition where the fungus actively grows in the human lung forming a ball, without invading lung tissue. Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus fumigatus have been reported to cause skin diseases and are a common cause of fungal related ear infections (otomycosis). Aspergillus niger generates many types of secondary metabolites including malformin B and some of the naptho-yquinones. Aspergillus spp. Where It Is Found: Aspergillus spp. is commonly isolated from forest products, soil, grains, nuts, cotton, organic debris, and water-damaged building materials. Spores can also be found in moist ventilation systems and house dust. Physical Characteristics: The major features of Aspergillus spp. are the growth rate, color of the colony, and thermotolerance. Except for Aspergillus nidulans and Aspergillus glaucus, the growth rate is rapid to moderately rapid, while Aspergillus nidulans and Aspergillus glaucus grow slowly. These variations in growth rate help in species identification. Aspergillus colonies are downy to powdery in texture. The surface color may vary depending on the species. The reverse is uncolored to pale yellow in most of the isolates. However, reverse color may be purple to olive in some strains of Aspergillus nidulans and orange to purple in Aspergillus versicolor. Aspergillus fumigatus is a thermotolerant fungus and grows well at temperatures over 40° C. This property is unique to Aspergillus fumigatus among the Aspergillus species. Aspergillus fumigatus can grow at a temperature range of 20 to 50° C. Variations/Species: There are approximately 200 species of Aspergillus spp. It is one of the most common molds species found around the world. Possible Health Effects: Sixteen species of Aspergillus spp. have been documented as etiological agents of human disease but rarely occur in individuals with normally functioning immune systems. However, due to the substantial increase in populations of individuals with HIV, chemotherapy patients and those on corticosteroid treatment, contamination of building substrates with fungi, particularly Aspergillus spp. is of concern. Aspergillosis is now the second most common fungal infection requiring hospitalization in the United States. Many Aspergillus species produce mycotoxins that may be associated with diseases in humans and other animals. Toxin production is dependent on the species or strain within the species and on the food source for the fungus. Some of these toxins are carcinogenic-including aflatoxins and ochratoxin. Aspergillus spp. is a common cause of extrinsic asthma with symptoms including edema and bronchiospasms, and chronic cases may develop pulmonary emphysema. These fungi are frequently secondary opportunistic pathogens in patients with bronchiectasis, carcinoma, other mycosis, sarcoid, and tuberculosis. Aureobasidium spp. Where it is found: Aureobasidium is a saprobe, or weak parasite, Type I & III allergen, and common in a variety of soils outdoors. It is widespread in the indoor environment and is common in places that moisture accumulates like bathrooms, kitchens, shower curtains, tile grout, and windowsills. Indoors A. pullulans is often found as a black stain on damp materials in homes such as painted wood. Physical Characteristics: Aureobasidium spp. is identifiable by how it produces black, shiny colonies. This fungus produces abundant spores, that are single-celled, ovoid, and 5-7 microns in size. It grows moderately rapidly and matures within 7 days of incubation. The colonies are flat, smooth, moist, yeast-like, mucoid to pasty, shiny and leathery in appearance. The surface is white, pale pink or yellow at the beginning and becomes brown to black and velvety with a grayish fringe by aging. The reverse side is pale or black. Variations/Species: This genus has 15 species, A. pullulans being the most common. Possible Health Effects: This species has also been reported to cause chromoblastomycosis (in an immunocompromised patient), which is a chronic cutaneous infection of the skin. There have been rare reports of isolates from skin lesions, keratitis, spleen abscess in a lymphoma patient, and blood isolate from a leukemic patient. Bipolaris spp. Where It Is Found: Bipolaris spp. is a plant parasite mostly on subtropical and tropical plants, particularly to Gramineae. This fungus can grow in semi-dry environments. It is commonly found in dead or dying plant debris, soils, and grasses. Bipolaris spp. is a dematiaceous, filamentous fungus. It is cosmopolitan in nature and is isolated from plant debris and soil. Physical Characteristics: Bipolaris spp. is characterized by how it produces brown conidia that are multi-celled, elliptical, straight, or curved. Bipolaris spp. colonies grow rapidly and become mature within 5 days. The texture of the colonies is velvety to woolly. The surface of the colonies is initially white to grayish brown and become olive green to black with a raised grayish periphery as they mature. The reverse sides are also darkly pigmented and olive to black in color. Variations/Species: The genus Bipolaris contains several species. Among these, three well-known pathogenic species are Bipolaris spicifera, Bipolaris australiensis, and Bipolaris hawaiiensis. Bipolaris spp. is closely related with Dreschlera spp. and Exserohilum spp. Possible Health Effects: Some species of Bipolaris spp. are pathogenic to grasses and animals such as the dog, and may cause nasal mycotic granuloma in cattle. It has been reported to produce the mycotoxin, sterigmatocystin that has been shown to cause liver and kidney damage when ingested by laboratory animals. This fungus is associated with phaeohyphomycosis, a disease consisting of a group of mycotic infections characterized by the presence of demataceous septate hyphae. Infections of the eyes and skin by black fungi could also be classified as phaeohyphomycosis. This fungus causes allergic fungal sinusitis, characterized by the presence of Bipolaris spp. in the sinuses. In certain people with severe allergies, the large spores of this fungus can travel to the sinuses or upper respiratory tract, where they attach to the mucus and grow, producing an unrelenting allergic reaction that progressively and permanently damages the sinuses. Botrytis spp. Where It Is Found: Botrytis spp. is mostly reported to be found in tropical and temperate areas. This fungus is a parasite of plants, soft fruits and vegetables. It is the cause of leaf/root rot on fruits and vegetables such as strawberries and onions. It is also known as "gray mold" or “noble rot” on wine grapes. Physical Characteristics: The conidia within Botrytis spp. are hyaline or gray in mass, single-celled, ovoid, and 7-14 x 5-9 microns in size. Colonies grow rapidly and the texture is woolly. The surface color is white at the beginning and becomes grey to brown in time. Dark spots may be observed on the surface of the colony. The reverse side is dark. Variations/Species: There are approximately 30 different species of Botrytis spp. Possible Health Effects: Botrytis spp. is a Type I & III allergen, not a known toxin producer or opportunistic pathogen. Botrytis spp. is known to cause allergies and induce asthma attacks, and is also a rare agent of keratomycosis. In some types of agricultural settings, such as greenhouses, the concentration of aerosolized spores may be greatly enhanced. Chaetomium spp. Where It Is Found: Chaetomium spp. is found on a variety of substrates containing cellulose including paper and plant compost. Several species have been reported to play a major role in decomposition of cellulose-made materials. These fungi are able to dissolve the cellulose fibers in cotton and paper and thus cause the materials to disintegrate. The process is especially rapid under moist conditions. Physical Characteristics: In most species of Chaetomium spp., the spores are lemon-shaped with a single germ pore. The spore column results from the breakdown of the asci within the body of the perithecium. The perithecia of Chaetomium are superficial and barrel-shaped, and they are clothed with dark, stiff hairs. It can produce an Acremonium-like state (imperfect stage) on fungal media. Chaetomium spp. colonies are rapidly growing, cottony and white in color initially. Mature colonies become grey to olive in color. From the reverse side, the color is tan to red or brown to black. Variations/Species: There are 81 species of Chaetomium spp. in existence today. Possible Health Effects: fever or asthma. Cladosporium spp. It is reported to be allergenic, as it may cause hay Where it is found: Cladosporium spp. is the most frequently found species in outdoor air in temperate climates. It is also found on dead plants, woody plants, food, straw, soil, paint, and textiles. It is often found indoors, usually in lesser numbers than outdoors. The dry conidia become easily airborne and are transported over long distances. This fungus is often encountered in dirty refrigerators, especially in reservoirs where condensation is collected. On moist window frames, it can easily be seen covering the whole painted area with a velvety olive-green layer. Cladosporium spp. often discolors interior paint, paper, or textiles stored under humid conditions. Houses with poor ventilation, houses with thatched straw roofs and houses situated in low damp environments may have heavy concentrations of Cladosporium spp. It is commonly found on the surface of fiberglass duct liners in the interior of supply ducts. Physical Characteristics: Cladosporium spp. colonies are powdery or velvety olive-green to olive-brown. Other characteristics include dark conidia single- or double-celled, variable in shape and size, ovoid to cylindrical and irregular, typically lemon-shaped. Most species of the Cladosporium spp. do not grow at temperatures above 35° C. Variations/Species: There are 40 different species of Cladosporium spp. and it is one of the more common molds found around the world. Possible Health Effects: Cladosporium spp.’s ability to sporulate heavily, ease of dispersal, and buoyant spores makes this fungus the most important fungal airway allergen; and together with Alternaria spp., it commonly causes asthma and hay fever in the Western hemisphere. A few species of this genus cause disease, which range from phaeohyphomycosis, a group of mycotic infections characterized by the presence of demataceous septate hyphae. Infections of the eyes and skin by black fungi (also classified as phaeohyphomycosis), and chromoblastomycosis, chronic localized infection of the skin and subcutaneous tissue that follows the traumatic implantation of the etiologic agent are also caused by this fungus. Chromoblastomycosis lesions are verrucoid, ulcerated, and crusted. Skin abscesses, mycotic keratitis and pulmonary fungus ball have been recorded in immunocompromised patients. It may also cause corneal infections and mycetoma, characterized by localized infections that involve cutaneous and subcutaneous tissue, fascia, and bone consisting of abscesses, granulomata, and draining sinuses, usually in immunocompromised hosts. Curvularia spp. Where It Is Found: This fungus can be parasitic or saprophytic. Curvularia spp. is found in plant debris, soil, facultative plant pathogens of tropical or subtropical plants. Physical Characteristics: The conidiophores are brown, mostly simple, bearing conidia apically; dark conidia, end cells lighter, three- to five-celled, more or less fusiform, typically bent, with one of the central cells enlarged. Curvularia spp. produces rapidly growing, woolly colonies. From the front, the color of the colony is white to pinkish gray initially and turns to olive brown or black as the colony matures. From the reverse, it is dark brown to black. Variations/Species: There are approximately 30 different species of Curvularia spp. known to be in existence today. Possible Health Effects: Reported to be allergenic. It may cause corneal infections, mycetoma and infections in immune compromised hosts. Occasionally a cause of onychomycosis, ocular keratitis, sinusitis, mycetoma, pneumonia, endocarditis, cerebral abscess, and disseminated infection. Most cases are from immunocompromised patients. Epicoccum spp. Where it is found: Epicoccum spp. is commonly found as a secondary invader in plants, soil, grains, textiles and paper products where Cladosporium spp. and Aureobasidium spp. are present. It is mostly saprophytic, or weakly parasitic. Epicoccum spp. is frequently isolated from air and occasionally occurs in house dust. Physical Characteristics: Physical characteristics of Epicoccum spp. are the production of dark conidia, several-celled (15-celled), globose, verrucose, 15-25 microns in diameter, and in a fruiting body (sporodochium). Epicoccum spp. grows rapidly and produces woolly to cottony or felty colonies. From the front, the colonies are yellow to orange, orange to red or pink initially and become greenish brown to black by aging. From the reverse, the same color is observed but is usually more intense than in the front view. Epicoccum spp. may produce a diffusible pigment which turns the color of the inoculated medium to yellow, orange, red or brown. Black dots (100-2000 µm in diameter) may be observed macroscopically on the colony surface. These are the tufts of hyphae which have conidiophores on their surface. These tufts of hyphae are cushion-shaped and nonconvoluted and are called sporodochia. Variations/Species: There are 2 species of Epicoccum spp. Possible Health Effects: Epicoccum spp. is reported to be an allergen but not in a high frequency. Due to the ability of this fungus to grow at 37° C, it can cause infection of skin in humans. Fusarium spp. Where it is found: Fusarium spp. is commonly found in soil, plants, grains, and often times humidifiers. Physical Characteristics: Physical characteristics of this fungus include extensive cotton-like mycelium in culture, often with some tinge of pink, purple or yellow. Fusarium spp. grows rapidly and produces woolly to cottony, flat, spreading colonies. The only slow-growing species is Fusarium dimerum. From the front, the color of the colony may be white, cream, tan, salmon, cinnamon, yellow, red, violet, pink, or purple. From the reverse, it may be colorless, tan, red, dark purple, or brown. Variations/Species: There are approximately 70 different species of Fusarium spp. Possible Health Effects: This fungus produces very harmful toxins, especially in storage of infected crops. These toxins, known as trichothecene (scierpene) toxins target the circulatory, alimentary, skin, and nervous systems. Fusarium spp. can also produce 1) Vomotoxin on grains which has been associated with outbreaks of acute gastrointestinal illness in humans. 2) T-2 Toxin and related trichothecenes are some of the deadliest known toxins. If ingested in sufficient quantity, T-2 toxin can severely damage the entire digestive tract and cause rapid death due to internal hemorrhage. 3) Fumosin, commonly found in corn and corn based products, has had recent outbreaks of veterinary mycotoxicosis causing "crazy horse disease". 4) Zearalenone toxin, which is similar in chemical structure to the female sex hormone estrogen, targets the reproductive organs. Fusarium spp. causes keratitis, endophthalmitis, onychomycosis, mycetoma, and disseminated infection in immunocompromised patients; infections in burn victims, and systemic opportunistic infections in severely disabled hosts. Geotrichum spp. Where It Is Found: Geotrichum spp. is a yeast found worldwide in soil, water, air, and sewage, as well as in plants, cereals, and dairy products. Physical Characteristics: It is characterized by the formation of chains of colorless, slimy spores (conidia) through the fermentation of vegetative filaments. Geotrichum spp. strains produce rapidly growing, white, dry, powdery to cottony colonies, resembling "ground glass." When disturbed on the surface, the colony becomes yeast-like or slimy. The optimal growth temperature is 25° C. Most strains either do not grow at all or grow weakly at 37° C. Variations/Species: There currently are three known species of Geotrichum spp. Possible Health Effects: This genus can sometimes be pathogenic to man. Health effects include reports of endocarditis, encephalitis, and osteomyelitis in immunosuppressed hosts. Pulmonary infections have also been described. Many of these reports lack proper documentation and may be based on unreliable identifications. No information is available regarding toxicity. Allergenicity has not been well studied. Memnoniella spp. Where It Is Found: This fungi and Stachybotrys spp. have a worldwide distribution and are often found together. It is commonly found in plant litter, soil, many types of plants and trees. Physical Characteristics: The conidiophores are dark, simple, bearing at apex a cluster of thick, short phialides; conidia of Memnoniella echinata are very similar to those of Stachybotrys spp., as they are dark, single-celled, and globose. The major difference between Memnoniella spp. and Stachybotrys spp. is that the conidia are in long persistent chains (aggregated in slimy heads in Stachybotrys spp.). Also the aerodynamic diameter of Memnoniella spp. is smaller and it would be expected to have an even greater potential to penetrate deep into lungs than the conidia of Stachybotrys spp. Variations/Species: There are approximately 5 species of Memnoniella spp. Memnoniella spp. is very closely related to Stachybotrys spp. Possible Health Effects: Recent studies on mycotoxins revealed that Memnoniella echinata can have toxicity similar to that of some isolates of S. chartarum. In terms of their chemical products, both S. chartarum and M. echinata produce phenylspirodrimanes, but these two organisms differ in that the former produces macrocyclic and trichoverroid trichothecenes and the latter produces griseofulvins. Both produce varying amounts of simple trichothecenes. Thus, it is suggested that Memnoniella spp. should also be considered potentially dangerous in indoor air. Mucor spp. Where It Is Found: Often found in soils, dead plant material (hay), horse dung, fruits and fruit juice. It is also found in leather, meat, dairy products, animal hair, and jute. It is almost always in house dust, frequently in air samples and old dirty carpets. Wood chips and sawdust are often attacked by M. plimbeus causing "wood chips disease" and "furrier’s lung". Accumulated dust in ventilation ducts may contain high concentrations of viable Mucor spp. spores. Physical Characteristics: This organism and other Zygomycetes will grow rapidly on most fungal media. Conidia (aplanospores) are globose to ellipsoidal, 7-8 microns in diameter, yellowish brown and slightly rough-walled, and are produced in sporangia that are developed around a piriform columella with typical projections. Identification is based on the way sporangia are formed. Colonies of Mucor grow rapidly at 25-30° C. Its fluffy appearance with a height of several centimeters resembles cotton candy. From the front, the color is white initially and becomes grayish brown in time. From the reverse, it is white. Mucor indicus is an aromatic species and may grow at temperatures as high as 40° C. Mucor racemosus and Mucor ramosissimus, on the other hand, grow poorly or do not grow at all at 37° C. Variations/Species: There are approximately 50 different species of Mucor spp. Possible Health Effects: Asthmatic reactions to Mucor spp. have been described. It is a Zygomecete fungus that may be allergenic (skin and bronchial tests). It is an opportunistic pathogenic organism and it may cause mucorosis in immune compromised individuals. The sites of infections are the lung, nasal sinus, brain, eye, and skin. Infection may have multiple sites. Mucor spp. causes rare infections in severely debilitated patients. Nigrospora spp. Where It Is Found: This fungus can be a plant parasite and can be found within soil. Physical Characteristics: Physical characteristics include shiny black conidia, single-celled, eggshaped to flattened-spherical, produced singly, and often have an equatorial colorless line or germ slit. Nigrospora spp. often appears as white wooly colonies growing fairly rapidly. The colonies mature within 4 days. Color of the colony is white initially and then becomes gray with black areas and turns to black eventually from both front and reverse. Sporulation may take more than 3 weeks for some isolates. Variations/Species: There are 5 species of Nigrospora spp. Possible Health Effects: Nigrospora is reported to be allergenic. There have been extremely rare cases of human infection caused by Nigrospora spp. Paecilomyces spp. Where It Is Found: Commonly found in soil and dust, but less frequently in air. P. variotii can cause paecilomycosis. Paecilomyces spp. can be found within soil and decaying plant material, composting processes, legumes, cottonseeds; some species parasitize insects. Physical Characteristics: Paecilomyces spp. colonies grow rapidly and mature within 3 days. Paecilomyces crustaceus and Paecilomyces variotii are thermophilic and can grow well at temperatures as high as 50° and possibly 60° C. The colonies are flat, powdery or velvety in texture. The color is initially white, and becomes yellow, yellowgreen, yellow-brown, olive-brown, pink, or violet, depending on the species. The reverse side is dirty white, buff or brown. Variations/Species: There Paecilomyces spp. are approximately 30 different species of Possible Health Effects: Linked to wood-trimmers disease and humidifierassociated illnesses. Some members of this genus are reported to cause pneumonia. It has also been reported as a causative agent of allergic alveolitis. It may produce arsine gas if growing on arsenic substrate; this can occur on wallpapers covered with Paris green. Mycotic keratitis in conjunction with corneal implants, nosocomial infections, endocarditis, infections in immunocompromised patients have been reportedly linked to Paecilomyces spp. Pithomyces spp. Where It Is Found: This fungus is found mainly growing on decaying plants, grasses, and soils. Physical Characteristics: The most common isolated species is P. chartarum and its spores have both longitudinal and transverse septa. Variations/Species: There are approximately 15 species of Pithomyces spp. Possible Health Effects: Pithomyces spp. produces a mycotoxin called sporidesmin which is known to be pathogenic in animals causing facial eczema and liver damage. Spores are produced at the apex of short side branches of vegetative filaments, are dark brown, and double- to several celled. Penicillium spp. Where It Is Found: Penicillium spp. is often found in aerosol samples. It is commonly found in soil, food, cellulose, paint, grains, and compost piles. It can be found in carpet, wallpaper, and in interior fiberglass duct insulation. P. chrysogenum has been found on building materials including paints, chip boards, and wallpaper. Physical Characteristics: The colonies of Penicillium spp. other than Penicillium marneffei are rapid growing, flat, filamentous, and velvety, woolly, or cottony in texture. The colonies are initially white and become blue green, gray green, olive gray, yellow or pinkish in time. The plate reverse is usually pale to yellowish. Penicillium marneffei is thermally dimorphic and produces filamentous, flat, radially sulcate colonies at 25° C. These colonies are bluish-gray-green at center and white at the periphery. The red, rapidly diffusing, soluble pigment observed from the reverse is very typical. At 37° C, Penicillium marneffei colonies are cream to slightly pink in color and glabrous to convoluted in texture. Variations/Species: Approximately 200 species belong to this genus. Penicillium spp. is commonly found around the world. Possible Health Effects: Although this fungus is less allergy-provoking than the other molds, Penicillium spp. is reported to be allergenic (skin) and it may cause hypersensitivity pneumonitis and allergic alveolitis in susceptible individuals. It can cause other infections such as keratitis, penicilliosis, and otomycosis. Some species can produce mycotoxins including 1) Ochratoxin which is damaging to the kidneys and liver and is also a suspected carcinogen; there is also evidence that it impairs the immune system. 2) Citrinin that can cause renal damage, vasodilatation, and bronchial constriction. 3) Gliotoxin which is an immunosuppressive toxin, and 4) Patulin that is believed to cause hemorrhaging in the brain and lungs and is usually associated with apple and grape spoilage. It can also cause extrinsic asthma. P. camemberti has been responsible for inducing occupational allergies among those who work with soft white cheeses on which the fungus grows. Rhizopus spp. Where It Is Found: Rhizopus spp. is found in forest and cultivated soils, decaying fruits and vegetables, animal dung and compost. It is a parasitic plant pathogen on potato, cotton and various fruits. Physical Characteristics: Nonseptate or sparsely septate broad hyphae (6-15 µm in diameter), sporangiophores, rhizoids (root-like hyphae), sporangia, and sporangiospores are visualized. Sporangiophores are brown in color and usually unbranched. They can be solitary or form clusters. Rhizoids are located at the point where the stolons and sporangiophores meet. Sporangia (40-350 µm in diameter) are located at the tip of the sporangiophores. They are round with flattened bases. Apophysis is absent or rarely apparent and columellae are hemispherical. Sporangiospores (4-11 µm in diameter) are unicellular, round to ovoid in shape, hyaline to brown in color, and smooth or striated in texture. Variations/Species: There are approximately 12 species of Rhizopus spp. Possible Health Effects: It has been reported to be allergenic and it is often linked to occupational allergy. It may cause mucorosis in immune compromised individuals. It may also cause zygomycosis (rhino-facial-cranial area, lungs, gastrointestinal tract, and skin). This disease is associated with the acidotic diabetes, malnourished children, severely burned patients, and other diseases such as leukemia and lymphoma, immunosuppressive therapy, or use of cytotoxins and corticosteroids. The fungi show a propensity for vessel invasion resulting in embolization and necrosis of surrounding tissue. Rhizopus spp. is the principal cause of zygomycosis, which occurs primarily in patients suffering from diabetic ketoacidosis (rhinocerebral disease), malnutrition, severe burns, or who are immunocompromised. Sporothrix spp. Where It Is Found: Sporothrix spp. is a thermally dimorphic fungus which is distributed worldwide and isolated from soil, living and decomposing plants, woods, and peat moss. Physical Characteristics: Physical characteristics include conidiophores mostly simple, single-celled or septate, hyaline, bearing a loose cluster of dry conidia at apex; conidia, hyaline, single-celled, globose to ovoid, born on short, prominent denticles. Mostly found as saprophyte. Variations/Species: There are three species in this genus. Possible Health Effects: It can cause sporotrichosis. Usually only in populations which are immune compromised. Sporothrix schenckii is an occasional cause of human infections. Sporotrichum spp. Where It Is Found: Sporotrichum spp. is commonly found on decaying plant matter, wet and rotting wood and in landscaping mulch. Physical Characteristics: It is physically similar to the human pathogen Sporothrix spp. Colonies of Sporotrichum pruinosum grow rapidly and mature within 5 days. The texture is velvety to powdery. From the front, the color is initially white and then becomes rosy beige, pinkish, yellow or orange. From the reverse, it is tannish. Variations/Species: There is only one known species, Sporotrichum pruinosum, in this genus. Possible Health Effects: The only information available regarding health effects are a few rare cases of repeated isolations from respiratory secretions suggestive of bronchopulmonary colonization. Stachybotrys spp. Where it is found: Stachybotrys spp. thrives on water damaged cellulose rich materials such as sheet rock, paper, ceiling tiles, cellulose-containing insulation backing and wallpaper. Stachybotrys spp. typically appears as a sooty black fungus occasionally accompanied by a thick mass of white mycelia. Stachybotrys spp. produces cottony, rapidly growing colonies which mature in about 4 days. From both front and reverse, the color of the colony is white initially and turns to black by aging. Physical Characteristics: Variations/Species: There are 15 known species of Stachybotrys spp. Possible Health Effects: The presence of this fungus in buildings is significant because of the mold’s ability to produce mycotoxins, which are extremely toxic, such as Satratoxin H. Exposure to these toxins can occur through inhalation, ingestion or dermal exposure. Symptoms include dermatitis, cough, rhinitis, nose bleeds, a burning sensation in the mouth and nasal passage, cold and flu symptoms, headache, general malaise, and fever. Inhalation of conidia may also induce pathological changes (pneumomycotoxicoses). Satratoxin H has been reported to be abortigenic in animals and in high doses or chronic low doses it can be lethal. Stemphylium spp. Where It Is Found: Stemphylium spp is found on soil, wood, and decaying vegetation. Some species found on leaves are plant pathogens. Physical Characteristics: Physical characteristics are dark conidia, with cross and longitudinal septa, variable in shape, frequently globose, broadly ellipsoid, or ovoid, often constricted at major septum. Colonies of Stemphylium spp. grow rapidly and mature in 5 days. They are velvety to cottony in texture. From the front, the color is gray, brown, or brownish-black. The reverse side is black. Variations/Species: There are approximately 6 species of Stemphylium spp. Possible Health Effects: Stemphylium spp. is reportedly a Type I allergen. Syncephalastrum spp. Where It Is Found: Syncephalastrum usually found in soils and in dung. spp. is Physical Characteristics: Physically it is distinct with conidiophores erect, branched, tips enlarged, bearing a head of rod-shaped sporangioles, each producing a row of nearly spherical conidia. Colonies of Syncephalastrum spp. grow very rapidly and the maximum growth temperature is 40° C. The texture of the colony is wooly to cotton candy-like. From the front, the color is white initially and turns to dark gray to black in time. The reverse side is pale or yellowishbrown Variations/Species: This racemosum. genus contains one species, Syncephalastrum Possible Health Effects: This organism is considered to be primarily nonpathogenic in humans, although a single case of a cutaneous infection was reported in 1980. Trichoderma spp. Where It Is Found: Trichoderma spp. is most commonly found in soil. Trichoderma spp. is often found in litter materials (polluted streams, sewage plants and driftwood). It is found on paper, and in kitchens on many common tableware materials. T. viridae is often isolated from indoor air samples and house dust. Materials such as wood construction and mineral fiber panels can be very affected by this fungus. Trichoderma spp. has been identified on soil, decaying wood, grains, citrus fruit, tomatoes, sweet potatoes, paper, textiles, and damp wood. Physical Characteristics: Colonies of Trichoderma spp. grow rapidly and mature in 5 days. The colonies are wooly and become compact in time. From the front, the color is white. As the conidia are formed, scattered blue-green or yellow-green patches become visible. These patches may sometimes form concentric rings. Reverse is pale, tan, or yellowish. Variations/Species: There are approximately 20 species within this genus. Possible Health Effects: Trichoderma spp. is reported to be allergenic but is relatively rare. Inhalation of the conidia or the volatile organic compounds may cause symptoms similar to those of Stachybotrys spp. reactions. Ulocladium spp. Where It Is Found: It is commonly found as a saprophyte on plant materials and soils. Some species can be also found on dead herbaceous plants, rotten woods, paper, textiles, and other organic substrates (cellulose) such as waterdamaged building materials. Ulocladium spp. is also found in dust and air samples. Physical Characteristics: Colonies of Ulocladium spp. grow moderately rapidly. The colonies are wooly to cottony. From the front and the reverse, the color is olive brown to black. Variations/Species: There are approximately 9 species within this genus. Possible Health Effects: This fungus is reported to be allergenic and considered cosmopolitan. Ulocladium spp. is known to be a common airway allergen. Verticillium spp. Where It Is Found: Commonly found in soil and decaying plant matter, known also to cause plant diseases. Physical Characteristics: Characterized by whorls of phialides produced along the length of undifferentiated filaments on conidiophores. Conidia are colorless, single- or double-celled, collected in small wet masses. Colonies of Verticillium spp. grow moderately rapidly or rapidly. The colonies are velvety to wooly. From the front, the color is white initially and becomes yellowish, red, pinkish-brown, or green. From the reverse, it is white or brown (rust color). Variations/Species: There are 4 known species within this genus. Possible Health Effects: It is normally considered to be nonpathogenic in humans. A few cases of keratitis have been reported but remain questionable. Allergenicity has not been well studied. EXPOSURE TERMS Exposure Terms Defined Term Exposure (Days) Acute 1-14 Intermediate 15-364 Chronic 365 or more Four Classes of Immune-Mediated Hypersensitivity Reactions Type I Immediate Type II Antibody-Mediated Cytotoxic Type III Immune Complex Type IV Delayed GLOSSARY OF COMMON TERMS Abortigenic – a drug or compound that induces the expulsion of an embryo or fetus. Acidosis – an abnormal increase in the acidity of the body's fluids, caused either by accumulation of acids or by depletion of bicarbonates. Acidotic diabetes – Diabetic Ketoacidosis; occurs when a person maintains high blood to sugar ratios in the presence of persistant large amounts of ketones. Aflatoxins – any group of toxic compounds produced by certain molds that contaminate stored food supplies, such as animal feed and peanuts. Alimentary – providing nourishment. Alveolitis – inflammation of the alveoli in the lungs caused by inhaling dust; with repeated exposure the condition may become chronic. Apex – the highest point; the vertex. Apophysis – a natural swelling, projection, or outgrowth of an organ or part, such as the process of a vertebra. Asci – a membranous, often club-shaped structure in which typically eight ascospores are formed through sexual reproduction of ascomycetes. Ascomycetes – any of various members of a large group of fungi characterized by the presence of sexually produced spores. Aspergillosis – an opportunistic infection by a fungus of the genus aspergillus; characterized by inflammation and lesions of the ear and other organs. Baker’s asthma – an occupational disease affecting the lungs and characterized by chronic shortness of breath caused by an allergic reaction to fungal spores present in flour. Bronchiectasis – chronic dilation of the brochial tubes. Bronchiospasms – a sudden involuntary contraction of the bronchioles. Bronchopulmonary – relating to the bronchial tubes and the lungs. Carcinogen – a cancer causing agent. Carcinoma – an invasive malignant tumor derived from epithelial tissue that tends to metastasize to other areas of the body. Cerebral abscess – inflammation in the brain caused by bacteria of fungi. Chromoblastomycosis – chronic cutaneous infection of the skin. Citrinin – antibiotic and mycotoxin from aspergillus niveus and penicillium citrinum. Columellae – any small columnlike structure in various plants and animals, often forming the central axis of development for the organism or an anatomical structure. Concentric rings – rings concentrated around one area. Conidia – an asexually produced fungal spore. Conidiophores – a specialized fungal hyphae that produces conidia. Convoluted – intricate; having many folds or coils. Corticosteroid – any of the steroid hormones produced by the adrenal cortex or their synthetic equivalents, such as cortisol and aldosterone. Cutaneous – of, relating to, or affecting the skin. Cytotoxins – a substance having a specific toxic effect on certain cells. Dematiaceous – denoting dark conidia and/or hyphae, usually brown or black. Denticles – a small tooth or toothlike projection. Dermatitis – inflammation of the skin. Diffusible – to pour out and permit or cause to spread freely. Dimorphic – existing or occurring in two distinct forms. Disseminated infection – an infection that spreads throughout the body. Dyspnea – difficulty in breathing, often associated with lung or heart disease and resulting in shortness of breath. Edema – swelling due to fluid filling up in body cavities or tissues. Encephalitis – inflammation of the brain. Endocarditis – inflammation of the endocardium. Endophthalmitis – inflammation of the tissues within the eyeball. Germ slit – a thin, often paler, line running along or across a spore and through which germination may occur. Etiologic agent – an agent that causes a disease. Extrinsic asthma – characterized by attacks of labored breathing, chest constriction, and coughing caused by an agent from outside the human body. Facultative – capable of functioning under varying environmental conditions. Farmer’s lung – an occupational disease affecting the lungs and characterized by chronic shortness of breath caused by an allergic reaction to fungal spores present in moldy hay dust that has been inhaled. Fascia – a sheet or band of fibrous connective tissue enveloping, separating, or binding together muscles, organs, and other soft structures of the body. Filament – a chainlike series of cells, as in many algae. Fumosin – toxin produced by mold. Fusiform – tapering at each end; spindle-shaped. Fusoid – somewhat spindle-shaped. Genus – a taxonomic category ranking below a family and above a species and generally consisting of a group of species exhibiting similar characteristics. Glabrous – having no hairs, projections, or pubescence; smooth. Gliotoxin – a toxic substance which acts mainly against certain viruses by preventing replication of viral DNA. It also has harmful effects on bacteria and fungi. It is produced by certain fungi, including Trichoderma viride. Globose – spherical. Gramineae – chiefly herbaceous but some woody plants including cereals, bamboo, reeds and sugar cane. Granuloma – a mass of inflamed granulation tissue, usually associated with ulcerated infections. Griseofulvins – an antibiotic, C17H17ClO6, administered orally for the treatment of ringworm and other fungal infections of the skin, hair, and nails. Herbaceous – relating to or characteristic of an herb as distinguished from a woody plant. Hyaline – resembling glass, as in translucence or transparency. Hypersensitivity pneumonitis – chronic progressive form of pneumonia with wheezing and dyspnea; occurs following exposure to any of a variety of antigens, sometimes occupational, and many names are given to cases with known types of exposure (such as farmer's lung, maple bark stripper's lung, chicken plucker's lung, bagassosis, byssinosis, and humidifier lung). Hyphae – any of the threadlike filaments forming the mycelium of a fungus. Inoculate – to give a weak form of a disease to a person or animal, usually by injection, as a protection against that disease. Keratitis – inflammation of the cornea. Keratomycosis – fungal infection of the cornea. Ketoacidosis – acidosis accompanied by the accumulation of ketone bodies (ketosis) in the body tissues and fluids, as in diabetic acidosis. Macroscopically – relating to observations made by the unaided eye. Malaise – a vague feeling of bodily discomfort, as at the beginning of an illness. Malformin-B – a phototoxic metabolite produced by aspergillus niger. Metabolite – any substance produced by the metabolism process in a living organism. Mucorosis – an infection with tissue invasion by broad, nonseptate, irregularly shaped hyphae of diverse fungal species to the lungs, nasal sinus, brain, skin or eyes. Mycelia – the vegetative part of a fungus, consisting of a mass of branching, threadlike hyphae. Mycetoma – a chronic, slowly progressing bacterial or fungal infection usually of the foot or leg, characterized by nodules that discharge an oily pus. Mycosis – a fungal infection in or on part of the body. Mycotic – dealing with a disease caused by a fungus. Mycotic keratitis – inflammation of the cornea caused by fungus. Mycotoxicosis – poisoning caused by ingestion of a mycotoxin. Mycotoxin – toxin produced by a fungus. Nonconvoluted – simple; not containing folds or coils. Nonseptate – not divided by a septum or septa. Nosocomial infections – pertaining to or originating in the hospital, said of an infection not present or incubating prior to admittance to the hospital, but generally occurring 72 hours after admittance, the term is usually used to refer to patient disease, but hospital personnel may also acquire nosocomial infections. Ochratoxin – a mycotoxin produced by a fungus of the genus aspergillus spp. Ocular keratitis – inflammation of the cornea. Onychomycosis – an infection causing nails to split, flake, and grow too thick. Osteomyelitis – a usually bacterial infection of bone and bone marrow in which the resulting inflammation can lead to a reduction of blood supply to the bone. Otomycosis – an infection due to a fungus in the external auditory canal, usually unilateral, with scaling, itching, and pain as the primary symptoms. Ovoid – something shaped like an egg. Pathogen – an agent that causes disease. Patulin – a mycotoxin produced by several species of aspergillus spp. and penicillium spp. Penicilliosis – infection with fungi of the genus penicillium spp. and characterised in dogs by chronic sneezing and a nasal discharge. Perithecium – a small flask-shaped fruiting body in ascomycetous fungi that contains the ascospores. Phaeohyphomycosis – a group of superficial and deep infections caused by fungi that form pigmented hyphae and yeastlike cells in tissue. Phenylspirodrimanes – potent immunosuppressive agent. Phialide – a cell that produces conidia. Piriform columella – the central sterile portion of the sporangium in various fungi that is in the shape of a pear. Pneumomycotoxicoses – pathological changes. Pneumonitis – inflammation of the lung tissue. Pulmonary emphysema – a condition of the lungs marked by decreased respiratory function. Renal damage – kidney damage. Rhinitis – inflammation of the nasal mucous membranes. Rhizoids – a rootlike extension of the thallus of a fungus Saprobe – an organism that derives its nourishment from nonliving or decaying organic matter. Saratoxin H – a potent mycotoxin. Sarcoid – a tumor resembling a malignant tumor arising from connective tissues. Septa – a thin partition or membrane that divides two cavities or soft masses of tissue in an organism. Septate – divided by a septum or septa. Sinusitis – inflammation of the sinuses or a sinus, especially in the nasal region. Sporangia – a single-celled or many-celled structure in which spores are produced, as in fungi, algae, mosses, and ferns. Sporangiospores – a specialized branch bearing one or more sporangia. Sporodochium – a cushion-shaped stroma covered with conidiophores in a fungus. Sporotrichosis – a chronic infectious disease of domestic mammals and humans, characterized by nodules or ulcers in the lymph nodes and skin and caused by a saprophytic or parasitic fungus of the genus Sporothrix, especially S. schenckii, commonly found in soil and wood. Sporulate – to produce or release spores. Sterigmatocystin – a carcinogenic mycotoxin produced in high yields by strains of the common mold, Aspergillus versicolor. Stroma – the connective tissue framework of an organ, gland, or other structure. Subcutaneous – located or placed just beneath the skin. Sulcate – having narrow, deep furrows or grooves, as a stem or tissue. T-2 toxin – a potent mycotoxin produced in feedstuffs by several species of the genus fusarium. It elicits a severe inflammatory reaction in animals and has teratogenic effects. Tenuzonic acid – a metabolite found in a strain of the fungus alternaria tenuis auct, which functions as an antibiotic with antiviral and antineoplastic properties, and may also act as a mycotoxin. Thermophilic – requiring high temperatures for normal development, as certain bacteria. Trichothecene – any of several mycotoxins that are produced by imperfect fungi and that include some contaminants of livestock feed and some held to be found in yellow rain. Trichoverroid – immunosuppressive. Tufts – a short cluster of elongated strands, as of yarn, hair, or grass, attached at the base or growing close together. Vasodilatation – dilation of a blood vessel, as by the action of a nerve or drug. Vergosin – antifungal compound. Verrucose – covered with warts or wartlike projections. Vomotoxin – deoxynivalenol. Whorl – ring of leaves or a stem. Zearalenone – one of a group of compounds known under the general designation of resorcylic acid lactones. Zygomycetes – a class of fungi. Zygomycosis – a fungal infection caused by infection with various fungi from the class Zygomycetes.