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DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
Source A
Aut: UF IMPERIALISM (1830-1914)
Imperialism is the domination by one country of the political.
~conomic, or cultural life of another country or region in order to
Increase its own wealth and power. Imperialism during the period fol­
lowing the Age of Exploration (fifteenth-seventeenth centuries), when
European countries acquired colonies to support mercantilism, can be
called "old imperialism." In the nineteenth century, a new era of
imperialism began, this time spurred on by the Industrial Revolution.
MAKING CONNECTIONS
Regents Tip Briefly
describe each of the
following historical
movements and explain its
effect on society.
Feudalism:
Causes of Modern Imperialism
Nationalism:
Mercanti Iism:
·..AsaresUllofthelndustrial Revolutlon/eountri~sneed~d
coloniesfgt:>
.. . .•. •.... ... . .
.» > .. •..•..•.••...•
• . .~• • Rawmat~rial$ to feedtheever·increaslngnumberof
factorlts . .•. • • •.•.• . •.• .• • . . . .• .• • . . . . ... .
.... ..\
• . . MaJ'k~Js fOrJlnishedproducts,. sincedome,sti¢ miirkets ICLJUIW •• i
notcpnsumeaHthat was. being produced. .• .... ..•1c~.,.~_"••.....
"Pla.cestoinvestsw-p1uscapital,based on the idea
investrnelltinanunderdevelopedarea wQuldyield ag;re~lte». j
...... profit. ..
•. . • • . ...............••... ....•. . ..........•............
-Placestosendsurp'uspopulation, whkh v.'0uld alleviate
domestic problems. such as (}vercrowded cities and .
unemployment.
..
Capitalism:
1m perialism:
Social Causes
··¥anypeoplebelieyed in the words ofthe British poet Rudyanl
l':ipling , who. said it wasthe "whiteman's burden' , to:
. ..Educate the people of the ~nderdevelopyd\Vorld.
Spread the customs of what they perceived was a Sl.lperior
Western culture. .... ....). •.•.•.. .·.·.··....i
- Convert people to Christianity, sinceitwashelievedthatthe
souls of nonbelievers would not be saved.
.
.
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
Source B
Imperialism
About 1870, approximately the same time that industrialization was
making itself strongly felt in Britain, France, and Germany, a new wave of
imperialism arose. Japan and the United States, both beginning to
industrialize, would join the wave later. Many factors contributed I~t\
Power
to the movement to acquire colonial empires:
~
Lhe demand for raw materials and markets
the unification of Italy and Germany
France's desire to restore prestige after the Franco-Prussian War
the emergence of Japan as a power in intenwtional affairs
the desire of humanitarian groups to help others
The biological theory of natural selection put forth by Charles Darwin in
1859 in his book, The Origin of Species, seemed to reinforce the idea that
Europeans were a superior people and that they should control the resources
of the world.
The combination of the technological supremacy of the Europeans with the
weak governments and disunity that they often encountered in the less
developed areas reinforced this concept of Social Darwinism and made it
easier for them to gain control.
Conilicts rapidly developed among the imperialist countries over control of
the desired areas. The British desire to control the north-south Cape-to­
Cairo expanse in East Africa brought them close to conflict with both the Ger­
mans and French who were anxious to gain control of east-west belts. The
French goal of obtaining North African colonies also led to disputes with both
Italy and Germany. Imperialistic disputes among European countries were
partially responsible for the outbreak of World War 1.
In the 1890's, the United States abandoned its traditional isolationism to
become a player in the world of international politics. American nationalism,
combined with the "White Man's Burden" idea, led to armed conflict with
Spain over its harsh repression in Cuba.
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
Source C
UNIT
VII
IMPERIALISM
In this unit we will enter a new period of exploration and colonization, which
is directly tied to the Industrial Revolution. It became important for the Euro­
pean nations to have these colonies both as sources for natural resources and as
markets for European products. If the amount of steel production is tied to a
nation's amount ofpower (and it is) then it is important to secure the raw mate­
rials for such production. It is not surprising then that Great Britain led the way
in this "New Imperialism. " The application of industrial technology to the devel­
opment of military weapons made it possible for Europe to rule much of Africa
and Asia. The populations of those areas may have been brave, but no spear will
ever defeat a rifle.
Britain, of course, used its navy to control the world. Without a large popula­
tion to provide them with a large army, the British turned to their traditional
strong area-the navy. British policy was to control certain points along the
major shipping lanes so that it could control the waterways of the world. New
areas became the objects of British foreign policy: the ports of Hong Kong, Singa­
pore, and Aden; the islands of Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) and Cyprus; and the
state of Egypt, in order to control the Suez Canal. France also engaged in this
race to acquire possessions overseas. It "grabbed" much of North and West Africa
and Southeast Asia. Portugal claimed areas on the eastern and western coasts of
Africa where its explorers landed. Little Belgium controlled a huge area in cen­
tral Africa far larger than itself. Italy and Germany, late in becoming nations,
were late in acquiring overseas possessions and often had to settle for what they
saw as the crumbs of colonization. National honor was very much involved in
the race for possessions.
Along the way we will meet the explorers who braved the unknown to explore
and claim lands for their nations. Some went because of greed and others went
because they wished to bring the Christian religion to the people of the area. There
is no doubt that most Europeans believed they were superior to the people who occu­
pied the areas and thought of themselves as bringing "civilization" to residents.
China was divided because it refused to realize that it was no longer the "cen­
ter of the world. " A lack of leadership and an attempt to remain isolated proved
457
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
its undoing. It was not a proud moment in British history when the British
forced opium addiction on the Chinese. The Japanese, looking at what was hap­
pening, began to modernize themselves after the visit by the American Commodore
Matthew Perry. They adopted the techniques and technologies of the West and so
became an imperialist aggressor country themselves. They looked upon China,
Korea, and Manchuria as their natural spheres of influence. Similar happen­
ings took place in the Middle East, India, and Southeast Asia.
After World War II, the ease and success with which independence was accom­
plished in many areas was mainly due to the actions taken by the Europeans
before freeing the possessions. In the long run, however, there have been major
problems in most of the new nations, having to do with ethnic hatreds, artificial
boundaries, and race problems. And, the Irish problem is still with us.
It is important to your understanding of the twentieth century that you learn
what happened during this period. There is a direct connection between events
here and what we will study in the next unit.
458
Imperialism
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CHAPTER
26
The New Imperialism
Nations in Europe were eager for expansion, but had no place to go on the
Continent without starting a war with a neighbor. This new nationalistic feeling
led directly to the New Imperialism. With the advances of the Industrial Revolu­
tion, even the smallest of nations could think about conquering large areas of
Arica and Asia. These new colonies would then serve the Europeans' need for raw
materials and markets for their products. The Europeans could feel good about
taking them over because they could justify their actions as "humanitarian."
Lessons had been learned from the older Imperialistic Period. New forms of con­
trol were soon developed.
Imperialism can be defined as the intentional control by a powerful nation over
a weaker region or nation. This control is usually political, economic, and social
or cultural. As many of the regions under this kind of control were colonies, the
practice of imperialism can also be referred to as colonialism. Imperialistic poli­
cies have been carried out in history by European as well as non-European peo­
ples. We will concern ourselves only with the imperialism of Western European
nations.
The Old Imperialism and the New In1perialism
There have been tvvo distinct periods of imperialism. The Old Imperialism last­
ed from about 1500 to 1800. It was a feature of both the Age of Exploration (see
Chapter 8) and the Commercial Revolution (see Chapter 9). It was concerned ini­
tially with establishing trade routes and obtaining resources, and soon thereafter
with the actual acquisition of lands and control over the people in those lands. It
was carried on by private individuals and companies, and also by nation-states.
This older form of imperialism took place mainly in the Western Hemisphere­
North America, South America, and the Caribbean region.
The New Imperialism began in the second half of the nineteenth century and
lasted a few years past the middle of the twentieth century. It was concerned with
establishing trade routes and obtaining resources, but also sought to create mar­
kets and to find places worthy of large financial investments. It was carried out
mainly by governments as official policy and took place mostly in the Eastern
Hemisphere-Mrica and Asia. Imperialistic nations desired to rule over other
The New Imperialism
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459
lands and people and to establish empires for reasons that went beyond those
characteristics of the older imperialism. Let us now see what the reasons were for
the New Imperialism.
Reasons for the New
Imperialism
There were many reasons for the New Imperialism. As with any historic devel­
opment that affects large numbers of people in different global regions, we
must examine reasons for imperialism from economic, political, and social view­
points. It is also necessary to understand the particular time in history when a
given development such as imperialism occurs. Two of the most important
aspects of nineteenth-century European history that we have learned about­
the Industrial Revolution and nationalism-have a connection with the New
1mperi alism .
......, Chapter 26 Chronology
1-----------Rudyard Kipling writes
The White Man's Burden
End of the New
Imperialism as
new nations emerge
in Africa and Asia
The Old Imperialism in
the Western Hemisphere
'I
I
I
I
1500
1600
1700
1800
I
I
I
I
460
I
Imperialism
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1900
Economic Reasons
The increased supply of manufactured goods produced by the Industrial Revo­
lution encouraged European nations to find new markets for these goods. A new
market meant a part of the world where there would be an opportunity for people
there to buy goods produced by the European nations. These nations would also
seek out resource-rich regions in order to exploit (make use of) the region's raw
materials. These raw materials would be turned into a finished, manufactured
product. The Industrial Revolution also saw a rise in the number of wealthy busi­
ness professionals, merchants, and large companies. With surplus capital available
to them, they looked overseas for places to invest their money. As investors, they
would hope to make a profit. They would also expect their own national govern­
ments to send soldiers to protect their investments, such as rubber plantations,
from interference by natives of the region as well as by other imperialistic nations.
Political Reasons
Nations hoped to gain prestige and glory by expanding their power globally.
These nationalistic desires sparked nations to seek a balance of power with other
nations who were also trying to build colonial empires. New nations such as Ger­
many and Italy wanted to achieve their own "place in the sun" and catch up with
longtime colonial powers such as France, Great Britain, and the Netherlands.
Imperialistic rivalries in some instances grew intense. Strong-willed leaders who
urged the use of armed forces to pursue their nations' claims were engaging in
jingoism. Nations also wanted overseas territories as places for military bases and
coaling stations for their navies. In addition, a colony was a potential source of
manpower for the imperialistic nation's army.
Social Reasons
European nations thought their way of life to be superior to other global areas.
Consequently, they felt both an obligation and a right to spread their culture into
these areas. These feelings of ethnocentrism can be seen in the 1899 poem, The
lVhite Man '5 Burden, by the Englishman Rudyard Kipling (1865-1936). It was about
the obligation of carrying Western civilization to those people in other parts of
the world, who were considered to be "backward" and less fortunate. These feel­
ings were also the result of nineteenth-century notions of white racial superiority
and the theory of Social Darwinsim. Such beliefs held that social progress
depended on competition among human beings, resulting in the "survival of the
fittest." And as Europeans saw themselves as more powerful and more advanced
technologically, they regarded it as natural for stronger societies to conquer weak­
er ones.
Certainly, there were those European missionaries, educators, doctors, engineers,
and scientists who went to Mrica and Asia with such fixed, rigid views. Yet, among
them were many who traveled overseas for purely humanitarian purposes, and with
respect for the native peoples they met. Thus, for example, there were those mis­
sionaries whose emphasis was simply on seeking converts to Christianity; and there
were those missionaries who were interested less with religion than with matters of
The New Imperialism
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461
health and living conditions. In addition, there were explorers who mainly wished
to learn more about the physical geography of regions that were unknown to them.
Forms of Imperialist Control
The European nations that became imperialistic powers established their con­
trol and authority in different ways. The various forms or types of such authority
and control are described below.
Sphere of Influence
By claiming a sphere of influence, a nation gained sole economic power in a
region and had exclusive economic rights to trade, to invest, and to develop
mines, factories, or railroads. Other nations could not interfere with its activities.
This form of imperialism was used in China, where each foreign nation active
there, such as Germany, had economic control in a specific region. In general,
other foreign nations would respect this kind of arrangement.
Concession
A concession consisted of a foreign nation's obtaining special privileges. An
underdeveloped region gave permission to a technologically advanced country to
do something of economic value in the region. For example, the Arabs let the
British drill for oil and build a railroad in the Middle East. Ultimately, while Arab
rulers in the Arabian peninsula would gain part of the profits from the sale of the
oil, it would be the British who would keep most of the profits and expand their
economic and political control in the region.
Protectorate
Under a protectorate system, a colonial nation would allow the native ruler of a
region to remain in office as a figurehead, while in reality the colonial power
made all major decisions. The colonial nation, as a "protecting big brother
power," would prevent other nations from coming into the region. For example,
the French held Morocco and Tunisia as protectorates. Also, the Eastern Euro­
pean satellite nations controlled by the Soviet Union after World War II can be
thought of as protectorates. (See Chapter 32, "World War II," and Chapter 35,
"The Cold War.")
Colony
To set up a colony, an imperialistic nation would achieve total control over a
region through settlement or conquest. The nation then would annex the region,
or add it to its territorial belongings, with the region becoming part of a colonial
empire. The colony would have the flag of the imperialistic power or mother
462
Imperialism
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country flying over it, just as if the colony were a piece of land situated in Europe
within the boundaries of the mother country itself. French annexations of Algeria
and Indochina, and Portuguese control over Angola are examples of colonial
acquisitions.
Mandate
A mandate describes a region that is placed under the temporary control of a
nation by an international organization. Such a situation is rare, but did occur
after World War I. Turkey, a losing nation, was forced to give up its control of
Palestine, Iraq, Syria, and Lebanon. The League of Nations, the forerunner of the
United Nations, agreed to let Britain have a mandate over Palestine and Iraq, and
to let France have a mandate over Syria and Lebanon. Britain and France were
victorious nations in World War I, and gained control over the mandated territo­
ries for a limited amount of time.
Summary
As we saw, the key terms in our definition of imperialism are "control," not
"own"; 'powerful," not "big':' "weaker;" not "smaller." The prestige of the Euro­
pean nations was tied up with this new movement. There is no doubt that the
Europeans felt superior to their "newly conquered peoples, " and considered the
Asians and Africans inferior in culture and advancement. The fact that these
centuries-old societies had their own cultures and own ways of doing things did
not matter. To the Europeans, their way was the only way. Their drive was pri­
marily economic, but there were those who truly did believe that they should, as
Kipling wrote, "take up the White man's burden" and "send forth the best ye
breed. "
The New Imperialism
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463
CHAPTER
27
Imperialism in Africa
When the twentieth century began, over 90 percent of the Mrican continent
was controlled by Europeans. This control took the various forms that we learned
about in the last chapter. The only parts of Mrica that were not under European
rule were the countries of Ethiopia and Liberia. And yet, just one hundred years
earlier, at the start of the nineteenth century, there was no part of Mrica under
control by a European nation.
What then had brought on this historic change that saw European power
extend into Mrica? The general reasons were given in Chapter 26. In this chapter
we will see how this power was extended and how it was maintained. Several Euro­
pean nations become involved in the "scramble for Mrica," a competition for land
and resources in this huge continent. The scramble for Mrica was most intense
from 1880 to 1910 and resulted in a partition of Mrica, meaning a division of its
land without any consent given by the Mrican people.
There had been earlier contact between Europe and Mrica, during the age of
the Old Imperialism. In that period, 1500 to 1800, however, Mrica was not viewed
as a target for conquest and takeover. The European interest in Mrica at that time
was focused on specific economic goals:
1. To trade for ivory, gold, and other items;
2. To establish bases as stopovers for ships sailing to South and East Asia; and
3. To obtain slaves for work in the Americas, the "New World" of the Western
Hemisphere.
Moreover, the European contact with Mrica was limited mostly to coastal areas.
The European nations that developed the largest colonial empires in Mrica
from 1880 to 1910 were Britain and France. We will look at the imperialistic roles
they played in Mrica's history as well as the roles played by Germany, Italy, Bel­
gium, and Portugal.
Great Britain
In time, of all the European nations active in Mrica, Britain came to rule over
the largest number of Mrican people. Britain's colonies were scattered all over the
Imperialism in Africa
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467
continent. In the north, Britain gained dominance in Egypt. Egyptian rulers in
the mid-1800s borrowed much money from British banks. Unable to pay back all
their loans, the rulers piled up large debts and were subject to pressure from
bankers to follow various economic policies. Additional British interest in Egypt
emerged with construction of the Suez Canal in 1869. A French company, headed
by Ferdinand de Lesseps, had built the canal with the permission of the Egyptian
government. The Egyptian government, in fact, was the biggest stockholder in
this company. However, the head of the government, Ismail Pasha, had added to
his country's foreign debt because of his excessive spending and fancy life-style.
To payoff his debts, he sold large amounts of stock in the Suez Canal Company to
the British government in 1875. Britain thus became a part owner of the canal.
This was important to Britain, as it was the biggest user of the canal and consid­
ered it part of its "lifeline to India." In fact, the trade route from Britain through
the Mediterranean Sea, the Suez Canal, and the Red Sea to India and Britain's
Asian possessions, became known as the "lifeline of the British Empire."
With Egypt's financial problems growing worse, the British sent in troops in
1882. The reasons were supposedly to protect investments and the Suez Canal,
and to reorganize Egypt's monetary system. Although Egyptian officials remained
in power, it was the British, who, by setting up a protectorate, really ruled the
country.
......, Chapter 27 Chronology
1------------­
France establishes
a protectorate
in Tunisia
France occu pies
Alg;ria
GreatTrek in
Southern Africa
Berlin
Conference
[1884-1885]
Suez Canal
completed
Belgium takes
over the Congo
Italians
defeated
at Adowa
I
I
I
I
I
1825
1850
1875
1900
1925
I
I
~ ~
Arrival of
Cecil Rhodes
in Cape Colony
•
468
Travels of
David Livingstone
in Africa
Britain establishes
a protectorate
in Egypt
•
Imperialism
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~I
Fashoda
Incident
I
Italy takes
over Libya
[1911-1912]
British Involvement in Central and East Africa
British interests also reached south of Egypt, into the region known as the
Sudan. Whoever controlled the Sudan, site of the upper Nile River, would be able
to control the flow of Nile waters into Egypt. In 1898, British forces in the Sudan
defeated the forces of the Mahdi, the Islamic ruler, and captured Khartoum. Mov­
ing further south, the British reached the town of Fashoda only to find a French
army that had recently arrived there. The French had raised their flag in this part
of the southern Sudan, hoping to expand eastward from their empire in West
Mrica. The two European armies faced each other for almost two weeks, poised to
begin a territorial war. However, since neither Britain nor France really wished to
go to war, an agreement was signed that prevented fighting. It stated that France
would recognize British authority over the Sudan, while Britain would respect
France's colonization in West Mrica.
This settlement of what became known as the Fashoda Incident, made without
asking the Sudanese for their opinion, resulted in the addition of the Anglo-Egypt­
ian Sudan territory to the British Empire. The Fashoda Incident also showed how
overseas competition could lead to a war between colonial powers. It also demon­
strated how great powers could compromise, under certain "face-saving" condi­
tions. Finally, it signaled a growing friendliness between two former enemies-a
friendliness that would be important in the world wars of the twentieth century.
In East Mrica, another possible confrontation between colonial powers grew as
England, Germany, and Portugal laid claims here. A settlement was reached in the
Berlin Conference of 1884-1885. Recognition was given to a region labeled
British East Mrica and a region called German East Mrica, and to Mozambique as
a Portuguese colony. No Mricans were involved in these agreements. As British
East Mrica had much undeveloped land and had a cooler climate than many
other parts of Mrica, it attracted many Englishmen to come and settle there. They
were mainly from the poorer classes and saw an opportunity to better their lives at
the expense of the native Mricans. These Englishmen and their descendants came
to look upon this territory as their homeland and thus developed a "settler men­
tality." This was to be a factor in their resistance to East Mrican independence
movements in the 1960s.
The British government's takeover in East Mrica, as well as in some other
regions, did come across some obstacles. One of these was the armed resistance of
Mrican people. Both the Shana and Matabele tribes, for example, fought two wars
against the foreigners before being subdued. The British cause was helped by
superior weapons, as well as general disunity among tribal groups. East Mrican
societies were also disrupted by a large slave trade, begun by Arabs, that lasted
into the nineteenth century. Another factor that weakened these societies and
made them vulnerable and open to a takeover was a famine caused by rinderpest.
This is the name of a cattle disease. The death of many cattle caused malnutrition
and starvation for East Mricans.
British Involvement in Southern Africa and the
Influence of Cecil Rhodes
Southern Mrica was another region that experienced British imperialism. The
great attractions here were the rich deposits of gold and diamonds along with the
Imperialism in Africa
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
469
geographically strategic locale of the tip of Africa. The tip of Africa had been set­
tled by the Dutch in 1652 and was called Cape Colony. It was taken by the British in
1815, at the end of the Napoleonic Wars. In 1870, an Englishman whose activities
were to shape the history of the region arrived in Cape Colony. This was Cecil
Rhodes (1853-1902). As a financial investor who was to become a prime minister
of Cape Colony and an "empire builder," Rhodes acquired control of the diamond
production in Southern Africa by the 1890s. The methods used to obtain land with
diamond deposits included armed force, bribery of local chieftains, and treaties.
The use of treaties stirred controversy, because Europeans and Africans would
view them differently. Controversy stemmed from a clash between English legal
traditions and age-old African customs. A good example of this was the 1888 treaty
signed by the Englishman Rudd, an agent of Cecil Rhodes, and Lobengula, chief
of the Matabeles. By the terms of this document, Lobengula gave to Rudd
(unknowingly) all the mineral rights of his tribal region. In return, he was to
receive rifles, cartridges, a yearly income, and a steamboat. ,Vhen Rhodes's com­
pany, the British South Africa Company, began to develop gold and diamond
mines, Lobengula protested and even wrote a letter of complaint to Queen Victo­
ria. The British position was that the 1888 treaty was a perfectly legal document
that transferred title to and ownership of the land to them. In England, it was
common for ownership of property to be exchanged by the signing of a contract.
It was not so in Africa. From Lobengula's point of view, and that of tribal African
societies, ownership of land was sacred and certainly could not be exchanged
according to a piece of paper. Nevertheless, Lobengula lost his land. It soon
became the English colony of Rhodesia, named after Cecil Rhodes.
Rhodes became an extremely wealthy man. He dreamed of a huge British
Empire in Africa, hoping to complete a "Cape to Cairo" railroad. His dreams, if
they had been realized, would have added to British power as well as to his own
wealth. By the terms of his will, large sums of money, obtained from his gold and
diamond mines, were left to establish scholarships at Oxford University for Eng­
lishmen and Americans. Indeed, even now, it is an outstanding honor to be grant­
ed a Rhodes scholarship.
Although Rhodes was the key economic and political figure in the growth of
British dominance in Southern Africa, this dominance could not have been
achieved without the deployment of British soldiers. They were needed to win
over the Zulus, a tribal people who were highly disciplined warriors who fought
courageously. The soldiers were also needed to fight against the Boers. The Boers
were descendants of the Dutch settlers who had come to Southern Africa in 1652.
They resented the British takeover of Cape Colony in 1815 and migrated north­
ward in 1830. This migration, known as the Great Trek, resulted in the establish­
ment of the Republics of Transvaal and the Orange Free State. Tension between
the Boers and Britain was aggravated when more Englishmen came to these areas
following the news of the discovery of valuable gold and diamond deposits. This
tension resulted in the Boer War, 1899-1902. Upon winning the war, Britain
promised the Boers some form of self-government. In 1910, the Transvaal and
the Orange Free State were combined with the British territories of Cape Colony
and Natal to form the Union of South Africa. The region now became a self-gov­
erning dominion within the British Empire.
The colonial policy Britain followed in most of its African settlements as well as
in most of its Asian colonies was called indirect rule. This policy permitted local
rulers to maintain some power in their region, although they actually followed the
470
Imperialism
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directions given by the British. A good example of British colonial rule can be
seen in Nigeria. Under the British administrator of this colony, Sir Frederick
Lugard, local tribal chiefs were allowed to retain their authority as long as they
obeyed general guidelines concerning such items as prohibitions on slavery and
on warfare among themselves. Native Nigerian laws, religion, and traditions could
be maintained in so far as they did not sharply conflict with British standards. The
British sought to build railroads, improve commerce and agriculture, fight dis­
ease, and educate selected natives. As the British felt that their values and ways of
life were superior to those of Africans and should be spread, the British even
brought some Africans to schools in Britain in order to educate them. The hope
was that these individuals would plant British political and social ideas in Africa.
Bri tish Explorers
A great deal of interest about Africa grew from the travels and publications of
British explorers. Businessmen, missionaries, and government officials gained
knowledge about what they previously thought was an unknown or "dark" conti­
nent. Among the famous explorers were the following:
• Mungo Park was the first Westerner to travel along the Niger River in West
Africa.
• David Livingstone, a physician and missionary, was the best-known European
explorer of the nineteenth century. Between 1840 and 1873, he traveled
extensively in Central Africa. His writings received wide publicity in Europe.
He came across a magnificent waterfall in 1855, naming it Victoria Falls, in
honor of Queen Victoria. In 1869, a New York newspaper reporter, Henry
David Livingstone was a
Stanley, tracked down Livingstone near Lake Tanganyika. They then jointly
Scottish missionary and
explored areas of East Africa.
explorel: He conducted extensive
Richard Burton and John Speke journeyed south along the Nile River and
•
explorations ofAfrica 5 interim:
throughout East Africa, helping to establish British claims to the region.
Thought to be missing in his
The maps drawn by these explorers provided new information about Africa.
travels, he was found by the
Their books described several well-organized and developed native civilizations.
American reporter Henry
Stanley.
Similar information appeared in the writings of some missionaries. However,
there were also prejudiced accounts by Europeans, which pictured Africans as
"savages" and were the basis for negative myths and stereotypes.
France
During the nineteenth century, France was able to build a colonial empire in
Africa that covered more territory than Britain's. The first major French penetra­
tion was in North Africa. Upset with actions taken by the Barbary pirates from
North African Islamic regions, France complained to the ruler of Algeria. Dissatis­
fied with his response, France sent a military force in 1830 that arrested the ruler
and took over the region.
In neighboring Tunisia, the ruler, known as the Bey, was a poor financial man­
ager. He lived beyond his means, and borrowed heavily from French bankers and
the French government. In 1881, wanting to reform Tunisia's monetary system,
protect its investments, get repayment of loans, and expand its role in North
Africa, France established a protectorate in Tunisia. France improved transporta­
tion and education and built up several industries.
Imperialism in Africa
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
471
With the acquisition of Algeria and Tunisia, France then felt it was necessary to
protect these holdings by taking over Morocco. A dispute with Germany, which
also desired a foothold in Morocco, was resolved in 1911. France secured a pro­
tectorate in Morocco while Germany gained land in West Mrica.
French Involvement in Central and West Africa
French interest in Central and West Mrica was spurred by economic and "nation­
al honor" factors, as well as by the accounts of the explorer Rene Callie. A railroad
was constructed from Dakar, on the west coast, into the interior regions of the con­
tinent. Commercial settlements were set up along various parts of the west coast, the
"bulge" of Africa. The French push from the coast inward was often met with strong
resistance. Only superior armed forces and weaponry enabled victory to be
achieved over Samori Toure, King of what is now Senegal, and King Behanzin of
Dahomey.
The colonial policy France followed in most of its Mrican settlements as well as
in its Asian colonies was called direct rule. France exercised much more control
over its territories than was the case with Britain's indirect rule policy. France
often removed local rulers, replacing them with French officials. Decisions for the
colonies were made directly in Paris. Since the French language and culture were
considered by the French to be preferable, all people were supposed to learn
them in colonized regions. These attitudes formed the basis for France's claim to
carry out a "civilizing mission" and to accomplish assimilation of native peoples
into French culture. Successful assimilation would be achieved with people giving
up their local culture and replacing it with French culture. France viewed colonies
such as Algeria and the Ivory Coast as part of France, the same way Paris was part
of France. Some overseas areas were even allowed to send representatives to the
French National Assembly in Paris.
Germany
As a latecomer to national unity (see Chapter 23, "Unification of Germany"),
Germany was also a latecomer to imperialism. Even though Chancellor Bismarck
himself was not very interested in gaining colonies, Kaisers William I and William
II, along with other Germans, felt that colonial acquisitions were necessary for
Germany to be considered a great power and to enjoy a "place in the sun" with
other European nations. The four scattered German colonies in Mrica covered
very little land. These were Togoland, Cameroon, German East Mrica, and South­
west Mrica. Unlike Britain and France, which were able to strengthen their colo­
nial empires well into the twentieth century, Germany never really had a chance
to do this. It lost all its possessions after its defeat in 1918 in World War 1.
One of the few reversals for
European imperialism occurred
at the Battle ofAdowa in
1896. There, the Ethiopian
Emperor Menelik II defeated a
force of Italians.
474
Italy
As was true of Germany, Italy was a latecomer both to national unity (see Chap­
ter 22 "Unification of Italy") and the race for colonies. As a result, there was very
little land left for Italy to gain. It was thwarted in its efforts to take Abyssinia
Imperialism
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
(Ethiopia), suffering a crushing defeat by the forces of Emperor Menelik II at
Adowa in 1896. Italy did obtain the small desert lands of Eritrea and Somaliland
near the Horn of Mrica. With the gradual weakening of Ottoman Turkish rule in
North Mrica, Italy was able to send in troops and acquire Libya in 1911-1912.
Belgium
Another latecomer to the "scramble for Mrica" was Belgium. Its "Empire" con­
sisted of only one region-the Congo. Nevertheless, it was, and still is, one of the
most resource-rich parts of the continent. Eager to obtain rubber and ivory from
this part of Central Mrica, Belgian King Leopold II (r. 1865-1909), acting as a pri­
vate citizen, formed a company with several Belgian capitalists in 1876. The com­
pany made huge profits but did little to improve the lives of the people of the
Congo. The native population was terribly mistreated. Many were forced to work
on rubber plantations amid harsh conditions, and they were often subjected to
torture. The company looked upon the Congo simply as an investment and fol­
lowed a policy of exploitation. This meant that the company took unfair advan­
tage of its position and cared only for itself.
News about the inhumane treatment of natives along with news of financial
scandals resulted in the Belgian government taking formal control of the Congo
in 1908. From that point on, the region was known as a colony, the Belgian
Congo. Under the Belgian government, exploitation was somewhat reduced and
an attempt was made to copy the British system of indirect rule. The Belgians also
followed a policy of paternalism. With this attitude, the Belgians viewed the Con­
golese as if they were children needing to be led and instructed, unable to care
for themselves. Such an attitude was demeaning and racist, and was a factor in
causing problems for the Congo when it became independent in 1960.
Portugal
Portugal was one of the earliest European nations to have commercial contacts
and settlements in Mrica. Using its advanced nagivational skills in the fifteenth
and sixteenth centuries during the Age of Exploration (see Chapter 8, "The Age
of Exploration"), Portuguese sailors on the way to Asia would stop along the east
and west coasts of Mrica to trade and to set up supply bases. Eventually, these
stopovers became the Portuguese colonies of Angola, Mozambique, and Por­
tuguese Guinea. In the late nineteenth century, Portugal was fortunate in being
able to have its colonial status in Angola and Mozambique recognized by the
other European powers. By this time, it was a weak nation and could not have
competed for land with England, France, and Germany. Yet, because all of these
other nations feared each other, with each wanting to prevent the other from
gaining more land in Southern Mrica, Portugal was allowed to retain Angola and
Mozambique. This was one of the decisions reached concerning the partition of
Mrica at the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885.
Portuguese colonial policies were examples of both exploitation and paternal­
ism. As was generally true of France's attitudes toward its colonies, Portugal
viewed its Mrican possessions as if they were, like Lisbon, part of Portugal itself.
Imperialism in Africa
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
475
With such attitudes, as we will see in discussing the end of imperialism (see Chap­
ter 29, "Independence and Decolonization"), Portugal was very reluctant to grant
independence to its colonies.
European Imperialism
in Africa, 1914
GAMBIA
Key
D
D
III
....
....
•• ••
Germany
Great Britain
France
Ii /" ",.
J
Spain
Portugal
Belgium
Italy
1/_; ~ !Independent
Summary
As we look at the map of Africa above, we see a new map of the continent. At
the beginning of the century there were a few outposts along the coastline but lit­
tle else. One hundred years later, almost the entire continent was divided up.
Great Britain and France got the major share with the newcomers, Germany and
Italy, having to settle for what was left. Belgium and Portugal were allowed to
keep their colonies because it was not in the interest of the other European coun­
tries to take them away. Each of the European countries ruled its area as it saw
best. Boundaries were drawn by the Europeans without taking into consideration
what was good for the Africans or what the Africans wanted.
It was also a period of high adventure. We should not slight the accomplish­
ments of the brave men and women who risked their lives in opening new lands.
They often had little idea where they were going or if they would come back alive.
They went through hardships that would stop all but the bravest. Some, like
Rhodes, went for fortune; most went for fame.
476
Imperialism
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
CHAPTER
28
Imperialism in Asia
As we now turn to Asia we see very similar patterns to those in Africa. The mili­
tary might of Europe due to the Industrial Revolution allowed it to take advantage
of a militarily weaker area. The British flag was seen around the globe. The saying,
"The sun never sets on the British Empire," was certainly accurate. The French
were also active in their imperialistic goals, with holdings in many parts of the
world. The Spanish, Dutch, and Portuguese held on to their small pieces. Ger­
many and Italy were forced to playa smaller game due to their late arrival on the
scene. A new player, the United States, obtained the Philippines after defeating
Spain. The European nations also took advantage of the fact that there was little
unity in the areas where they took control. The peoples that lived there were cul­
turally intermixed and so a feeling of true nationalism did not really exist.
The Middle East was divided between Britain and France after World War I.
The League of Nations gave over this area on the pretext that the area would be
prepared for independence. The area that was Palestine was promised as a home­
land to the Jewish people by the British, who then reneged on that promise. It was
not in the British interest to anger the Arabs who had the oil. This area saw four
wars after the state of Israel was created in 1948.
South Asia
Who was Lord Cornwallis? Most Americans know him as the English general
who surrendered to George Washington in 1781, at the Battle of Yorktown. This
surrender marked the end of the American Revolution and thus the end of
British control over its thirteen colonies in North America. As you know, these
thirteen colonies went on to form the United States of America. You also know
that George Washington went on to become the country's first president. But, do
you know what happened to Lord Cornwallis after the Battle of Yorktown?
Most Americans cannot answer this question, probably because U.S. history
textbooks usually do not mention him after the chapter on the Revolution. How­
ever, people in England and India know about him. This is because he had an
important position in India, having gone there on behalf of the British East India
Imperialism in Asia
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
481
Company. He was a governor-general there as well as a military commander, at a
time in the late 1700s when the British were slowly gaining power in South Asia.
Although today, with the British no longer in control of India, it is of interest to
find a Cornwallis Road in downtown New Delhi-India's capital city!
The India that Cornwallis saw was not an independent united nation-state. It
was a geographic expression, a place, just like Italy was, prior to becoming a uni­
fied nation. British authority in this place called India reached a point where
India became the largest colony in the British Empire. It was even termed the
'Jewel of the Empire" as well as the 'Jewel of the crown." It covered a huge area in
South Asia, geographically called the Indian Subcontinent, from which the pre­
sent day nations of India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh were carved.
Early British Involvement, 1600-1858
The British East India Company was formed as a private company in 1600,
under a charter granted by Queen Elizabeth 1. In 1613, it received permission to
trade in India from the ruling Mughals. From this time until 1858, the company
exercised powers usually associated with a government. It had, for example, its
own private army. One of its employees, Robert Clive, led military forces to victo­
ries over both French and native armies. The French had competed with Britain
for influence in South Asia, just as was the case in North America. The victories
......, Chapter 28 Chronology
1--------------­
British East
India Company
established
Marco Polo
visits the
Orient
Magellan lands
in the Philippines
Trading
privileges
granted by
Mughal ruiers
';i:~:1 r"lr·~
Dutch
l~
I
I
1300
1400
1500
I
I
1600
T
Iii
1700
I
Portuguese reach
Malacca
Seven Years'
War
Dutch East
India Company
established
.
British East India
Company ship
reaches Sumatra
482
Britain trades
for tea at Canton
1<1:1
:~
'11')
I
Battle of
Imperialism
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
over the French came during the Seven Years' War (1756-1763), a true world war,
as fighting occurred in both America and Asia. The most famous of these victories
in India was at Plassey, in 1757. Consequently, the British became the dominant
and unofficial political power in the subcontinent. It was soon thereafter that
Lord Cornwallis came to India.
Under his leadership, up to 1793, and that of succeeding governors-general,
into the 1800s, the East India Company expanded its control in South Asia. It was
able to do this for a number of reasons:
1. The region had hundreds of small states and no central government. The
Mughal rulers controlled much, but not all, of the vast region.
2. There was religious divisiveness among the Indians. Tension existed between
the two major groups, Hindus and Muslims, thereby restricting any coopera­
tion among them against the British.
3. Linguistic divisiveness also existed. There was no common language; several
languages and hundreds of dialects were spoken in the region.
4. Militarily, the Indians were unable to stand up to superior British arms and
organization.
The Sepoy Mutiny In 1857, a key event took place in India that was to affect sharply the relationship
between the British and the Indians. This was the Sepoy Mutiny. Also known as
the Sepoy Rebellion, it was fought against the British for both religious and politi-
Lord Macartney's
visit to Emperor
Ch'ien-Iung
Queen Victoria
proclaimed as
Empress of India
.
Taiping
Rebellion
Stamford Raffles
begins to build
up Singapore
il
I
I
Sepoy
Mutiny
,oj
it
~ 1"1
TTT
1800
I
Dutch government
takes over the
Netherlands East Indies
French colony
of Indochina
is proclaimed
~r:
Opium
War
P~~f
~~
r
tr~1
~i'
~
I~~ H~T'
French mandates in Syria and Lebanon and
BritiSh mandates in Iraq and Palestine
End of ma~date
assigned by the League of Nations
In Pal!stlne
End of
Israel proclaims its
Israeli-Jordanian
mandate in Iraq:
indepe~dence
Agreement
independence First Arab-Israeli War
granted
Syria and
Egyptian-Israeli
Lebanon
become
independent
t
1900
~!
;g I Boxer
TRebellion
Sino-Japanese War
[1894-1895]
France invades
Cochin China
British government takes
over India as a crown colony
m
I
2000
~ r~
First partition
of Palestine
{by Britain)
Balfour
Declaration
World
War II
Israeli-P.L.O.
Agreement
Second partition of
Palestine (by the
United Nations)
Treaty of Kanagawa between U.S. and Japan
Imperialism in Asia
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
483
cal reasons. It began when Indians in the British army (sepoys) suspected that the
grease used on bullet cartridges came from cows and pigs. If so, to bite into these
cartridges, as was necessary when loading them, would have violated Hindu and
Muslim beliefs, as Hindus believe cows are sacred and Muslims are forbidden
from eating pork. These beliefs led to a mutiny that gradually spread beyond the
armed forces and grew into an anti-Western movement. It attracted Indian
princes and peasants. (In fact, some Indian historians view the Sepoy Mutiny as a
war of independence.) Eventually, it was severely put down. Nevertheless, the East
India Company was abolished. In 1858, it was replaced as a governing body by the
British crown along with Parliament. India then became a crown colony.
The British British authority following the Sepoy Mutiny covered almost 70 percent of the sub­
Government's Colonial continent. The British raj (rule) expanded, using a variety of methods. In some
Policy in India instances, outright military subjugation (forcible takeover) occurred. Treaties and
alliances were often made between the British and a prince of a state, who was an
enemy of another prince. Special favors were also given to "cooperative" princes.
These were successful examples of "divide and conquer" tactics.
Indirect rule was the general policy in India, as had been the case with British
possessions in Africa. In London, a minister from Parliament was given responsibili­
ty for Indian affairs. Under the minister was a viceroy in India who carried out
directives. And under the viceroy were several British officials, or advisers, who
watched over local matters but also left a large measure of control with the local
rulers or princes. All of these people, British and Indian, were indirectly responsible
to Queen Victoria. In 1877, she was recognized by Parliament as Empress ofIndia.
For Britain, India was viewed as a source of economic wealth. Manufacturers of
textiles, machines, and other products looked upon India as a vast market for
their goods. This development of a market, however, harmed those Indian pro­
ducers who could not compete with the British. Many local Indian industries suf­
fered as they did not have the technology of the foreigners for mass production,
nor could they sell items at competitive prices. British investment helped build up
tea plantations as well as the steel and cement industries. The colonial govern­
ment improved transportation by constructing railroads, bridges, and roadways.
The number of hospitals and schools increased. A civil service system was intro­
duced that provided for efficient government operations.
In social and cultural matters, the British sought to
impose their own ways. They introduced the English
language, wanting Indians to learn it. Those who mas­
tered it could aspire to positions in the civil service
system. The growth of churches was evidence of mis­
sionary activity. British style in architecture and gar­
dens was soon apparent. The British attempted to
make "brown Englishmen" out of selected Indians,
who would be given a British-style education in Eng­
land. It was hoped that these few would adopt British
cultural customs and values and return to India and
spread them in the population. The British also acted
to stamp out those Indian cultural practices that they
thought were wrong. Such an ethnocentric attitude
resulted in the abolition of suttee. This was a Hindu
Many British officials lived very well in India. As an example,
custom whereby a widow would burn herself on the
the wife of a British judge is here being attended to by two
funeral pyre of her dead husband. To the British,
Indian women who served as maids.
484
Imperialism
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such an act was considered to be suicide and contrary to Christian ideals and
therefore was outlawed. Attempts were also made to end the Indian custom of
killing unwanted baby girls (female infanticide).
British involvement in India grew rapidly, especially after completion of the
Suez Canal in 1869. The trip there by ship was still, however, long and difficult.
Life in India, with different climate and health conditions from those of Europe,
could be challenging. British tombstones, for example, found as far north as
Peshawar (in present-day Pakistan) and as far south as Madras (in present-day
India), tell of English men, women, and children who died of cholera, malaria,
and other diseases. Some of these tombs in Madras can be found in a historic
building, St. Mary's Church, built by the British. It still stands today, with a sign
outside proclaiming it as "the oldest Anglican church east of Suez." Inside the
church, among several paintings, is a portrait of a famous member of the British
East India Company, Elihu Yale (1649-1721). This is the same person for whom
Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut, in the United States is named.
Thus, we can see how British imperialism brought a connecting link between
three continents. Elihu Yale, a man from England, part of Europe, traveled to
British India, in Asia, and is remembered for being a benefactor at a great univer­
sity in a British colony in North America. The final note in this tri-continental his­
torical drama occurred in the 1950s when Chester Bowles, a Yale graduate and the
American ambassador to India, went to St. Mary's Church to place a plaque near
the portrait of Elihu Yale. Thus, a citizen of the United States of America (a
nation whose roots were as British colonies) traveled to India (a nation that was
once a British colony) to honor a native of the former mother country of both
colonial settlements. The connecting link involving Chester Bowles in the twenti­
eth century had roots in the connecting link involving Lord Cornwallis in the
eighteenth century, whom we mentioned at the start of this chapter.
East Asia
When people gather to have big, fancy dinners, they may do this at home or in
a large restaurant, or a catering hall. The occasion may be a happy family event,
or a celebration of a holiday, or an important event such as a wedding or gradua­
tion. The food that is eaten may very well be served on expensive and beautiful
dishes called china. This name was originally used by Englishmen over two hun­
dred years ago to describe the skillfully designed porcelain and pottery made in
China. Such items were much in demand by Europeans at the time. The desire to
obtain these and other items was one of many reasons for European interest in
China. This interest was eventually to grow into imperialistic activities.
China, along with Japan and Korea, is in a part of the world referred to as East
Asia, the Orient, or the Far East. The region to the south of China can also be
called the Orient, but is better known as Southeast Asia. European imperialism
was to affect this part of the world also. In this section, we will trace the European
contact with East Asia.
Imperialism in Asia
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
485
China
The major European imperialistic involvement in China occurred primarily in
the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. However, interest in China goes back
much earlier. In 1275, for example, Marco Polo's trip to the Orient stirred much
excitement among Europeans. During the Age of Discovery, ships of Portugal
were able to sail to China. They reached there in 1514 and set up a trading station
at Macao in 1557. In 1699, the British were purchasing tea at the port of Canton
(known today as Guangzhou). The British East India Company was very active in
the tea trade, as the demand in London and elsewhere in the British Isles for tea
increased enormously.
For the Chinese, trade with the British and other Europeans in the eighteenth
century was very profitable. Along with tea, the chief Chinese exports to Europe
were silk, sugar, and ginger. Yet, the Chinese did not want Europeans to trade out­
side of the Canton area. This restriction, as well as the many regulations imposed
upon the European traders by the Chinese government, aroused resentment. The
Chinese looked down upon the Europeans, considered them to be barbarians,
and had little desire for European goods.
These kinds of Chinese ethnocentric attitudes were evident in the reaction to a
visit in 1793 by Lord George Macartney, a representative of King George III of
Britain. Macartney had come to see the Emperor Ch'ien-Iung, of the Ch'ing
Dynasty, hoping to get increased trade and better contacts for British business­
men. He was shocked and saddened by the Emperor's response. The Emperor
refused the foreigner's requests, noting that China had no need "to import any
product produced by barbarians." This refusal, conveyed in a letter to King
George, was upsetting to the British. Another reason for their discontent with the
Chinese was the fact that they had to pay for Chinese goods with large amounts of
silver. This form of payment was necessary, as the Chinese did not want to buy
British products. For the British, an outflow of silver was considered harmful to
their economy.
The Opium War This commercial relationship began to change dramatically in the early 1800s.
(1839-1842) The British realized that there was a market for opium in China. This narcotic
drug was mass produced in India, and sold by British merchants to the Chinese.
Payment for the opium was made in goods and in ever-increasing amounts of sil­
ver. This drain of silver, as well as the injurious effects of opium-smoking on the
Chinese population, angered the Chinese government. Accordingly, it banned all
commerce in opium. Unable to enforce the ban, the government destroyed a
stockpile of opium at a Canton warehouse in 1839. The British responded by
sending warships to China. The Opium War (1839-1842) had begun!
The Chinese forces were no match for the British. Superior weaponry and
organization led to a British victory. The resulting Treaty of Nanking in 1842 com­
pletely changed China's relations with the Western World. The chief provisions
were as follows:
1. China consented to open five ports for trade, including Canton and Shanghai;
2. The British were given the island of Hong Kong;
3. China was to pay an indemnity (an amount of money for wrongdoing) to
Britain to make up for destroyed opium;
4. British merchants and government officials could live in the five "treaty
ports"; and
486
Imperialism
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
5. The British were granted the right of extraterri­
toriality. This meant that a British person in the
treaty ports would be subject to British law, not
Chinese law. In addition, if such a person was
accused of committing an offense, he or she
would be tried in British courts, not Chinese
courts.
These provisions were humiliating for the Chinese.
The Treaty of Nanking was the first of what would be
called "the unequal treaties," for other nations forced
China to sign treaties granting them the same trade
rights Britain had gained. These other nations includ­
ed France, Russia, and Germany. During the remain­
During the Opium Wars, British naval and ground forces
der of the nineteenth and into the early twentieth
overwhelmed the Chinese. Superior arms and military tactics
centuries, each of these four nations acquired a sphere
resulted in many victories for the British.
of influence in different areas of China. They forced
the Manchu rulers (leaders of the Ch'ing Dynasty) to
give them economic privileges in these areas. These
privileges included the right to build mines, factories, and railroads, and to search
for minerals. They also obtained land on which to build military bases to protect
their spheres of influence.
The Sino-Japanese War Non-European nations were also active in China. These were the United States
and Japan. The United States was granted commercial privileges, although it did
not acquire a sphere of influence. It did propose an "Open Door Policy," whereby
all foreign nations would enjoy equal trading rights in China. The other nations
accepted this idea in theory, but did not really honor it in practice. One of these,
an Asian newcomer to imperialism, was Japan. Having built up its economic and
military power in the late 1800s,Japan was able to defeat China in the 1894-1895
Sino:Japanese War. Japan took over the island of Taiwan along with other Chinese
territory.
The Boxer Rebellion China's inability to defend itself against imperialism caused unrest among its peo­
ple. The government, headed by the Empress Tz'u-hsi, (I'. 1898-1908) was also
perceived to be corrupt and incapable of improving the lives of the people. Con­
sequently, violence broke out in 1900, led by a secret Chinese society called the
"Society of Harmonious Fists" or Boxers. This Boxer Rebellion, secretly supported
by the Empress, was aimed mainly at driving out foreigners from China. Many for­
eigners were killed by the Boxers before a combined army from six nations put an
end to the fighting. Further agony followed for China, as the Manchu government
was forced in a 1901 treaty to pay large indemnities and to let foreigners have
expanded military and commercial powers. The United States returned most of
its indemnity money to China, thereby earning some measure of goodwill.
Why Did China Become As a result of all the imperialistic activity described above, China appeared to be a
a Victim of Imperialism? humiliated and partially dismembered country at the start of the twentieth centu­
ry. It became a victim of imperialism for several reasons:
1. Its mineral resources attracted investors.
2. Foreigners visualized its large population as both a market for the sale of
goods, as well as a source of cheap labor.
3. A great demand existed in the West for China's silk and tea.
Imperialism in Asia
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
487
4. The Manchu rulers did not have sufficient military power to repel the for­
eigners. Their rule was inefficient and corrupt. The country lacked the
unity and centralized control necessary to protect itself.
5. The Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864), the longest and bloodiest war anywhere
in the world during the nineteenth century, caused great devastation in
China. It was led by Southern Chinese, who, for economic, political, and
religious reasons, wanted to overthrow the government. Although the
Ch'ing Dynasty was able to put down this revolt, the dynasty was severely
weakened. Its inability to protect foreign citizens during the fighting gave
yet another excuse for foreign troops to come to China and take advantage
of the country. Military skirmishes took place, followed by more "unequal
treaties," and more acquisitions of land and economic privileges.
6. The broadest and most profound reason contributing to China's victimiza­
tion was, indirectly, its strong sense of pride and ethnocentrism. For cen­
turies, China had been an advanced and prosperous country. Its
achievements in science, politics, literature, and the arts were notable. It
saw itself as the most powerful and civilized region on earth, and isolated
itself. It looked down upon others, not wanting to be affected by any out­
side "barbarian" customs. Such attitudes, however, prevented it from learn­
ing from others and caused it to be hostile rather than open to contact with
foreigners.
How Did Japan Avoid China's neighbor Japan, however, adopted a different attitude toward relations
Becoming a Victim of with Westerners in the nineteenth century. While Japan also viewed Westerners as
Imperialism? "barbarians," it nevertheless recognized their superiority in weapons, transporta­
tion, and technology. It realized that there was much it could learn from them. In
addition, it was fearful that hostility to foreigners and a refusal to open commer­
cial contacts with them might subject it to the kind of victimization that China had
suffered. Accordingly, in 1854, it signed tlle Treaty of Kanagawa with the Ameri­
can, Commodore Matthew Perry. This treaty opened up Japanese ports for trade,
and was soon followed by similar treaties witll Britain, France, Holland, and Russia.
With the Meiji Restoration of 1868, Japan embarked on a policy of moderniza­
tion. It had avoided becoming a victim of imperialism. Indeed, as its economy
improved, and as it sent young men overseas to learn Western ways in arms, gov­
ernment, and technology, it soon became a colonial power itself. Appropriately, it
viewed neighboring Korea and China as targets. Japan's subsequent desire to
extend its colonial domains to all of East and Southeast Asia would bring it into
conflict with the United States and other Western nations. This conflict was a
cause of World War II. (See Chapter 32, "World War 11.")
Southeast Asia
The name "Southeast Asia" is a relatively recent one. Prior to the twentieth
century, various parts of the region had been known by other names-i.e., the
Spice Islands, the East Indies, and Indochina. Some parts of Southeast Asia are on
the Asian mainland, while others are islands in the form of archipelagoes. The
best known of the latter are the present-day nations of Indonesia and the Philip­
pines. Most mainlanders of Southeast Asia live on either the Malay or Indochina
peninsulas.
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European nations were initially interested in the spices from the region. One of
the aims of Christopher Columbus in 1492 was to reach the "Spice Islands" in the
"Indies." In later years, European interest was focused on mineral deposits such as
tin and oil, and agricultural products such as rubber, tobacco, tea, and coffee.
During the age of the New Imperialism, Europeans also sought to control land in
Southeast Asia in order to protect and have better access to their holdings in
other parts of Asia. While Portugal and Spain were the first European nations to
establish contact here, the major colonization was done by the Dutch, British, and
French. Among non-European nations, the United States and Japan were colonial
rulers for short periods of time.
There are ten independent nations today in Southeast Asia. With the exception
of Thailand, everyone of these was colonized at one point in its history. The colo­
nizers were, as we have just seen, from different nations. This is one reason why
this corner of Asia is sometimes described as a cultural "patchwork quilt." The
sequence and pattern of involvement by European nations in Southeast Asia is
similar in some ways to their involvement in the Americas, Africa, and other parts
of Asia.
Portugal and Spain
Marco Polo's writings about his trip to Asia in the second half of the thirteenth
century excited readers with accounts of both East and Southeast Asian lands. The
Portuguese, navigational leaders in the Age of Exploration, reached India in 1498
as a result of Vasco da Gama's historic voyage. They soon moved on to the East
Indies, reaching the Malay peninsula in 1511 and some other areas shortly there­
after. They were able to put down resistance by Muslims who had controlled the
sea routes, and were able to profit handsomely from the trade in spices such as
nutmeg, cloves, pepper, and mace. The Portuguese had then pioneered an all­
water route eastward from Europe to the Indies. Although they gained some small
amounts of land, they were unable to construct large-scale colonial settlements.
The Spanish also wished to establish an all-water route to the region. They did
so, thanks to the voyage of Magellan. Sailing westward across the Pacific Ocean, he
landed in what is now the Philippines in 1521, and claimed the islands for Spain.
The Spaniards were to rule here for over three hundred years, spreading Chris­
tianity and Spanish customs. Spanish governance over the Philippines was made
chiefly from Mexico, Spain's major colony in the Americas. Following its pattern
of colonial rule in the New World, the king of Spain gave large amounts of land to
religious orders and other Spaniards. Natives who worked these lands endured
much exploitation and hardship. Spain lost the Philippines to the United States as
a result of the Spanish-American War of 1898.
The Netherlands
The first Dutch sailors to reach Southeast Asia arrived in 1596. They landed on
the island of Java, part of present-day Indonesia. Their trade in spices was prof­
itable, and grew quickly. To conduct these commercial transactions, the Dutch
East India Company was formed in 1602. The Dutch were able to keep away Por­
tuguese and Spanish competition. However; because of severe mismanagement,
the company went bankrupt in 1799. The Dutch government then took over con­
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trol in Java, Sumatra, and neighboring islands, thus creating the colony called the
Dutch East Indies or Netherlands East Indies.
The Dutch then introduced a practice known as the culture system. It was
designed as an economic policy whereby crops would be cultivated for export. It
required native farmers to grow export crops such as tea, quinine, coffee, and
sugar on portions of their land. Local chieftains would assign quotas as ordered by
the Dutch, and gather the crops for sale. The Dutch would pay very low prices,
some money then going to the chieftain and hardly anything to the farmers. The
Dutch would then sell the crops on the world market for high prices and thus
make tremendous profits. The system really became a policy of forced labor. In
addition, it denied farmers the opportunity to use the land as they wished. They
were not able to produce sufficient crops for their own local markets nor much
food for themselves.
At the start of the twentieth century, Dutch colonial administrators sought to
improve the lives of Indonesians by creating the ethical policy. This was planned to
make certain welfare services available. Better schools and health facilities were
built, along with paved roads and irrigation projects for rice cultivation. Politically,
the Dutch pursued a policy of direct rule. Indonesians were given little say in the
affairs of their land. Dutch rule was interrupted in 1942, during World War II,
when the Japanese occupied the colony. The Japanese exploited the land for its
resources and left in 1945, upon their defeat in the war. The postwar developments
in Indonesia will be examined in Chapter 29, "Independence and Decolonization."
Great Britain
In 1969, tlle nation of Singapore, near the Malay peninsula, had huge celebra­
tions of what it labeled its one hundred and fiftieth anniversary. Although this
island nation became independent in 1963, Singapore dates it birth to the year
1819. This was when Sir Stamford Raffles, an employee of the British East India
Company, established the site as a trading post. The site was strategically vital, as it
commanded the Straits of Malacca. This waterway was part of the sea route to
China.
However, the British had already been in Southeast Asia for over two hundred
years prior to Raffles's presence. A British East India Company ship had reached
Sumatra in 1602. The British competed with the Dutch for domination of the
spice trade. Eventually, they focused their attention on the region of the Malay
peninsula and left Sumatra and Java to the Dutch.
The nineteenth century witnessed significant British colonial advances in the
region. Singapore and former Dutch Malacca became the Straits Settlement in
1824. In the 1870s, four sultans who ruled small areas on the Malay peninsula,
fearful of attacks from Siam (current-day Thailand), entered into agreements with
the British. The British agreed to give them protection, while obtaining greater
commercial privileges. This action by the British was similar to the "divide and
conquer" patterns that had occurred in India. In 1895, the sultans agreed to unite
their areas as the Federated Malay States under British authority. Other sultans
did not join the federation, but agreed to some form of British control while
retaining their powers. Thus, another form of indirect rule was established.
In a short period of time, the Straits Settlement, the Federated Malay States,
and the unfederated states became known as Malaya. The total British effort in
Imperialism in Asia
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491
the region-political, economic, and military-yielded rewards. The tin and rub­
ber produced in Malaya led to much prosperity.
The other British possession in Southeast Asia was Burma. The western part of
Burma was subdued with military force in 1826, in order to protect India's border.
The rest of Burma was taken over in 1885, as the British were concerned about
possible French penetration into the area and wanted to further shore up protec­
tion of eastern India. A British governor administered Burma, with hereditary
rulers keeping some control over local affairs.
France
As was the case with Britain and Holland, France organized an East India Com­
pany in the 1600s. Early on in that era, France was active in Cochin China. This is
in present-day Vietnam. Both traders and missionaries were on the company's
ships. In 1627, Alexandre de Rhodes, a French missionary, adapted the Viet­
namese language to the Roman alphabet. With his knowledge of the region, he
paved the way for further French influence. Both commercial and missionary
activities slowly increased until the early 1800s. However, persecution by the Viet­
namese emperors of both missionaries and their converts rose alarmingly. In the
1850s, the Emperor Tu-duc refused France's request for religious liberty and a
trading post at Hue. As a result, in 1861 French forces invaded Cochin China, cap­
tured the main city of Saigon (now Ho Chi Minh City), and established a colony.
In 1863, France announced itself to be the protector of Cambodia as well as other
parts of what is now Vietnam.
Imperialistic activity then quickened with the designation of a French civilian
governor in Cochin China in 1879, and the creation of a protectorate over Annam
and Tonkin (other parts of present-day Vietnam) and Laos. In 1887, France
declared all these regions together to be the colony of Indochina. As was true in
its African colonies, France pursued a policy of direct rule in Indochina. The pow­
erful French governor-general followed directives from superiors in Paris, and
made sure that these were carried out by French subordinates. Rice and rubber
cultivation enriched the Frenchmen who came to Indochina while very little of
the wealth reached the native workers. France considered Indochina to be an
actual part of French territory and even built parts of Saigon to make it look simi­
lar to Paris. This colonial attitude of the French was to spell trouble for it in the
1950s.
France had thoughts about moving into Siam (Thailand), as did Britain. The
Siamese recognized this, and would frequently alternate their favoritism toward
one nation and then toward the other. Because of this clever maneuvering, and
because neither France nor Britain wanted the other to dominate the region,
Siam was able to remain independent. It was the only part of Southeast Asia to
escape colonization.
The growth of European power in East and Southeast Asia was similar in sever­
al ways to what we saw happen in Africa and South Asia. The "scramble" for land
in the Orient occurred over a long period of time, for a host of reasons. While
major wars did not erupt there between the European powers themselves, those
powers nevertheless did have to confront a non-European power in the 1940s who
also sought land there-Japan. The nature of that struggle and its consequences
for independence movements will be studied shortly (Chapter 29, "Independence
and Decolonization"). However, we have one more "stop" to make in Asia in the
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current chapter. That will be westward, in the region generally referred to as the
Middle East.
The Middle East
The Middle East is a geographic term that refers mostly to the areas of West
Asia and Northeast Africa. European contact with these areas has been ongoing
for thousands of years, examples being the periods of the Punic Wars, Alexander
the Great, the Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire, the Crusades, and the
Ottoman Turks. The major European imperialistic involvement in modern times
was within the last one hundred years. It is this time period that we will now study.
Our study will only concern the Asian portion of the Middle East, as we have
already "traveled" to the African portion. (See Chapter 27, "Imperialism in
Africa.")
Among many factors that made the Middle East a target for European Imperi­
alism were two specific ones:
1. The Middle East was a strategic location as the crossroads of three conti­
nents-Europe, Africa, and Asia. With completion of the Suez Canal in
1869, the Middle East became a vital link in the water route between Europe
and Asia.
2. The Middle East was also a source of oil. The world's greatest oil reserves are
in the lands near the Persian Gulf.
Over a period of time, these lands and other regions of the Middle East had
become part of the Ottoman Empire (1453-1918). The Empire gradually weak­
ened during the 1800s, becoming known as the "sick man of Europe." (See Chap­
ter 25, "Discontent in the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires.") The ruling
Ottoman Turks were corrupt, inefficient, and unresponsive to the needs of the
many different peoples under their authority. The final blow to the Empire came
in 1918 with the end of World War 1. The Turks had fought on the side of Ger­
many and Austria-Hungary and lost the war. Consequently, the Middle Eastern
lands that belonged to the Empire, and which were mainly inhabited by Arabs,
were taken away. They were placed under the control of the newly formed
League of Nations. From 1920 onward, the league created mandates in some of
these lands: Palestine, Iraq, and Syria. A mandate was permission given to a
nation to rule over a region temporarily, until the region was considered ready
for independence. Mandates in the Middle East were given to Britain and
France.
Great Britain
Britain received mandates over Iraq and Palestine. Although the mandate in
Iraq did not begin officially until 1922, Britain had already developed contact with
this region several years earlier. It had obtained concessions for oil in Iraq, as well
Lord Balfour was the author
as in present-day Kuwait and Iran. This arrangement permitted Britain to explore
of the fal/lous declaration that
for
and produce oil, while sharing the profits with the region's local rulers. At the
bears his /lalliI'. He attempted
time
of such arrangements, prior to World War I, the British were well aware that
to promote a policy in Palestine
the
native
Arabs did not like being under the authority of the Ottoman Turks. As
that would be acceptable to
a result, Britain befriended the Iraqis by supporting their anti-Turkish sentiments.
both A.rabs andJews.
Imperialism in Asia
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493
As long as Britain was able to extract profits from oil, it made little attempt to
impose its culture on the Arabs in Iraq. Indirect rule was the policy. The mandate
ended in 1932, although British advisers continued to maintain a role in Iraqi
political and economic affairs.
The Balfour Declaration The British mandate in Palestine proved to be very troublesome, presenting seri­
and the British Mandate ous problems not found in the mandate in Iraq. This was because both Jews and
in Palestine Arabs had wanted to create nation-states in the region. During World War I,
British forces defeated the Turks and took over Palestine. Britain made territorial
promises to both Jews and Arabs, and issued an important document in 1917
called the Balfour Declaration. Named after Lord Balfour, the English statesman,
the document proposed that Great Britain would view"...with favor the establish­
ment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, .. .it being understood
that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights
of... nonjewish communities."
Zionists, those Jews who pressed for some part of Palestine as a Jewish home­
land, saw hope in the Balfour Declaration. Arab nationalists wanted the land for
their own, and were against giving any part to Zionists. Fighting broke out
between both groups, as well as between each group and the British. In 1922,
Britain partitioned Palestine by itself, taking about 77 percent of it and establish­
ing this as the Arab kingdom of Transjordan. To sever such a large area for a new
Arab nation was a surprising decision, especially as no Jewish homeland was estab­
lished. Transjordan was given limited freedom, and was promised eventual inde­
pendence by the British. This promise was fulfilled in 1946, with the region to
take the name of Jordan. The British stayed on good terms with the Jordanians,
helping to train an armed force known as the Arab Legion.
The United Nations In 1922, the remaining 23 percent of Palestine, lying to the west along the Mediter­
Partition Plan for ranean Sea, was still a mandate under British control. It remained so until 1947,
Palestine without any Jewish homeland being created. By that time, fighting had increased
and Britain decided to let the new international organization, the United Nations
(U.N.), resolve the political status of the region. The United Nations decided to
partition this remaining portion of Palestine in November 1947, giving part to the
Zionists as a Jewish state and part to be a Palestinian Arab state. The city of
Jerusalem, holy to both Jews and Muslims, was to be under U.N. supervision.
Jews accepted the partition plan and declared the state of Israel in May 1948.
The British mandate in Palestine had come to an end. However, Arabs both in
Palestine and in the nations neighboring Palestine rejected the partition plan. In
May 1948, twenty-four hours after Israel proclaimed its independence, six Arab
nations declared war on Israel. Although the combined Arab forces were larger
and better equipped, they were unable to accomplish their goal of destroying
Israel. A truce arranged by the U.N. ended the fighting temporarily.
Since 1949, three other major wars have been fought between the Israelis and
the Arabs. Israel maintained its existence, successfully defending it in each of
Chaim Weizmann was a
these. In 1979, Egypt became the first Arab nation to sign a peace treaty with
brilliant chemist who worked
Israel and to grant it recognition. In 1994, Jordan became the second Arab nation
with the British in World War
to act similarly. The other Arab nations, however, are still technically at war with
I. He helped to draw up the
Israel.
In the last decade of the twentieth century, some optimistic signs of peace
Balfour Declaration and
in
the
area appeared on the horizon. Peace talks between Israel, Palestinian
became the first president of
Arabs,
and
some Arab nations were held in Spain and the United States in 1991,
Israel (1948-1952).
494
Imperialism
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Between 1945 and 1948, Jewish immigrants such as these
King Hussein ofJordan (1935~resent) is seen here reviewing
soldiers of his Arab Legion. Having suffered devastating defeats Holocaust survivors hoped to settle in Palestine. Very often,
by Israel when he sent troops to attack that nation in 1948 and pro-Arab British mandate authorities refused them entry.
1967, he signed a peace treaty with Israel in 1994.
1992, and 1993. A historic agreement between Israel and the Palestine Liberation
Organization (P.L.O.), claiming to represent Palestinian Arabs, was signed in Sep­
tember 1993. By allowing a limited amount of self-rule to the Palestinians in some
areas, the agreement did much to ease tensions in the Middle East. If other Arab
nations follow the examples of Egypt and Jordan, and recognize Israel, hopes for
settlement of what has become known as the Arab-Israeli dispute may be realized
by the end of the 1990s.
France
In 1920, France was given mandates in Lebanon and Syria. However, French
involvement in these regions goes back to the sixteenth century. France's com­
mercial and cultural ties to the region became so strong, that by 1900, her eco­
nomic involvement in the area was the greatest of any European power. In
addition, the Ottoman rulers had let France become the protector of all Catholics
in the regions; the French language was also widely spoken.
Nevertheless there was resistance to French mandatory control in Syria and
Lebanon. An independence-seeking resistance movement was put down by
French troops in the 1920s. Consequently, France established overall colonial con­
trol of both Syria and Lebanon. The two regions, sometimes referred to as the
Levant, became part of the French Empire. All education in public schools was
conducted in French. French was substituted for Arabic as the official language.
Under the French-controlled economy Beirut became a prosperous city. French
authority was easy to impose because of the various religious and ethnic groups in
Syria and Lebanon, including the Kurds, Maronite Christians, Druze, and diverse
Muslim groups. The French befriended each of these, thus following a policy of
"divide and conquer" as well as "divide and rule."
Health services, transportation, and communication were improved with the
French presence. Yet, the desire for independence lingered into the 1940s. In
Imperialism in Asia
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495
1946, France granted independence to both colonies.
Factors leading to this included the impact of World
War II (1939-1945) on a weary France, the wishes of
the colonized peoples, and pressure from the United
Nations and France's allies.
The Middle East of today bears effects of European
Imperialism. These are not as pronounced, however,
as they are in Mrica and other parts of Asia. The main
reason for this contrast is that European colonialism
in the Middle East came later and ended sooner than
was the case elsewhere. The decline of European colo­
nialism in Asia, as well as in Mrica, was most evident
in the years following World War II. In almost all
Jordanian officials met with Ralph Bunche (fourth from left) in instances, this decline was accompanied peacefully. It
1949, to discuss Arab-Israeli issues. Bundle was an African­
was not marked by widespread outbreaks of violent
American who acted upon behalf of the United Nations to bring
rebellion, as was true of the American Revolution,
peace to the Middle East.
when the thirteen American colonies fought against
British rule in the eighteenth century. In the twentieth century, the struggle
against various forms of imperialism, along with the emergence of new, indepen­
dent nations, was a crucial turning point in world history. To appreciate its signifi­
cance, we move on to the next chapter. Appropriately, its title is "Independence
and Decolonization."
Summary
If any
lesson should be learned from this chapter it is that a nation cannot
stand still. As you know, China at one time was way ahead ofEurope in intellec­
tual development, but at a certain point decided that further advancement was
no longer necessary. So China stagnated while the Europeans went through their
Renaissance and Industrial Revolution. If you stand still, you go backwards in
relation to others; a nation cannot afford to do that. It is interesting that Japan
exists as a model for us to look at. The Japanese had also closed themselves off to
Western influences. After Perry arrived they soon adopted the ways of the West
and became imperialists on their own. Their history during the late nineteenth
and twentieth centuries was very different than that of their neighbors.
We can also see possible problems starting to develop. There were jealousies
among nations as France was envious of Britain, Germany was envious of
France and Britain, and Japan wanted to have sole control over what it saw as
its area. Nations seemed not to care about the people's welfare in the areas they
controlled. These people were pawns in a nationalistic power play. As we move
ahead in our study this will become more evident.
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Evaluation of Imperialism
European Imperialism had both positive and negative effects for those nations
who acquired land overseas. On the positive side, it was obvious that the growth of
an empire gave a nation prestige, wealth, and a way to spread its culture. The
mother country's standard of living improved, while careers in the military and
foreign service were made available. Investors and business leaders were furnished
with raw materials and expanding markets.
On the negative side was the reality that imperialistic ventures could draw
nations into wars. These might be with rival colonial powers or with the colonies
themselves. Taxpayers in the mother country would have to pay for wars and
imperialistic consequences. Poor images of the colonial nation and bad feelings
toward it could result in overseas colonies.
The effects of Imperialism upon the colonized regions were also a mix of the
positive and the negative.
THE EFFECTS OF IMPERIALISM ON COLONIZED REGIONS
Consequence Positive
Negative
Political
Brought stability and unification;
training for independence;
promoted the nation-state idea
Colonial wars, discrimination; drew
boundari es without consulting native
peoples
Economic
Introduced modernization; improved means Took wealth away from colony; treated
workers badly; did not provide for
of transportation and communication;
advancement and management for
created industries; taught new skills;
colonized people; destroyed traditional
improved the standards of living; provided
industries and patterns of trade
employment
Social
Introduced Christianity and other aspects
of Western culture; built schools and
hospitals; introduced modern medicine
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
Looked down upon native cultures;
promoted racism and a sense of cultural
inferiority; introduced Western vices and
diseases
ENRICHMENT
READING
WITH PRIMARY
SOURCE
DOCUMENTS
MAKES FOR BETTER DISCUSSION AND DEEPER UNDERSTANDING OF MATERIAL –
WILL ALSO HELP WITH AP PLACEMENT FOR GRADE 11 ANDS 12
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
Lin Tse-hsu's Moral Advice
to the British Monarch
The
Open~ '~lg
of China
A communication: magnificently our great Emperor soothes
and pacifies China and the foreign countries, regarding all with the
same kindness. If there is profit, then he shares it with the peoples of
Opium was introduced to China by Europeans in the seven­
the world; if there is harm, then he removes it on behalf of the
teenth century, and the opium traffic grew rapidly in spite of
world.
...
imperial edicts of prohibition. In opium Europeans found a com­
All
those people in China who sell opium or smoke opium should
modity which the Chinese wanted and which could be ex­
changed for the tea and silk that were being imported from
receive the death penalty. If we trace the crime of those barbarians who
China. The Chinese government was determined to put an end
through the years have been selling opium, then the deep harm they
to the opium trade since the balance of payment had turned
have wrought and the great profit they have usurped should fundamen­
against it and had caused an outflow of gold from the Empire.
tally justify their execution according to law. . . .
Consumption of opium had also become a national vice.
Having established new regulations, we presume that the ruler of
It was very difficult to stop this illicit traffic. Many West­
your honorable country, who takes delight in our culture and whose dis­
ern nations indulged in the trade, and Chinese officials, easily
position is inclined toward us, must be able to instruct the various bar­
bribed, were their accomplices. The Chinese government, in
barians to observe the law with care. It is only necessary to explain to
1838, decided to enforce the laws against opium. This enforce­
them the advantages and disadvantages and then they will know that
ment ultimately resulted in the Opium War between England
the
legal code of the Celestial Court must be absolutely obeyed with
and China.
awe.
There was much more at stake than the opium trade, of
We find that your country is [far from China]. Yet there are bar­
which the British had the lion's share. For a number of years the
barian
ships that strive to come here for trade for the purpose of mak­
British had been putting pressure on the Chinese to treat them
as equals and to allow an expansion of trade relations. Diplo­
ing a great profit. The wealth of China is used to profit the barbarians;
macy having failed, tIle Opium War provided the British with
that is to say, the great profit made by barbarians is all taken from the
the opportunity to secure their demands by force. China, con­
rightful share of China. By what right do they then in return use the
fident at first that she had little to fear from a handful of foreign­
poisonous drug to injure the Chinese people? Even though the bar­
ers, soon discovered that her arms and ships were no match for
barians may not necessarily intend to do us harm, yet in coveting profit
those of the Europeans.
to an extreme, they have no regard for injuring others. Let us ask, where
The first selection is from a letter written in August 1839 by
is your conscience? I have heard that the smoking of opium is very
Commissioner Lin Tse-hsu to Queen Victoria. It was Lin who in
strictly forbidden by your country; that is because the harm caused by
the spring of 1839 seized and publicly burned the opium stocks
opium is clearly understood. Since it is not permitted to do harm to your
of the British traders at Canton - an action which led to the
own country, then even less should you let it be passed on to the harm
outbreak of hostilities in November. The second selection is a
of other countries - how much less to China! Of all that China exports
portion of the Treaty of Nanking (1842), which was imposed
on the Chinese after their defeat. More concessions were ex­
to foreign countries, there is not a single thing which is not beneficial
acted from China in later treaties.
to people. . . . Take tea and rhubarb, for example; the foreign coun­
tries cannot get along for a single day without them. If China cuts off
these benefits with no sympathy for those who are to suffer, then what
can the barbarians rely upon to keep themselves alive? . . . As for other
foodstuffs, beginning with candy, ginger, cinnamon, and so forth, and
articles for use, beginning with silk, satin, chinaware, and so on, all the
things that must be had by foreign countries are innumerable. On the
LIN TSE-HSU'S MORAL ADVICE TO THE BRITISH MONARCH_ Source: Ssu-yu Teng
other
hand, articles coming from the outside to China can only be used
and John K. Fairbank, editors, China's Response to the West: A Documentar)'
as toys. . . .
Survey, 1839-1923, Cambridge, Mass_: Harvard University Press, 1954, pp. 24-27.
Reprinted by permission of the publishers and the President and Fellows of Harvard
Suppose a man of another country comes to England to trade, he
College.
still has to obey the English laws; how much more should he obey in
China the laws of the Celestial Dynasty?
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW Now we have set up regulations governing the Chinese people. He
who sells opium shall receive the death penalty and he who smokes it
also the death penalty. Now consider this: if the barbarians do not
bring opium, then how can the Chinese people resell it and how can
they smoke it? The fact is that the wicked barbarians beguile the Chi­
nese people into a death trap. How then can we grant life only to these
barbarians? He who takes the life of even one person still has to atone
for it with his own life; yet is the harm done by opium limited to the
taking of one life only? Therefore, in the new regulations, in regard to
those barbarians who bring opium to China, the penalty is fixed at de­
capitation or strangulation. This is what is called getting rid of a harm­
ful thing on behalf of mankind. . . .
The barbarian merchants of your country, if they wish to do busi­
ness for a prolonged period, are required to obey our statutes respectfully
and to cut off permanently the source of opium. . . . May you, 0
[Queen], check your wicked and sift your vicious people before they
come to China, in order to guarantee the peace of your nation, to show
further the sincerity of your politeness and submissiveness, and to let the
two countrIes enjoy together the blessings of peace.
tannic Majesty, her heirs and successors, and to be governed by such laws
and regulations as her Majesty the Queen of Great Britain, etc., shall see
fit to direct. . . .
Article VI. The government of her Britannic Majesty having been
obliged to send out an expedition to demand and obtain redress for the
violent and unjust proceedings of the Chinese high authorities toward
her Britannic Majesty's officer and subjects, the Emperor of China agrees
to pay the sum of twelve million dollars on account of the expenses in­
curred, and her Britannic Majesty's Plenipotentiary voluntarily agrees, On
behalf of her Majesty, to deduct from the said amount of twelve millions
of dollars any sums which may have been received by her Majesty'S com­
bined forces as ransom for cities and towns in China, subsequent to the
first day of August, 1841.
The Terms of Peace
Article I. There shall henceforward be peace and friendship be­
tween her Majesty the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain
and Ireland and his Majesty the Emperor of China, and between their
respective subjects, who shall enjoy full security and protection for their
persons and property within the dominions of the other.
Article II. His Majesty the Emperor of China agrees that British
subjects, with their families and establishments, shall be allowed to re­
side, for the purpose of carrying on their mercantile pursuits, without
molestation or restraint at the cities and towns of Canton, Amoy,
Foochow-fu, Ningpo, and Shanghai. . . .
Article III. It being obviously necessary and desirable that British
subjects should have some port whereat they may careen and refit their
ships when required, and keep stores for the purpose, his Majesty the
Emperor of China cedes to her Majesty the Queen of Great Britain,
etc., the island of Hong Kong, to be possessed in perpetuity by her Bri­
THE TERMS OF PEACE. Source: China, The Maritime Customs. III, Miscel­
laneous Series: No. 30, Treaties, Conventions, etc., Between China and Foreign
States, 2nd ed., Shanghai: Department of the Inspectorate General of Customs,
1917, Vol. I, pp. 352-53.
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Hung Jen-kan's Proposals for Reform
The Taiping Rebellion
Weakened by the deterioration of her ruling dynasty and hu­
miliated at the hands of the British, China was torn by a num­
ber of great internal rebellions. The longest and most violent of
these (1850-64) was led by a visionary who claimed to be the
younger brother of Jesus sent to inaugurate a kingdom of perfect
peace (taiping). His cry for social justice met with an over­
whelming response among the hungry masses, and the rebels
were able to conquer vast territories and even set up a rival em­
peror.
Conquest and success soon diminished their crusading zeal,
while their strange doctrines antagonized and alienated the edu­
cated official class. The Westerners, who had initially displayed
some sympathy toward the religious views of the Taipings, were
soon repelled by them. The foreign governments in China, at
first divided, eventually came to the assistance of the Manchu
rulers against the rebels. The rebellion was crushed mainly
through the efforts of provincial Chinese commanders, and the
tottering Manchus were temporarily rescued.
That the Taiping Rebellion was a movement for reform and
included leaders interested in modernization is illustrated in the
proposals of Hung Jen-kan, who was a relative of the Taiping
Emperor and who became an important member of his govern­
ment in 1859. The effects of the rebellion are described by Dr.
S. Wells Williams, a missionary, who was secretary of the
American Legation.
1. [Authority should be centralized and applied to all the people.
On the other hand, the people's opinion should have ready access to the
govern men t.]
2. The promotion of the facilities of communication is aimed at
convenience and speed. If someone can make a locomotive such as those
made in foreign countries, . . . let him be permitted to monopolize the
profit, and after a certain limit of time let other people be permitted to
imitate his invention. . . . At first we should construct twenty-one main
railroads in the twenty-one provinces to serve as the veins of the whole
country, and when the traffic is in good circulation, the nation will be
healthy. . . .
3. The promotion of ships, which should be solid, nimble, and fast.
Whether fire, steam, [human] energy, or wind is to be used for power
should be decided by the inventor. . . .
4. The promotion of banks. If a rich man wants to open a bank, he
shall first report and deposit his deeds and other securities in the national
treasury, whereupon he will be allowed to issue one million and a half
[taels of] bank notes which will be inscribed with very elaborate designs,
stamped with the state seals, and be exchangeable for silver or com­
modities, or for other bank notes and silver. . . .
5. The promotion of patents for inventing utensils and for various
arts. If there are those who can make very fine, unusual, and convenient
articles, they alone shall be permitted a manufacture and sales monopoly.
Imitators shall be considered to have committed a crime and shall be
punished. . . . As a reward for a small article there shall be a five-year
period of monopoly rights and for a large one, ten years. . . . After the
time limit, other persons shall be allowed to make them.
6. The promotion [i.e., exploitation] of hidden treasures. If there
HUNG JEN·KAN'S PROPOSALS FOR REFORM. Source: Ssu·yu Teng and John K.
Fairbank, editors, China's Response to the West: A Documentary Survey, 1839-1923,
Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1954, pp. 57-59. Reprinted by per­
mission of the publishers and the President and Fellows of Harvard College.
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are people who discover gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, coal, salt, amber,
oyster shells, jade, precious stones, and other materials, they shall be re­
quired to report this to the government. They shall be appointed as the
chief superintendents and be permitted to employ people to mine. . . .
7. The promotion of a postal service to transmit state documents,
post offices to circulate all kinds of private letters, and newspaper offices
to report frequent changes of current affairs.
8. The promotion of court investigators [to officially establish the
facts, etc.]. . . .
9. The promotion of official reporting officers in all provinces..
They will devote their time to collecting news from the . . . provinces
and a myriad of other places. . . .
12. The promotion of hospitals to relieve those who are ill and in
suffering. . . . Physicians shall be installed, but they must have passed
several examinations before they can be employed. . . .
14. The promotion of rural soldiers. . . . In the daytime they shall
supervise all the families in cleaning the streets or roads, in order to get
rid of the dirt and poisonous things that cause injury to the people. They
are also to arrest those who fight and steal and to summon the bystanders
to the office of the county officers to be witnesses and help render a ver­
dict. Those who give false evidence shall be punished.
The Effects of the Rebellion
The populous mart of Hankow and its environs was taken by
assault six different times during the thirty months ending in May 1855,
and finally was left literally a heap of ruins. In country places the im­
perialists were, of the two parties, perhaps the more terrible scourge, but
as the region became impoverished each side vied with the other in ex­
hausting the people. . . .
The executions in Canton during fourteen months up to August
1856 were nearly a hundred thousand men; but the loss of life on both
sides must be reckoned by millions. . . .
The destruction of life, property, and industry within the three
months since [the rebels'] sally from Nanking had been unparalleled
and revived the stories told of the ruthless acts of Attila and Tamer­
lane. . . .
In Ihing, the dreadful effects of the struggle going on were seen.
Utter destitution prevailed in and out of the town; people were feeding
on dead bodies and ready to perish from exposure while waiting for a
comrade to die.
The rebels had occupied a post near Whampoa, and their gun­
boats prowled through every creek in the delta, burning, destroying,
capturing, and murdering without restraint. They would be followed by
a band of imperialists whose excesses were sometimes even more dread­
ful than those of their enemies. So terrible was the plight of the wretched
countrymen that the headmen of ninety-six villages near Fuhshan
formed a league and armed their people to keep soldiers from either side
from entering their precincts.
The condition of the people at this time was sad and desperate in­
deed, and their only remedy was to arm in self-defense
No quarter
was given on either side, and the carnage was appalling
During
this year (1854) the emigration to California and Australia became larger
than ever before, ... owing to the multitudes thrown out of employ­
ment who were eager in accepting the offers of the brokers to depart from
the country and escape the evils they saw everywhere about them. The
terrors of famine, fighting, and plundering paralyzed all industry and
trade. . . .
The exhaustion and desperation consequent on these events had al­
most demoralized society in and around Canton, which was overcrowded
with refugees, raising food to famine prices. . . . One of the insurgent
practices consisted in driving great numbers of people into squares and
there shooting them down by cannon placed in the approaching streets,
while the houses around them were burning. The flames could be seen
for two or three days from Canton, and it was estimated that during this
conflict fully two hundred thousand human beings perished. . . .
Wild beasts roamed at large over the land after their departure
and made their dens in the deserted towns; the pheasant's whirr re­
sounded where the hum of busy populations had ceased, and weeds or
jungle covered the ground once tilled with patient industry. Besides
... the misery, sickness, and starvation which were endured by the sur­
vivors, it has been estimated by foreigners living at Shanghai that, during
the whole period from 1851 to 1865, fully twenty million human beings
were destroyed in connection with the Taiping Rebellion.
THE EFFECTS OF THE REBELLION. Source: S. Wells Williams, The Middle
Kingdom, rev. ed., New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1883, Vol. II, pp. 600, 604,
606, 617, 623-24, 630-31.
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ready, sentinels and men at their posts, and in' short, all the usual prep­
arations made before meeting an enemy, ... A signal was made for
all captains to go on board the flagship and receive their orders from
the Commodore. This done, the vessels now continued their course. . . .
When the squadron had approached within two miles of the land,
a fleet of large boats amounting to more than a dozen pushed off in
the direction of the ships with the seeming intention of visiting them.
They were, however, not waited for and were soon left behind, much
puzzled, doubtless, by the rapid progress of the steamers against the
'vind. . . .
At about five o'clock in the afternoon the squadron came to anchor
off the city of U raga, on the western side of the bay of Yedo. . . .
Previous to anchoring, a number of Japanese guardboats had been
observed coming off from the land in pursuit, but the Commodore had
given express orders, both by word and signal, forbidding the admission
of anyone on board either of the ships but his own. . . .
They made several attempts to get alongside and on board of the
Saratoga; their towlines, with which they made fast to any part of the
ship, were unceremoniously cast off. They attempted to climb up by
the chains but the crew was ordered to prevent them, and the sight of
pikes, cutlasses, and pistols checked them, and when they found that our
officers and men were very much in earnest, they desisted from their
attempts to board. . . .
One of the boats came alongside of the flagship, and it was observed
that a person on board had a scroll of paper in his hand which the
officer of the Susquehanna refused to receive but which was held up to
be read alongside of the Mississippi, when it was found to be a document
in the French language which conveyed an order to the effect that the
ships should go away and not anchor, at their peril. The chief function­
ary, as his boat reached the side of the Susquehanna, made signs for the
gangway ladder to be let down. This was refused, but Mr. Williams, the
Chinese interpreter, and Mr. Portman, the Dutch, were directed to state
to him that the Commodore would not receive anyone but a function­
ary of the highest rank, and that he might return on shore. As there
seemed to be some difficulty in making progress in the Japanese lan­
guage, one on board the boat alongside said in very good English, "I can
speak Dutch." Mr. Portman then commenced a conversation with him
in that language, as his English seemed to have been exhausted in the
first sentence. . . .
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The Closing of Japan
Japan's enthusiasm for trade with Europeans was somewhat
dampened by the Japanese suspicion of the motives of the for­
eigners. They feared the spread of Christianity, which had been
introduced by St. Francis Xavier in 1549 and had made several
hundred thousand converts withirt halt a century. They sus­
pected that the Europeans harbored political ambitions in their
land. The vicious commercial and religious rivalry among the
Europeans also made the Japanese uneasy.
Early in the seventeenth century the Japanese, recently
united under the Tokugawa Shogunate * after a period of civil
war, began to persecute Christians. The resistance of the mis­
sionaries and the Japanese converts to the commands of the
Shogun turned the persecutions into a campaign of extermina­
tion which was for the most part successful. By 1640 European
trade was terminated except with the Dutch, who were allowed
to continue only under the most careful scrutiny.
The following selection is from the Japanese government's
Act of Seclusion of 1636.
1. Japanese ships shall by no means be sent abroad.
2. No Japanese shall be sent abroad. Anyone violating this prohi­
bition shall suffer the penalty of death, and the shipowner and crew
shall be held up together with the ship.
3. All Japanese residing abroad shall be put to death when they re­
turn home.
4. All Christians shall be examined by official examiners.
5. Informers against Christians shall be rewarded.
6. The arrival of foreign ships must be reported ... and. watch
kept over them.
7. The Namban people (Spaniards or Portuguese) and any other
people with evil titles propagating Christianity shall be incarcerated in
the Omura prison as before.
8. Even ships shall not be left untouched in the matter of extermi­
nating Christians.
9. Everything shall be done in order to see that no Christian is sur­
vived by descendants, and anyone disregarding this injunction shall be
put to death, while proper punishment shall be meted out to the other
members of his family according to their deeds.
10. Children born of the Namban people (Spaniards or Portu­
guese) in Nagasaki and people adopting these Namban children into
their family shall be put to death; capital punishment shall also be
meted out to those Namban descendants if they return to Japan, and
their relatives in Japan, who may communicate with them, shall receive
suitable punishment.
II. The samurai [warrior aristocracy of Japan] shall not purchase
goods on board foreign ships directly from foreigners.
Source: Y. Takekoshi, The Economic Aspects of the History of the Civiliza­
tion of Japan, London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1930, Vol. II, pp. 128-29. Re­
printed by permission of the publishers.
* From the end of the twelfth century to 1868 Japan was goverr~ed by shoguns,
who were hereditary feudal rulers. The emperors, while still supreme III theory, were
in practice limited to ceremonial functions. The Tokugawa Shogunate ruled Japan
from 1603 to 1867.
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The Opening of Japan
Japan did not stagnate, in spite ot its isolation. Throughout the
eighteenth century her people were happy and prosperous. Art
and literature flourished, and inter-est in fighting subsided. It is
a curious thing that even during the long period at isolation
some Japanese studied Dutch and acquainted themselves with
the scientific and industrial progress ot Europe.
The Western nations, especially the United States, became
increasingly interested in the Pacific in the nineteenth century.
Shipwrecked American sailors were given harsh treatment in
Japan and were returned only through the good offices ot the
Dutch. The new steamships needed tueling stations in every part
ot the world. American whaleboats and tur-trading vessels were
anxious to acquire the right to stop in Japan. For these reasons,
as well as the desire tor trade, the American government sent
Commodore Matthew Perry to Japan in the summer ot 1853 to
deliver to the Japanese government a letter trom the President
ot the United States. Perry arrived with an impressive guard and
a fleet at warships. He stayed tor a week and promised to return
the next spring tor a reply. Not all Japanese opinion was against
signing an agreement. Faced with a choice ot a treaty or war, the
Japanese government gave in.
Officials and naval officers who were on the expedition with
Perry, as well as Perry himself, kept journals and diaries ot what
occurred. The tollowing is trom these eyewitness accounts.
July 8, 1853. The morning seemed to confirm the reputed char­
acter of the Japanese climate, for the atmosphere was so thick and hazy
that the extent of view was unfortunately very much restricted, and it
was not possible to get a distinct outline of the shore until the squadron
came to anchor off the city of Uraga. . . .
As the ships neared the bay; signals were made from the Commo­
dore and instantly the decks were cleared for action, the guns placed in
position and shotted, the ammunition arranged, the small arms made
Source: Matthew Perry, Narrative of the Expedition of an American Squadron
to the China Seas and Japan, Performed in the Years 1852, 1853, and 1854, edited
by Francis L. Hawks, New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1857, pp. 265-70, 273-74,
It was directed that the dignitary should be informed that the Com­
modore, who had been sent by his country on a friendly mission to
Japan, had brought a letter from the President of the United States ad­
dressed to the Emperor, and that he wished a suitable officer might be
sent on board his ship to receive a copy of the same in order that a day
might be appointed for the Commodore formally to deliver the original.
To this he replied that Nagasaki was the only place, according to the
laws of Japan, for negotiating foreign business, and it would be necessary
for the squadrons to go there. In answer to this he was told that the
Commodore had come purposely to Uraga because it was near to Yedo,
and that he should not go to Nagasaki; that he expected the letter to be
duly and properly received where he then was; that his intentions were
perfectly friendly, but that he would allow of no indignity, and would
not permit the guardboats which were collecting around the ships to
remain where they were, and if they were not immediately removed,
the Commodore declared that he would dispe1se them by force. When
this was interpreted to him, the functionary suddenly left his seat, went
to the gangway, and gave an order which caused most of the boats to
return to the shore. . . .
The policy of the Commodore, it will be seen, was to assume a
resolute attitude toward the Japanese government. He had determined
before reaching the coast to carry out strictly this course in all his offi­
cial relations, as he believed it the best to ensure a successful issue to
the delicate mission with which he had been charged. He was resolved
to adopt a course entirely contrary to that of all others who had hitherto
visited Japan on a similar errand - to demand as a right and not to
solicit as a favor those acts of courtesy which are due from one civilized
nation to another; to allow of none of those petty annoyances which had
been unsparingly visited upon those who had preceded him, and to
disregard the acts as well as the threats of the authorities if they in the
least conflicted with his own sense of what was due to the dignity of the
American flag.
The question of landing by force was left to be decided by the de­
velopment of succeeding events; it was of course the very last measure to
be resorted to, and the last that was desired; but in order to be prepared
for the worst, the Commodore caused the ships constantly to be kept in
perfect readiness and the crews to be drilled as thoroughly as they are in
time of active war. He was prepared, also, to meet the Japanese on their
own ground and exhibit toward them a little of their own exclusive
276.
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policy; if they stood on their dignity and assumed superiority, that was
a game at which he could playas well as they. . . .
July 9. The first approach to the Susquehanna from the shore was
that of a boat at early sunrise, ... apparently containing a corps of
artists who came close to the ship's side, but making no attempt to come
on board, busied themselves in taking sketches of the strange vessels.
The important visit of the day, however, came off at seven o'clock, when
two large boats rowed alongside, one of which contained a half dozen
officials. . . . The interpreter who spoke Dutch was with them and
announced that the personage of highest authority in the city was
present and desired to come on board. The arrival . . . was then duly
announced to the Commodore, who ordered that his highness should
be received by [two officers], the Commodore himself still refusing, in
accordance with his policy, to receive anyone but a counselor of the
Empire. The governor was attired, in character with his high position, as
a noble of the third rank. He wore a rich silk robe of an embroidered
pattern resembling the feathers of a peacock, with borders of gold and
silver. He was duly received by the officers ... and immediately com­
menced with them a conference. . . .
A boat had been sent at daylight from each ship of the squadron to
survey the bay and harbor of Uraga. The governor, on observing these
boats, inquired what they were doing, and when he was told that they
were surveying the harbor, he said that it was against the Japanese laws
to allow such examinations; to which he received for reply that the
American laws command them and that Americans were as much bound
to obey the American as he was the Japanese laws. "This," remarks the
Commodore, "was a second and most important point gained... ."
At the interview, the original letter of the President together with
the Commodore's letter of credence, encased jn the magnificent boxes
which had been prepared in Washington, were shown to his excellency,
who was evidently greatly impressed with their exquisite workmanship
and costliness; and he made an offer for the first time of water and re­
freshments, but was told that the squadron was in no need of anything.
The governor was made to understand perfectly that there would be
no necessity for any further discussion until the time appointed for the
delivery of the answer from the Japanese government should arrive, and
he left the ship fully impressed with this understanding. . . .
Everything seemed propitious [favorable], as the action of the
Commodore had so far been crowned with success. He had gained his
purpose in clearing the squadron of the presence of the guardboats; he
had compelled the visit of the first in authority at Uraga; he had sur­
veyed the harbor; he had refused to go to Nagasaki and kept his position
in the bay of Yedo; and this last he determined to retain until he had
some definite answer as to the reception of the President's letter by a
person of proper rank and authority.
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The Modernization
apan
The weakness displayed by the Japanese government in the
1850's in dealing with the foreigners brought a violent reaction
against the Shogun as well as the Western intruders. A number
of clans rose in revolt, attacking and murdering foreigners. The
hopelessness ot their cause became apparent when they were
crushed and humiliated by Western arms. Thereafter, those who
hated the foreigners rallied around the Emperor. In 1867 they
abolished the discredited Shogunate and restored the power of
the Emperor as ruler of Japan. In reality, power was still concen­
trated in the hands of a small group.
The new Emperor and his court did not long remain antiWestern. Aware that only by learning the industrial techniques
and adopting the weapons of the foreigners could Japan escape
the fate of other Eastern countries, they embarked upon an ex­
tensive program of political and economic reform. With breath"
taking speed, Japan rose from its weak and humiliating status to
the position of a great power.
One of the architects of the new Japan was Prince Ito
Hirobumi, who held many important government positions and
was Prime Minister four times bet'veen 1886 and 1901. He made
a careful study of Western institutions and played an important
part in the modernization of Japan.
I was one of the first Japanese to visit foreign lands, and was
only able to do so by stealth, escaping to Sl).anghai in 1863. The country
was only just opened to foreign [trade], and Japanese subjects were not
yet allowed to leave the country.
Source: Alfred Stead. editor, Japan by the Japanese: A Survey of the Highest
Authorities, New York: Dodd, Mead & Co., 1904, pp. 64-66,68.
I have always been very much in favor of the adoption of the
principles of Western civilization by Japan, and I have been enabled to
use my services in the direction of assisting the present progress and
transformation in Japan's estate. In the thirty-four years during which I
have held office, I have always tried to help, and sometimes even to
force onto the antagonistic spirits measures necessary for the growth of
modern Japan. From the beginning we realized fully how necessary it
was that the Japanese people should not only adopt Western methods,
but should also speedily become competent to do without the aid of
foreign instruction and supervision. In the early days we brought many
foreigners to Japan to help to introduce modern methods, but we always
did it in such a way as to enable the Japanese students to take their
rightful place in the nation after they had been educated. . . . We
were . . . able to secure the services of many excellent men whose
names are still honored in Japan although they themselves have long
since left her shores.
On the occasion of my second visit to London as one of the ambas­
sadors of our country, it was suggested to me that it would be most
beneficial to establish a special engineering college in Japan, where every
branch of engineering should be taught. Such a college would be quite
unique, no other nation having one. The idea seemed a very good one.
On my return to Japan I took the necessary steps, and with the assistance
of foreign professors we founded an engineering college, now incorpo­
rated in the Tokyo University. From this institution have come the ma­
jority of engineers who are now working the resources and industries of
Japan. I consider the establishment of this college as one of the most
important factors in the development of Japan today.
It was most necessary that Japan should not only be educated but
also provided with suitable codes of laws before there could be any
question of a revision of the treaties with foreign nations, and for a con­
siderable time all our efforts were turned in this direction.
There are two events in Japanese history that have been all-impor­
tant. The first was the change of regime of government of the country
and the promulgation of the constitution, and the other was the Sino­
Japanese War [Chinese-Japanese War]. I spent much time away from
Japan studying the constitutions of various countries, the Emperor hav­
ing ordered me to undertake the arduous task of framing a draft of the
new Japanese constitution. The work was very difficult and necessitated
much thought. Never before had there been a constitution, in the mod­
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ern sense of the word, in Japan to help me to know what were the most
vital points to be provided for in the new code. The country had been
so essentially a nonconstitutional and feudal one that it was difficult to
sit down on the debris of its past history and prepare offhand a constitu­
tion for it; and even when I had decided as to what was most necessary,
it required very great care to insure the proper working and execution of
the various provisions. I had always to remember that my work was in­
tended as a permanent measure, and therefore I had to examine all the
possible effects likely to arise from it in the distant future. Above all,
there was the preeminent importance to be attached to the necessity of
safeguarding the sacred and traditional rights oJ the sovereign. . . .
The old election law . . . having been found unsatisfactory, we
have introduced an improved one, one of the principal changes in which
is that the voting is by secret ballot, instead of by signed ballot as at
present; another important change being the insertion of provisions for
more ample representation of commercial and industrial elements of the
country. . . .
I have always recognized the vital importance of a supremely effi­
cient navy and army. . . . Our program of naval expansion laid down
after the Chinese War in 1895 is practically completed. . . .
Although it has been necessary first of all to develop our fleet, the
army too has not been neglected. It has been more than doubled of late
and has now a war footing of over 500,000 men. . . .
In Japan we have the advantage that, although the soldiers are
raised by conscription, every conscript is animated by the highest sense
of patriotism and pride in his country.
In commercial and industrial matters Japan is becoming well es­
tablished and is making secure her hold upon the markets of the Far
East. The resources of the country are very good, the coal supply es­
pecially being abundant. . . .
Besides the complete victory in the war with China and the success
of treaty revision, Japan may be proud of the speediness of her material
progress, because she has made a progress seldom paralleled in the
modem history of the world. For instance, the system of conscription
having been introduced into our country shortly after the abolition of a
long-rooted feudal system, it seemed to foreigners improbable that it
would be successfully carried out, but it was introduced easily and per­
fectly, and may serve as a demonstration of how Japan surpasses her
neighboring countries, China and Korea.
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The Sepoys Attack Cawnpore
We had but one well, in the middle of the entrenchment, and
the enemy kept up their fire so incessantly both day and night that
it was as much as giving a man's life blood to go and draw a bucket of
water; ... but after the second day ... it ... became a matter of
necessity for every person to get his own water, which was usually done
during the night, when the enemy could not well direct their shots. . . .
The heat was very great and what with the fight, want of room,
want of proper food and care, several ladies and soldiers' wives, as also
children, died with great distress. Many officers and soldiers also were
sunstruck from exposure to the hot winds. The dead bodies of our peo­
ple had to be thrown into a well outside the entrenchment near the
new unfinished barracks, and this work was generally done at the close
of each day, as nobody could venture out during the day on account
of the shot and shell flying in all directions like a hail storm. . . . The
distress was so great that none could offer a word of consolation to his
friend or attempt to administer to the wants of each other. I have seen
the dead bodies of officers and tenderly brought up young ladies of rank
(colonels' and captains' daughters) put outside in the veranda in the
rain, to await the time when the fatigue party usually went round to
carry the dead to the well, as above, for there was scarcely room to
shelter the living; the buildings were so sadly riddled that every safe
corner available was considered a great object.
The enemy now commenced firing live shells well heated, with
the intent of setting fire to the tents of officers in the compound, as
also to the thatched barrack, which though hastily covered over with
tiles, was not proof against fire. The tents therefore had all to be struck,
as several had thus been burned, and at last, on the thirteenth of June,
the barrack also took fire; it was about 5 P,M., and that evening was one
of unspeakable distress and trial, for all the wounded and sick were
in it, also the families of the soldiers. . . . The breeze being very
strong, the flames spread out so quickly that it was hard matter to re­
move the women and children, who were all in great confusion, so
that the helpless wounded and sick could not be removed and were all
burned. . . .
Our barracks were so perfectly riddled as to afford little or no shel­
ter, yet the greater portion of the people preferred to remain in them
than to be exposed to the heat of the sun outside, although a' great
many made themselves ilOie~ under the walls oi the entrenchment. ...
In these, with their wives and children, they were secure at least from
the shots and shells of the enemy, though not so from the effects of
the heat, and the mortality from apoplexy was considerable. At night,
however, every person had to sleep out and take the watch in . . ,
turns, so that nearly the whole of the women and children also slept
under the walls of the entrenchments, near their respective relatives.
Here the live shells kept them in perpetual dread, for nearly all night
these shells were seen corning in the air and bursting in different places.
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW
TIle Destruction of
Human Life in the Congo
Stanley's imagination was fired by the potential wealth of Africa.
After receiving the backing of King Leopold II of Belgium
and a number of financiers, he sailed back to the region of the
Congo. There he set about acquiring rights to exploit the area by
~aking "treaties" ~v~th hundreds of native chiefs. The Congo
YIelded great quantItIes of rubber, which was in great demand in
Europe and America.
Leopold ruled the Congo as his own domain. The few
foreigners who were allowed into the area returned with reports
o~ unbe~ievable horrors .in~icted on the natives by the Belgians.
Fmally m 1904 a commISSIOn was forced on Leopold which con­
firmed, on the basis of evidence from Belgian officials and others,
some of the worst tales of slavery and murder. In 1908, before
We were now about three hundred yards from the village of Ujiji,
and the crowds are dense about me. Suddenly 1 hear a voice on my right
say, "Good morning, sir!"
Startled at hearing this greeting in the midst of such a crowd, 1 tum
sharply around in search of the man and see him at my side, animated
and joyous - a man dressed in a long white shirt with a turban of
American sheeting around his head, and 1 ask, "Who are you?"
"I am Susi, the servant of D y. Livingstone," said he, smiling. . . .
"Now, you Susi, run and tell· the Doctor 1 am corning."
"Yes, sir," and off he darted like a madman.
By this time we were within two hundred yards of the village, and
the multitude was getting denser and almost preventing our march.
Flags and streamers were out; Arabs and Wangwana were pushing their
way through the natives in order to greet us. . . .
Selim said to me, "I see the Doctor, sir. Oh, what an old man! He
has got a white beard."... My heart beats fast, but 1 must not let my
face betray my emotions, lest it shall detract from the dignity of a white
man appearing under such extraordinary circumstances.
So 1 did that which 1 thought was most dignified. 1 pushed back the
crowds, and, passing from the rear, walked down a living avenue of peo­
ple until 1 came in front of the semicircle of Arabs, in front of which
stood the white man with the gray beard. As 1 advanced slowly toward
him 1 noticed he was pale, looked wearied, had a gray beard, wore a
bluish cap with a faded gold band round it, had on a red-sleeved waist­
coat and a pair of gray tweed trousers. 1 would have run to him, only 1
was a coward in the presence of such a mob - would have embraced
him, only he being an Englishman, 1 did not know how he would re­
ceive me; so 1 did what cowardice and false pride suggested was the best
thing - walked deliberately to him, took off my hat, and said, "Dr. Liv­
ingstone, 1 presume?"
"Yes," said he, with a kind smile, lifting his cap slightly.
1 replace my hat on my head, and he puts on his cap, and we both
grasp hands, and 1 then say aloud, "I thank God, Doctor, 1 have been
permitted to see you."
He answered, "I feel thankful that 1 am here to welcome you."
Then, oblivious of the crowds, oblivious of the men who shared with
me my dangers, we - Livingstone and 1 - tum our faces toward his
[cottage] . . . .
We are seated ... with our backs to the wall. . . .
DeMatteo Global 10 HSW