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Commonly Missed AP Psych. Terms Accommodation – adjusting schemas for new information Acetylcholine – A neurotransmitter associated with voluntary movement, sleep and wakefulness Acquisition – refers to the first stages of learning when a response is established. In classical conditioning, acquisition refers to the period of time when the stimulus comes to evoke the conditioned response. Assimilation – adapting new experiences into existing schemas Attribution – An idea or belief about the etiology of a certain behavior; negative attributions usually are characterized by the following: Characteristic Definition Global We think of the problem as universal Internal We blame the cause of something on ourselves Stable We believe that the problem will not end (now or ever) Authoritarian – a style of parenting in which the parent exerts militial control over their children Authoritative – a style of parenting in which there is a democracy between parent and child Avoidance learning – an acquisition of desirable behavior occurs in order to avoid punishment Binocular cues – depth cues requiring the use of two eyes (ex. Convergence or retinal disparity) Bottom-up processing – analysis that begins with the sense receptors and works up to the brain Brain – One of the two components of the central nervous system, the brain is the center of thought and emotion. It is responsible for the coordination and control of bodily activities, and the interpretation of information from the senses (sight, hearing, smell, etc.). Part Function(s) Amygdala involved in memory, emotion, and fear. Brain Stem responsible for basic vital life functions such as breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure Cerebellum responsible for the coordination of movement and balance Cerebrum initiation and coordination of all voluntary movement Frontal Lobe associated with reasoning, planning, parts of speech, movement, emotions, and problem solving Hippocampus This part of the brain is important for learning and memory and for converting short term memory to more permanent memory, and for recalling spatial relationships in the world about us Hypothalamus involved in functions including homeostasis, emotion, thirst, hunger, circadian rhythms, and control of the autonomic nervous system. In addition, it controls the pituitary Limbic System often referred to as the "emotional brain", is found buried within the cerebrum. This system contains the thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus Medulla responsible for maintaining vital body functions, such as breathing and heart rate Occipital Lobe associated with visual processing Parietal Lobe associated with movement, orientation, recognition, perception of stimuli Pons balances left and right movements Temporal Lobe associated with perception and recognition of auditory stimuli, memory, and speech Thalamus situated in the forebrain; the structure has sensory and motor functions. Almost all sensory information enters this structure where neurons send that information to the overlying cortex. Broca’s area – in the frontal lobe of the brain, it allows us to form words and produce speech Bystander Effect – someone is less likely to intervene in an emergency situation when other people are present and able to help than when he or she is alone; we assume that someone else will take care of it Cannon-Bard Theory – the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion CAT scan – (Computerized Axial Tomography) Pictures of structures within the body created by a computer that takes the data from multiple X-ray images and turns them in pictures on a screen. The CAT scan can reveal some soft tissue and other structures that cannot even be seen in conventional X-rays. Classical Conditioning - The behavioral technique of pairing a naturally occurring stimulus and response chain with a different stimulus in order to produce a response which is not naturally occurring. Cocktail party effect – the ability to focus one‘s listening attention on a single talker among other conversations and background noise Cognitive Dissonance Theory – the theory that we act to reduce discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts are inconsistent Collective unconscious – Carl Jung‘s concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species‘ history Color vision theory – Young-Helmholtz & trichromatic theory—states that the retina has 3 types of color receptors; each is especially sensitive (the colors being red, green, and blue) Confirmation bias – a tendency to search for information that confirms one‘s preconceptions Conflict – refers to anytime you have opposing or incompatible actions, objectives, or ideas Type Definition Approach-approach We choose between two things we want Approach-avoidance We choose between one thing we want, and another we do not; choosing the former usually results in some sort of punishment Avoidance-avoidance We choose between two unappealing things Correlation – the amount which two variables vary together; does not prove causation Cross-sectional study – a study in which people of different ages are compared Declarative/Explicit memory – the part of long-term memory where factual information is stored, such as mathematical formulas, vocabulary, and life events Defense mechanism – psychological forces which prevent undesirable or inappropriate impulses from entering consciousness; central to Freud‘s psychoanalysis Deindividuation – the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity Dependent Variable – The variable in an experiment that is measured; the outcome of an experiment Dichotic listening task – used to test selective attention; the person puts on headphones which play two separate tracks and are told to report what they hear Diffusion of responsibility – reduced sense of personal responsibility and individual accountability experienced in certain circumstances by member Discrimination – in behavioral theory, the learned ability to differentiate between two similar objects or situations Disorders – any condition that impairs functioning, as in emotionally, physically, or mentally Dopamine – a neurotransmitter that influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion; excess dopamine receptor activity is linked to schizophrenia, while starved of dopamine, the brain develops Parkinson‘s Disease EEG – (electroencephalography) A recording of the electrical activity of the brain by means of electrodes placed on the surface of the head Experiment – scientific method used for testing a hypothesis Explicit memory – memory of facts and experiences one can know and consciously declare Extinction - The reduction and eventual disappearance of a learned or conditioned response after it is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus-response chain. Foot-in-the-door phenomenon – the tendency for people to comply with some large request after first agreeing to a small request Functional fixedness – an impediment to problem solving where people tend to think of thins in terms of their usual functions Fundamental Attribution Error – the tendency for observers, when analyzing another‘s behavior, to underestimate the impact of personal disposition GABA – inhibitory neurotransmitter; undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia Generalization – the tendency to associate stimuli, and therefore respond similarly to, due to their closeness on some variable such as such, shape, color, or meaning Habituation – decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation Hindsight bias – (also called the I-Knew-It-All-Along Phenomenon) the belief that one would have predicted the outcome after hearing it Imprinting – attachment to the first moving object that a new organism sees Independent Variable – The variable in an experiment that is manipulated or compared James-Lange Theory – the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli Kinesthesis – understanding where your body is in space Latent content – the hidden or interpretive meaning of a person‘s dreams Learned helplessness – a condition that occurs after a period of negative consequences where the person begins to believe they have no control Linguistic relativity hypothesis – Whorf‘s hypothesis that language determines the way we think Longitudinal study – research conducted over a long period of time in which the same subjects are test and retested Manifest content – the ―plot‖ or storyline of a person‘s dreams Maturation – gradual unfolding of development over time Mean – the statistical average Median – the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above and half below this number Misinformation effect – incorporating misleading information into one‘s memory of an event Mode – the most frequently occurring score Monocular cues – depth cues which require only one eye to perceive (ex. Linear perspective or overlay) Mood congruent memory – the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one‘s current good or bad mood Morpheme – in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix) MRI – (magnetic resonance imaging) A diagnostic technique in which radio waves generated in a strong magnetic field are used to provide information about the hydrogen atoms in different tissues within the body; a computer uses this information to produce images of the tissues in many different planes. Negative correlation – a correlation where one two variables tend to move in the opposite direction Negative reinforcement – to remove or withhold something of value in order to increase a certain response or behavior Neuron- a nerve cell Part Function(s) Axon Terminal At the end of a neuron, contains many vesicles Axon extension of a neuron that conducts an action potential Dendrite Receives neurotransmitters from other neurons Myelin Sheath Layer of fat around the soma which aids in transmission speed Neurotransmitter The body‘s chemical messengers Soma Cell body of a neuron Synapse The space between two neurons which neurotransmitters cross to reach the next neuron Vesicle Holds the different types of neurotransmitters Non-declarative memory/Implicit memory- A subsystem within long term memory which consists of skills we acquire through repetition and practice (e.g., dance, playing the piano, driving a car) Also known as procedural memory. Norepinephrine – A neurotransmitter associated with eating and alertness. Too little has been associated with depression and too much has been associated with schizophrenia. Normal curve - A graphical interpretation of a population that is ‗bell shaped‘ as it has the highest frequency in the middle and this frequency diminishes the farther you get from the center on either end. The mean, median, and mode are all equal in a perfect normal curve. Object permanence – the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived Overjustification – the effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do PET scan – (Positron emission tomography scan) A procedure in which a small amount of radioactive glucose (sugar) is injected into a vein, and a scanner is used to make detailed, computerized pictures of areas inside the body where the glucose is used. Phoneme – a spoken, written, or signed word and the way that we combine them to create meaning Phrenology – created by Franz Gall, Phrenology is the pseudoscience which attempts to predict behavior based on bumps on individuals‘ heads Placebo effect – The phenomenon in research where the subject‘s beliefs about the outcome can significantly effect the outcome without any other intervention. Positive correlation – A correlation where as one variable increases, the other also increases, or as one decreases so does the other. Both variables move in the same direction. Primacy effect - The tendency to develop an opinion of others based on our most recent experiences with that person. Proactive amnesia – characterized by an inability to form new memories Proactive interference – interference in memory due to prior learning Psychologist vs. Psychiatrist – Psychologists are certified by a psychology-related or counseling degree, while psychiatrists are medical doctors who may prescribe their patients medications Random assignment – every member of the sample population has an equal chance of being assigned to either the control group or an experimental group Random selection – every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected for the experiment Recency effect – the tendency to remember the last bit of information due to the shorter time available for forgetting Reliability – A statistical measure of a tests consistency, or ability to result in similar scores if given repeatedly Retroactive amnesia – the inability to retrieve or recall information before the traumatic event. An individual who has suffered a bump to his head and now cannot remember his telephone number would be suffering from retroactive amnesia Retroactive interference - Interference in memory created by later learning Self-efficacy – One's belief in his or her own ability Self-fulfilling prophecy – self-fulfilling prophecy is a prediction that, in being made, actually causes itself to become true Self-serving bias – a readiness to perceive oneself favorably Serial position effect – refers to the tendency to recall information that is presented first and last (like in a list) better than information presented in the middle Serotonin – a neurotransmitter that affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal; undersupply linked to depression Spacing effect – the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long term results than is achieved through massed study or practice State-dependant memory – the theory that information learned in a particular state of mind (e.g., depressed, happy, somber) is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind Systematic desensitization – a type of counter conditioning that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli that is commonly use to treat phobias Temperament – a person‘s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity Teratogens – harmful chemical agents that are pass through the placenta to fetus Top-down processing – information processing starting with the brain as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations Two Factor Theory – Schachter‘s theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal Validity – Statistical technique used to determine if a test is actually measuring what it is intended to measure Vestibular – your sense of balance and equilibrium in relationship to your entire body. Visual cliff – a lab device used to test depth perception Wernicke’s area – in the temporal lobe of the brain, it allows comprehension of speech Yerkes-Dodson Law – demonstrates an empirical relationship between arousal and performance; it dictates that performance increases with cognitive arousal, but only to a certain point. When levels of arousal become too high, performance will decrease. Compiled by Kelsey Buchmiller Class of 2007