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WORLD COUNCIL
OF OPTOMETRY
Curricular Support Elements
for an Optometry Programme
www.worldoptometry.org
CONTENTS
Introduction
3
The Patient Examination
4
– Background
– Element 1
– Element 2
– Element 3
– Element 4
– Element 5
– Element 6
– Element 7
– Element 8
5
6
12
15
18
20
23
24
26
Patient Management
29
– Element 9
– Element 10
General Health Assessment
– Element 11
Specialized Care
– Element 12
– Element 13
– Element 14
Professional Responsibilites
– Element 15
30
32
35
36
38
39
42
45
48
49
Prepared by the World Council of Optometry
Education Committee.
With thanks to the Brien Holden Vision Institute
for supplying the images used in this document.
www.brienholdenvision.org
World Council of Optometry 2
INTRODUCTION
This document will provide schools, colleges and universities intending to
start or upgrade an optometry programme with a basis for designing their
optometry curriculum. The foundations are what an optometrist needs
to be competent in and the level is at highest international standards.
Since this document is comprehensive not all programmes will include all
elements to the same extent often depending of the regulations governing
optometry in the country of the programme. The document does not
take into consideration other elements of a general university education.
This document considers the elements of the comprehensive eye
examination and develops the curriculum content from the knowledge
and skills that underpin each element.
The comprehensive eye examination is considered as the sum of the
following ten universal elements:
1. Assess the patient’s case history
2. Assess the anterior ocular adnexa for their form, condition and
functionality
3. Assess the anterior segment for their form, condition and functionality
4. Assess the ocular media for their form, condition and functionality
5. Assess the posterior segment for their form, condition and functionality
6. Assess the quality of the visual pathway and sensory visual function
7. Assess the refractive status
8. Assess the binocular and oculomotor (including near focus) function
9. Assess suitability of spectacles and prescribe
10. Assess contact lens-wear suitability and prescribe
With an element relating to the patient’s wellbeing:
11. Assess signs and symptoms of the patient’s general health
Together with three (3) additional elements specific to particular categories
of patients:
12. Assess and provide care for the paediatric patient
13. Assess and provide care for the low vision patient
14. Assess and provide care for the geriatric patient
And a final important element linked with patient care that is the:
15. Continued professional development of the optometrist and practice
based-learning so that modern evidence-based care can be provided
The knowledge and skills required for each of these elements determines
the optometry curriculum. The required curriculum topics are listed in the
Contents page.
World Council of Optometry 3
THE PATIENT
EXAMINATION
BACKGROUND
Formulate an examination plan
Requirement
• S electproceduresthatwillacquirevitalinformationfordiagnosis
and management based on the patient history
• S electsuitabletestsandprocedurestothepatient’sabilities
and condition
• U
seaproblembased(subjective,objective,assessment,plan“SOAP”)/
scientific approach to gather data relevant to the patient’s problems
• C
onsiderrelevantinvestigationsnotnecessarilyassociatedwiththe
patient’s history
• Reviewandanalyzedataforconsistency
• Formulateoneormorediagnoses
• C
onsidermanagementoptionsanddetermineappropriate
management plans for each of the diagnoses
• Communicatewiththepatientregardingexaminationoutcome
• Includethepatientinmanagementdecisions
• Reviewmanagementoutcomes
The Patient Examination 5
ELEMENT 1
Assess the patient’s case history
Requirement
• Reasonsforvisit
– Chief complaint
– Othercomplaints/problemsthepatientwouldlikeaddressed
• Ocularhistory:including
– Present and past optical appliances
– Previous eye examination and outcomes
– Injuries,infections,surgeries
– Allergies to eyedrops
• Familyocularhistory
– Eye conditions in close relatives
– History of blindness or vision loss in family
• Medicalhistory:including
– Allergies
– Infections
– Medicalconditions
o Chronicfever,weightloss/gain/fatigue
o Ear, nose, throat
– Medications
o Prescribed
o Supplements/traditionalmedicines
– Reviewofsystems
o Cardiovascular
o Respiratory
o Gastrointestinal
o Skin
o Musculoskeletal
o Urinary
o Neurological
o Psychiatric
o Chronicfever,weightloss/gain/fatigue
o Ear, nose, throat
o Endocrine
• Useoftobaccoproducts,alcohol,recreationaldrugs
• Visualtasks
– Occupational
– Recreational
– Specific visual demands
• Goalsfortheexamination
Enabling Sciences – topics to cover
Psychology in Health Care
• C
onceptualapproachestobehaviouralstudies–humanbehaviour
investigations: behavioural; psychoanalytical; humanistic; cognitive
and biological paradigms
• P
sychologicalfunctioning:perception;learning;motivation;emotions;
stress and coping; health and illness behaviours
• C
ommunicationandinterpersonalskills:developmentof
communication and interpersonal skills
The Patient Examination 6
Element 1
Anatomy
• Structureofthehumanbodywithrespecttoregionalanatomy
• Functionsofthehumanbodywithrespecttosystemicanatomy
• S ystemicandregionalanatomyintegrationwithrespectto
medical imaging
• Thehumanbodyandanatomicalterminology
• Skin(integumentarysystem)
• Skeletalsystem
• Muscularsystem
• Nervoussystem
• Specialsenses
• Cardiovascularsystem
• Respiratorysystem
• Blood,lymphaticandimmunesystem
• Digestivesystem
• Renal(urinary)system
• Endocrinesystem
• Reproductivesystem
Cell Biology and Biochemistry
• Fundamentalconceptsinbiochemistry
• F unctionalsystemswithinanorganism,wherecellsfunctionasbasic
building blocks
• Rolesofbiologicalmoleculesinlivingsystems
• Interactionsbetweenbiochemicalpathwaysinanorganism
• C
ellstructuresandfunctionoforganellesandthecellasanentity:
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, architecture of plasma membrane,
transport across membrane, internal membranes and cell energetic,
chemical signalling between cells, cytoskeleton and cell movement,
cilia and flagella, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosome, Golgi apparatus,
lysosome and peroxisomes and the nucleus
• C
ellcyclesanddevelopmentofcellspecificityineukaryotes,cell
cycle and cells in early stage of development, determination
and differentiation of cells in higher eukaryotes, and important roles
of stem cells
• Introductiontoimportantmethodsincellbiology:microscopyand
histological methods, cell fractionation and analysis of subcellular
components, cytochemical techniques, autoradiography and
radioisotope labelling techniques
• S tructure,propertiesandfunctionsofmoleculesoflife:water,
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and vitamins, vision biochemistry
and its relation to Vitamin A
• G
eneinformationexpression:geneticinformationcode;
transcription; translation
The Patient Examination 7
Element 1
• E
nzymes:natureandmodeofactionofenzymes,regulationand
importanceinbiologicalsystems,isoenzymesandcoenzymes,
enzymekinetics
• C
atabolismandgenerationofenergy:bioenergeticprinciples,
glycolysis, citric acid cycle, hexose monophosphate shunt, electronic
transport, oxidation of fat, proteolysis, deaminations, fate of carbon
skeleton, urea cycle
• B
iosynthesisandutilizationofenergy:gluconeogenesis,glycogenesis,
biosynthesis of lipids, amino acids and proteins
Physiology
• N
ormalfunctioningofthehumanbodywithemphasisonmode
of mechanisms
• Integrativenatureoftheoperationofdifferentbodysystemsin
health and illness
• Functionsofphysiologicalsystemsinnormalbodymaintenance
• T issuetypesandorganization:classificationoftissues,histological
structureandfunctionoftissues;generalorganizationofthehuman
body in relation to organs and systems
• N
ervoussystem:classification,structure,functionandpropertiesof
neurons and synapses; basic anatomy and divisions of the nervous
system; roles of the central and autonomic nervous systems; receptors
andchemicaltransmissionatnerve-nerveandnerve-musclejunctions;
neurotransmitters;organizationandfunctionofthesensorysystemfor
both general and special senses; control of body movement
• E
ndocrinesystem:definitionofhormone,endocrineglands;
physiologicalfunctionsofmajortypesofhormones;general
mechanisms of hormone actions for water soluble and insoluble
hormones; structure of pituitary gland and hypothalamus and
regulations of hormone release
• C
ardiovascularsystem:structureandfunctionoftheheartandblood
vessels; control of cardiac functions; function of the systemic and
pulmonary circulation; haemodynamics; components and properties
of blood; structure and function of the lymphatic system
• R
espiratorysystem:organizationandstructureoftherespiratorysystem;
ventilation and lung mechanics; exchange of gases in alveoli and
tissues; transport of blood gases; chemical control of ventilation
• D
igestivesystem:structureofthedigestivesystem;digestionand
absorption; regulation of digestive processes
• Immunesystem:classificationsofcellsoftheinternaldefencesystem;
recognition of self and ‘non-self’; non-specific defence processes; specific
defence processes; roles of antibodies and complement pathways
• M
otorsystem:maincomponentsoftheskeletonbasicjointanatomy;
principles of muscle arrangements, mechanisms of muscle contraction
• R
eproductivesystem:generalprinciplesofgametogenesis;male
reproductive physiology; female reproductive physiology; female sex
cycle; pregnancy
• R
enalsystem:organizationoftheurinogenitalsystem;structureofa
typical nephron; basic renal processes; regulation of sodium and water
balance; regulation of potassium, calcium and hydrogen ions
The Patient Examination 8
Element 1
Foundation of Disease
• P
rincipleofdiseases:introductiontothestudyofpatterns,causes,
mechanisms and effects of diseases; cellular adaptive responses
toinjuryandindisease;tissueresponsestomicrobialinfections;
immune, infective, environmental and nutritional factors in disease;
neoplasia; molecular mechanisms in cell proliferation and necrosis
• D
iseasetopicsinlocalareas:prevalenceofdiseaseinthelocal
area, mode of disease pattern, causes, mechanisms, effects
and complications
• A
cuteinflammationandpneumonia;chronicinflammation
and tuberculosis; viral infections in human diseases; peptic
ulceration and stomach cancer; introduction to neoplasia; lung
cancer and nasopharyngeal carcinoma; hepatitis, liver cirrhosis,
liver cancer; peripheral vascular diseases; intracranial expanding
lesions;AcquiredImmuneDeficiencySyndrome
• Pathophysiologyandbasichistopathologyofdiseases
• Macroscopic,microscopicanddiagnosticimagingindiseaseprocesses
General Pharmacology
• Introductiontopharmacologyandsourcesofpharmaceuticalagents:
scope of pharmacology; plants, animals, minerals, micro-organisms,
and chemical synthesis as sources of pharmaceuticals
• P
harmacokinetic–routesofadministrationofpharmaceuticals:enteral,
parenteral, topical, transdermal, and sublingual administration; methods
and frequency of administration of pharmaceuticals; factors affecting
route of administration, and relative merit of one route over others
• P
harmacodynamic–absorptionanddistributionofpharmaceuticals
(factors affecting absorption and distribution of pharmaceuticals):
pH-partition theory, physio-chemical properties of drugs; host factors
• B
iotransformationofpharmaceuticals:phasesofmetabolism
of pharmaceuticals, factors affecting metabolism of
pharmaceuticals, prodrugs
• E
liminationofpharmaceuticals:degradationofpharmaceuticals,
systems involved in elimination and excretion of pharmaceuticals,
routes of elimination, factors affecting elimination of pharmaceuticals
• M
odesofactionofpharmaceuticals:extracellular,intracellular,receptor
and rate theories in the mechanism of action of pharmaceuticals
• O
cularsideeffectsofsystemicallyadministeredpharmaceutical
agents: therapeutic agents that induce ocular side effects, dose
dependence and idiopathic ophthalmic adverse reactions to
pharmaceuticals, interaction between ophthalmic and systemically
administered pharmaceuticals, drug-related ocular emergencies
The Patient Examination 9
Element 1
Optometry Curriculum – topics to cover
Clinical Optometry (with focus on theory)
• Interpretingbackgroundinformationcollectedfrompatientsinprimary
eye care
• P
rinciplesandevaluationofocularhealthassessmentproceduresand
optometric investigations
• Applyingoptometricinvestigations
• C
omprehensivepatienthistorytaking,devisingaworkinghypothesis
and formulating tests to evaluate clinical symptoms
• Proceduresforassessmentsselected
• Caseanalysis
– Diagnosis
– Management
– Patient training
– Patient education
– Follow-up
• P
rofessionalresponsibilityandcommitmentinprimaryeyecareinthe
community in diagnosis and treatment
• Integratingandsynthesizingclinicalfindings/informationfordiagnosis
and management plans
• Professionalattitude,ethics,andcareinperformingclinicalassessment
• Inter-andintra-professionalcommunication:handlinginter-and
intra-professional relationships; skill of communicating information
amongst professionals; writing referral letters
Optometry Clinic (with focus on clinical competency)
• C
aseanalysis:extractingrelevantinformationandformulatingtentative
approaches of investigation based on a patient’s presented history
• A
pplyingclinicalprocedures:performingadditionalclinicalprocedures
as required in the management of patients
• P
atientexamination:performingfullvisionexaminationsonpatients
in the Optometry Clinic
• A
ccurateassessmentanddiagnosisofvisualperformanceandocular
characteristics
• E
ffectivecommunicationwithpatientsandotherprofessionals:
presentation of symptoms; critical analysis of clinical findings; proposed
plan of action
• Hospitalvisits
• E
thicalandprofessionalclinicaloptometrypractise;understanding
of the optometrist’s role in the healthcare system
• Diversityofclinicalfacilitiesineyecareservices
• E
ffectivevisualandocularproblemsidentificationinaclinicalfacility
and relevant information collection pertinent to problems
• P
rovisionofvisioncareandtreatment:opticaltreatments;ophthalmic
pharmaceutical agent prescriptions; vision therapy; referrals
The Patient Examination 10
Element 1
Case Conference
• Organizingandanalyzinginformationrelatedtoagivencase
• Identifyingrelevant/importantandirrelevant/lessimportantelements
of a case
• R
ecognizingdifferentapproachesthatcouldbetakenandoutcomes
that may result
• Integratinginformationfromdifferentsubjectareasandfromone’sown
experience in making appropriate decisions regarding patient care
• D
evelopingappropriatemanagementplansandstrategiesforcoping
with unusual cases or clinical entities
• Critiquingpatientcaredecisionsmadebyoneself,orbyothers
• C
ommunicatingimportantelementsofacasetoprofessional
colleagues in writing and verbally
The Patient Examination 11
ELEMENT 2
Assess the anterior ocular adnexa for their structure, health and
functional ability
Requirement
• A
ssessandevaluatewithmacro-observation,slitlampbiomicroscopy,
loupe, palpation, lid eversion, photography, and use of diagnostic
pharmaceuticals
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Conjunctiva
Lids
Lashes
Puncta
Meibomianglands
Lacrimal glands
Skin lesions near the eye
Enabling Sciences – topics to cover
Anatomy
• AsperAnatomyinElementOne
Cell Biology and Biochemistry
• AsperCellBiologyandBiochemistryinElementOne
Physiology
• AsperPhysiologyinElementOne
Microbiology
• M
icrobiologyprinciples:anaidtodiagnosis;specimensrequired
for diagnosis; characteristics of commonly found microorganisms;
differences between bacteria, fungi and viruses
• Structuresandpropertiesofmicroorganisms
• P
athogens:sitesandsourcesofinfection;propertiesofmicroorganisms
that cause disease; differentiation of commensals from pathogens
• P
arasitism:relationshipbetweenhostandparasiteandbetweenthe
characteristics of microorganisms and their mode of parasitism
• S preadofmicroorganism:transmissionofdisease;infectiousdisease,
epidemic, endemic and carrier; reservoirs of infection and mode
of spread; measures to control the spread of infections by controlling
transmission, use of quarantine and vaccination
• Eyeinfections:aetiologicagentsofeyeinfections;theenvironment,
and physical chemical defence mechanisms of the eye
• C
hemotherapeutics:principlesanduseofcommonlyusedantibiotics;
mutation and adaption of bacteria to antibiotics
• C
areofopticalinstruments:methodsofstorage;propertiesanduse
of microbiocides
• S terilization:principlesofsterilizationanddisinfectionandtheagents
commonly used; methods of use of those agents and reasons
for their choice; monitoring of the effectiveness of these procedures
Foundation of Disease
• AsperFoundationofDiseaseinElementOne
The Patient Examination 12
Element 2
Optometry Curriculum – topics to cover
Anatomy for Optometry
• E
mbryologyoftheeye:sequenceofeventsinthedevelopmentofthe
eye and its appendages in the human foetus
• Theocularadnexa:eyelids,lacrimalglandsandteardrainagesystem
• V
asculatureintheeye,orbitandadnexa;arterialsupplyandvenous
drainage; origins and destinations
• Relationshipsandfunctionsbetweenstructuresinthevisualsystem
Ocular Physiology
• O
riginandfunctionsoftears,tearfilmandtheirimportanceinrelation
to ocular health
• T earphysiology:productionanddrainageoftears;composition;
function; pH; secretion rate of tears (Schirmer test and cotton thread
test); tear film break up time and glucose concentration in tears
• Theeyelids:controlofblinkactions;functionsofeyelidglandsand
secretory cells
Ocular Disease
• A
nteriorsegment:congenitalanomaliesoftheanteriorsegment;
infection, inflammatory and toxic conditions; degenerative and
dystrophicconditions;differentialdiagnosisofredeye;conjunctival
problems, optometric management
• S ignsandsymptomsofprimaryandsecondaryeyediseasesinvolving
the anterior segment encountered in clinical practice
• D
iseasesofeyelidsandthelacrimalsystem:signsandsymptomsof
inflammation, trauma, tumour and degeneration; differential diagnosis
of congenital anomalies; optometric action
Clinical Optometry
• Thepreliminaryexamination:goalsofperformingpreliminarytests
• S litlampbiomicroscopy:methodsandpracticeofillumination
andobservation;recognizeappearancesofnormaloculartissues;
clinical applications of biomicroscopy; use of vital stains
• C
linicalusesofdifferentkindsofdiagnosticpharmaceuticalagents:
clinical applications of ophthalmic diagnostic agents – indications,
contraindications and precautions for use; and evaluation of
effectiveness of various preparations
• Photo-documentation:methodsofocularphotography–anterioreye
• A
rterialbloodpressureandintra-ocularpressuremeasurementand
interpretation for ocular health evaluation
• Clinicaldatasamplingandanalysisforocularhealthdiagnosis
• C
linicalfindings/informationintegrationandsynthesisfor
diagnosis and management plans
The Patient Examination 13
Element 2
Ocular Pharmacology
• P
reservatives:preservativecommonlyusedinophthalmic
preparations, physio-chemical and antimicrobial properties,
side effects and interactions
• F actorsaffectingpenetrationofpharmaceuticalsintheeye:
physical-chemical properties of pharmaceuticals, drainage system
of the eye, vasculature of the eye
• A
spectsofophthalmicpharmaceuticals,formsandmethods
of administration: dosage forms, principal requirements of
ophthalmic preparations, factors affecting efficacy and stability
of ophthalmic preparations
• T opicalanaesthetics:mechanismsofaction,types,biotransformation,
and their side effects
• S tainingagents:stainingpropertiesoffluorescein,lassaminegreen
and rose bengal, and side effects
• A
nti-allergicandanti-inflammatoryagentsandtheirresponse
cascades: types and classification of pharmaceuticals, modes
of action, conditions under which they are to be used, side
effects and precautions in use
• C
linicaluseofvasoconstrictors,antihistamines,mastcellstabilizers,
corticosteroid, and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory pharmaceuticals
for different ocular problems
• A
nti-infectivepharmaceuticalsforoculardiseases:types
and classification of individual groups of pharmaceuticals, modes
of action, conditions under which they are to be used, side effects
and precautions in use; clinical use of anti-infective pharmaceuticals
for different ocular problems
• Epilation,punctualocclusionandirrigationofthelacrimalsystem
• T reatmentofdryeye:lubricants,artificialtears,punctalocclusion
and oral supplements
• S ystemicsideeffectsofocularpharmaceuticalagents:ocular
absorption of topically applied pharmaceuticals, factors contributing
to excessive accumulation of pharmaceuticals, types of adverse
reactions of pharmaceuticals, precautions, and contra-indications in
the use of ocular medications
• T herapeutictreatmentforanterioreyedisorders:conditionsaffecting
thelids,adnexa,andconjunctiva,andthelacrimalapparatus
• D
evelopmentofmanagementstrategiesfordifferentoculardiseases:
via case studies and computer assisted learning
• C
ardio-PulmonaryResuscitation(CPR):recognitionofsignsand
symptomsofaheartattack;howtoprovideCPRuntilmedicalhelp
arrives; how to give first aid for choking. Emergency action principles;
contacting emergency services; mouth-to-mouth breathing (manikin
practise) for adults, children and babies; signs of choking – action
in conscious and unconscious adults, children, and infants; recognition
of cardiac arrest and action to be taken; recognition of stroke and
action to be taken
The Patient Examination 14
ELEMENT 3
Assess the anterior segment for their structure, health and functional ability
Requirement
• A
ssessandevaluatewithvitaldyesanddiagnosticpharmaceuticals,
slit lamp biomicroscopy, keratometry, keratoscopy, topography,
gonioscopy, pachymetry, tonometry, photography, exophthalmometry,
optical coherence tomography (OCT), ultrasonography
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Cornea
Anterior chamber
Aqueous humour
Anterior chamber angle
Anterior chamber depth
Episclera
Sclera
Iris
Pupil
Ciliary body
Enabling Sciences – topics to cover
Anatomy
• AsperAnatomyinElementOne
Cell Biology and Biochemistry
• AsperCellBiologyandBiochemistryinElementOne
Physiology
• AsperPhysiologyinElementOne
Microbiology
• AsperMicrobiologyinElementTwo
Foundation of Disease
• AsperFoundationofDiseaseinElementOne
The Patient Examination 15
Element 3
Optometry Curriculum – topics to cover
Anatomy for Optometry
• N
ervesupplytotheeye,orbitandadnexa:motor,sensoryand
autonomic nerve supply
Ocular Physiology
• T hecornea:functions,itsdifferentlayersandthecommonconditions
that affect the cornea and vision, metabolism and maintenance
of transparency
• M
echanismofaqueoushumourformation,itsfunctionandcomposition
and relate the understandings to intraocular pressure (IOP) and ocular
pathophysiology
• T heintraocularpressure:itsorigin,rangeanddistributioninthe
population; measurement; diurnal variations
• T hepupil:factorscontrollingpupilsize;relationshipbetweenpupilsize
and visual function
Ocular Disease
• S ignsandsymptomsofprimaryandsecondaryeyediseasesinvolving
the anterior segment encountered in clinical practice
• Diseasesofthescleraanduvealtract
• Laboratorytestsappropriateforaidingdiseasediagnosis
• A
nteriorsegment:congenitalanomaliesoftheanteriorsegment;
infection, inflammatory and toxic conditions; degenerative and
dystrophic conditions; differential diagnosis of red eye; corneal
problems; optometric management
• O
cularinjuryandtrauma–definition:ocularfirstaid;optometric
management
• C
onditionsrequiringimmediatereferral:recognitionand
necessary action
• R
efractivesurgery:differenttechniquesinrefractivesurgery;
pre-operative optometric examination; complications and
management of post-refractive surgery
The Patient Examination 16
Element 3
Clinical Optometry
• Theevaluationofnormalandabnormalpupilresponsesandiriscolour
• Pathologicalchangesinanteriorangle
• Intraocularpressuresandtonometry:measurementofintraocular
pressure; applanation and indentation tonometry; non-contact
tonometry; clinical applications of tonometry in practice
• G
onioscopy:principlesofmethods;typesofgonio-lenses,their
methods of application; and the appearance of the anterior angle
by gonioscopy; abnormal signs in the anterior angle; three-mirror
retinal evaluation
• E
lectrophysiology:principlesandapplicationsofvisual
electrophysiological techniques in optometric practice
• U
ltrasonographyandotherimagingtechniques:principlesand
applications of A-scan, B-scan and ultrasound pachymetry in clinical
optometric practice
• Keratometry:clinicalapplicationinrefraction
• S phygmomanometry:principleandmethodofsphygmomanometry;
applications in optometric practice; ophthalmodynamometry – theory
and application in optometric practice
Ocular Pharmacology
• T herapeutictreatmentforanterioreyedisorders:conditionsaffecting
the cornea, and the sclera
• A
utonomicnervoussystem,innervationoftheeye,neuronaltransmitters
in the eye and their interactions with receptor subtypes; fate of
transmitter substances and their action in the eye: biotransformation
of acetylcholine and norepineprine; receptor types and their
distribution in ocular tissues
• M
iotics:parasympathomimetic,sympatholytic,anti-cholinesterases,
and their side effects
• C
ycloplegicsandmydriatics:anticholinergicscycloplegicagents;
direct and indirect acting sympathomimetic and anticholinergic
mydriatic agents, and their side effects
• P
harmacologicalmanagementofpre-andpost-refractive
surgery patients
Visual Science
• M
easurementofocularcomponents:methodologyandtechniques
of ocular measurements including ultrasonography, keratometry and
pachometry; frequency of distribution of ocular component dimensions
The Patient Examination 17
ELEMENT 4
Assess the ocular media for their structure, health and functional ability
Requirement
• A
ssessandevaluatewithdirectandindirectophthalmoscopy,
retinoscopy, photography, diagnostic pharmaceuticals, slit lamp
biomicroscopy and ultrasound
– Ocular lens
– Lens implant
– Lens capsule
Enabling Sciences – topics to cover
Anatomy
• AsperAnatomyinElementOne
Cell Biology and Biochemistry
• AsperCellBiologyandBiochemistryinElementOne
Physiology
• AsperPhysiologyinElementOne
Microbiology
• AsperMicrobiologyinElementTwo
Foundation of Disease
• AsperFoundationofDiseaseinElementOne
Optometry Curriculum – topics to cover
Anatomy for Optometry
• S tructuresandmediawithintheeyeball:adetailedstudyofthe
different layers of the eyeball, their structures and functions
Ocular Physiology
• T hecrystallinelens:metabolismandfunctionsinrelationtovision,
the formation of cataract
• A
ccommodation:itsfunction,causesandcontrol;thenatureand
causes of presbyopia in terms of the malfunction of accommodation
Ocular Disease
• C
rystallinelensandcataract:differentialdiagnosisoflenticular
anomalies; signs and symptoms of cataract; senile cataract;
secondary cataract; complications and management;
optometric management
The Patient Examination 18
Element 4
Clinical Optometry
• R
etinoscopy:spotandstreakretinoscopy–staticmethods;retinoscopy
inastigmatism;nearpointretinoscopy–Mohindratechnique;dynamic
methods;variationsofdynamicretinoscopy–MEMretinoscopy,
chromoretinoscopy
• D
irectophthalmoscopy:basicaspects;appearanceofthenormal
fundus and its variations; an introduction to the ophthalmoscopic
signs of ocular disease; clinical practice of ophthalmoscopy
• Indirectophthalmoscopy:principlesofindirectophthalmoscopy;
monocular indirect and binocular indirect ophthalmoscopy –
instrumentation and clinical procedures; appearance of the normal
fundus; abnormal changes; clinical applications of techniques
General and Ocular Pharmacology
• O
cularsideeffectsofsystemicallyadministeredpharmaceuticalagents:
therapeutic agents that induce ocular side effects, dose dependence
and idiopathic ophthalmic adverse reactions to pharmaceuticals,
interaction between ophthalmic and systemically administered
pharmaceuticals, drug-related ocular emergencies
• C
linicaluseandsideeffectsofcorticosteroidpharmaceuticalsfor
different ocular problems
• M
iotics:parasympathomimetic,sympatholytic,anti-cholinesterases,
and their side effects
• C
ycloplegicsandmydriatics:anticholinergicscycloplegicagents;
direct and indirect acting sympathomimetic and anticholinergic
mydriatic agents, and their side effects
Visual Science
• O
pticsoftheeye:opticalpropertiesofdifferentocularstructures;
different schematic eye models
• O
ptometers:opticsandprinciplesofthesimpleoptometer,Badal’s
optometer, Young’s optometer, retinoscopy
• A
ccommodation:relationshipbetweenstimulusandresponse;
mechanism and properties of accommodation; spectacles and
ocular accommodation
• E
ffectsofdifferentradiationstotheeyeandeffectsofocular
aberrations on vision
• Importanceoflightinvisionandorganisms
Optometry Specialties
• A
phakiaandpseudophakos:advantagesanddisadvantagesof
aphakic corrections; types of aphakic corrections; problems of the
newly corrected aphake; the pseudophakic eye post-operatively;
types of pseudophakic correction; complications of pseudophakos
The Patient Examination 19
ELEMENT 5
Assess the posterior segment for their structure, health and functional ability
Requirement
• A
ssessandevaluatewithdirectandindirectophthalmoscopy,slitlamp
biomicroscopy and slit lamp funduscopy, retinoscopy, photography,
diagnostic pharmaceuticals, colour vision tests, Amsler test, visual field
test, photostress test, pupil reactions, diagnostic imaging and ultrasound
–
–
–
–
–
–
Retina
Choroid
Vitreous
Blood vessels
Optic disc and neuro-retinal rim
Maculaandfovea
Enabling Sciences – topics to cover
Anatomy
• AsperAnatomyinElementOne
Cell Biology and Biochemistry
• AsperCellBiologyandBiochemistryinElementOne
Physiology
• AsperPhysiologyinElementOne
Microbiology
• AsperMicrobiologyinElementTwo
Foundation of Disease
• AsperFoundationofDiseaseinElementOne
Optometry Curriculum – topics to cover
Anatomy for Optometry
• T heorbit:theboneswhichmakeuptheorbitandthevariousfossae
and canals in the orbit
• T hevisualpathway:locationandanatomicalnatureofstructures
comprising the visual pathway; arrangement of nerve fibres from
retina to visual cortex; implications of this arrangement on binocularity
and visual fields
Ocular Physiology
• T hevitreoushumour:itsproduction,composition,metabolism,
and functions
• T heretina:metabolismandfunctionsofthevariouslayers;
phototransduction mechanism; and relationship of retinal functions
with various vegetative functions of other ocular structures
• P
hotochemistryofvision:visualpigments;chemicalnatureofrhodopsin;
responses to light
The Patient Examination 20
Element 5
Ocular Disease
• C
onditionsoftheorbitandorbitalstructures:congenitaland
developmental anomalies; signs and symptoms of infection
and inflammatory conditions; sings and symptoms of orbital
trauma and tumours
• Proptosis:conditionsaffectingtheeyesandocularadnexa
• C
linicalaspectsofultrasound,CT(computerizedtomography)and
MRI(magneticresonanceimaging):investigativetechniques,clinical
application for diagnosis of ocular disease
• G
laucoma:definitionandincidence;reviewofaqueousphysiology
and angle anatomy; signs and symptoms, investigative techniques;
secondary glaucoma; criteria for referral
• D
iseasesofthevitreousandretina:vascularanomalies;inflammatory
conditions; retinal detachment; degeneration and dystrophies; laser
and cryotherapy treatment; congenital and developmental conditions;
trauma and foreign bodies; optometric involvement
• M
acula:congenitalandinheritedconditions;degenerationand
dystrophies; toxic conditions; treatment
• O
cularsignsofsystemicdiseases:signsandsymptoms;optometric
management
• N
euro-ophthalmology:reviewofanatomy,physiology,andretinotopic
visualfieldorganization;symptomsandinvestigativetechniques
of visual field loss: signs and symptoms of optic nerve disease;
differential diagnosis of ophthalmoplegia; papillary pathway and tests;
congenital and developmental papillary anomalies; differential
diagnosis of papillary defects; neural problems involving visual pathway
Clinical Optometry
• F undusbiomicroscopy:contactfunduslens;theHrubyandVolklenses
and their principles and applications in clinical practice; fundus
appearance with biomicroscopy
• V
isualfieldsandvisualfieldtests:Bjerrumscreen;visualfieldscreeners;
principles and practice; perimetry – static and kinetic perimetry;
automated perimetry; detection of visual field defects
• M
acularfunctions:varioustechniquestoassesstheintegrityand
functionality of the macula, Amsler grid, photostress test, neutral-density
filter test, colour comparison test and brightness comparison test
• Pathologicalfunduschanges
• C
olourvisionandcolourvisiontests:clinicalassessmentofcolourvision;
applications of colour vision tests; congenital vs. acquired colour vision
defects; clinical manifestations of acquired colour vision defects
• A
dvancedOptometricInvestigation–principlesandclinical
applicationsofnewoptometricinstruments:NerveFibreAnalyzer(NFA);
Orbscansystem;IOLMasterandOpticalCoherenceTomography(OCT)
The Patient Examination 21
Element 5
Ocular Pharmacology
• M
edicaltreatmentofglaucoma:typesandclassificationofindividual
groups of pharmaceuticals for glaucoma treatment, modes of action,
conditions under which they are to be used, side effects and
precautions in use
Visual Science
• A
natomyofthevisualpathway:nervefibredistributionintheretina,
optic nerve, optic chiasma and optic pathway; visual and synaptic
relations in the midbrain and cerebrum
• L ightandthevisualsystem:introductiontophotometry;lightasa
physiological stimulus, characteristics of light, representation of visual
stimulus on the retina, brightness sensation; circadianism and vision,
effect of melatonin on the retina
• R
etinalintegrationofvisualinformation:convergentproperties
of retinal signals in the retina; integration of visual information
in the retina in relation to control of retinal sensitivities, wavelength
andspatial/spectralsampling
• E
lectrophysiologyofthevisualsystem:physiologicalbasisofERG,EOG,
andVERtostructuredandunstructuredstimuli;knowledgeofmultifocal
technique in visual electrophysiology
• N
euralorganizationofthevisualsysteminthebrain:representation
of the visual stimulus on the visual cortex; receptive fields and
properties of various cells involved in the visual pathway; relationship
betweencorticalorganizationandlight,form,oculardominance,
spatiallocalization/orientation;parallelism;functionalorganization
of visual cortex
• C
odinginthevisualsystem:conceptandorganizationofreceptive
fields, edge detection, spatial frequency tuning, neural channels,
signal and noise
• P
sychophysicsofmeasurement:frequencyofseeing,signal
detectiontheoryROCcurves,visualthreshold,signalandnoise,
criterion-dependent and criterion-dependent methods in
vision research
• C
olourvision:spectralsensitivity,wavelengthdiscrimination,colour
matching, colour contrast, defective colour perception, classical
and recent theories of colour vision, design of colour vision tests
• V
isualperception:sensationandperception,theoriesof
perception, perception of space, form and motion, constancies,
factors affecting perception
The Patient Examination 22
ELEMENT 6
Assess the sensory visual function and integrity of the visual pathway
Requirement
• A
ssessandevaluatecontrastsensitivityfunction,glare,optokinetic
nystagmus, pinhole vision, binocular vision
– Visual acuity
• A
ssessandevaluatewithconfrontation,kineticandstaticscreening
and threshold, short wavelength automated perimetry (SWAP) and
frequencydoublingtechnology(FDT)
– Visual fields
Optometry Curriculum – topics to cover
Anatomy for Optometry
• AsperAnatomyforOptometryinElementsTwotoFive
Ocular Physiology
• R
eflexarcs:thenervouspathwayofvariousocularreflexesincluding
pupillary, accommodation and convergence; eye movements
Ocular Disease
• Decreaseinvisualacuityofacuteandchroniconsets
Clinical Optometry
• HabitualVAanditssignificance
• C
ontrastsensitivityfunction:theoryandclinicaluseofcontrastsensitivity
function, contrast sensitivity function curve, commercially available
contrast sensitivity charts and systems; clinical significance and
interpretations of contrast sensitivity function
• V
isualfieldsandvisualfieldtests:Bjerrumscreen;visualfieldscreeners;
principles and practice; perimetry – static and kinetic perimetry;
automated perimetry; detection of visual field defects
Visual Science
• V
isualacuity:limitationsforvisualresolution;introductionofvisual
acuity measurement; design of visual acuity chart; factors affecting
visual acuity
• Spatialvision:spatialresolution,spatialcontrastsensitivity,hyperacuities
• T emporalvision:temporalresolutionandflicker,deLangecurve,
spatio-temporal characteristics of vision
• A
ssessmentofvisualacuity:conceptsofaidedandunaidedacuity;
comparisons between systems of recording visual acuity; clinical
methods of measurement; relationships between refractive error and
acuity, high contrast versus low contrast visual acuity
• Effectofamblyopiaandabnormaleyeconditionsonvision
• O
culartransmissionandaberrations:transmissionandabsorption
spectra of the media components; their effects on vision; aberrations
of lens systems as applied to the eye; effects of these upon vision
• E
ntopticphenomena:physiologicalvisualsensationsandtheircause
and effects
The Patient Examination 23
ELEMENT 7
Assess the refractive status
Requirement
• Assessandevaluate
– Spherical ametropia
– Astigmatism
– Presbyopia
Enabling Sciences – topics to cover
Mathematics
• Applyingmathematicalreasoningforanalysisofdifferentproblems
• E
xtendingknowledgeofmathematicaltechniquesandadapting
known solutions to different situations arising in optics
• D
evelopingandextrapolatingmathematicalconceptsinsynthesizing
and solving Optics problems
• Resolvingmathematicalprobleminoptometryrelatedtopics
• Basicmathematics:trigonometry,complexnumbers,simplematrices
• D
ifferentialcalculus:differentiationfromthefirstprinciples,ratesof
change, differentiation of algebraic, trigonometric, logarithmic and
exponential functions, differentiation of inverse functions and implicit
functions,Leibniz’stheorem,geometricandphysicalapplications
• Integralcalculus:definiteandindefiniteintegrals,techniquesof
integration, reduction formulas, applications of integrations
Optometry Curriculum – topics to cover
Anatomy for Optometry
• AsperAnatomyforOptometryinElementsTwotoFive
Ocular Physiology
• AsperOcularPhysiologyinElementsTwotoSix
Ocular Disease
• Decreaseinvisualacuityofacuteandchroniconsets
Clinical Optometry
• O
culartransmissionandaberrations:transmissionandabsorption
spectra of the media components; their effects on vision; aberrations
of lens systems as applied to the eye; effects of these upon vision
• A
uxiliaryrefractivetechniques:principles,methodsandapplications
of autorefraction, photorefraction and laser refraction
• S ubjectiverefraction:monocularsubjectiverefraction;principles
and methods – fogging techniques, fan and block techniques,
Jackson’scrossedcylinder;monocularrefractiveendpoints–+1.00D
blur,duochrometests;binocularequalizationmethods–infinity
balance,prismatictechniques;binocularsubjectiverefraction;near
subjectiverefraction
The Patient Examination 24
Element 7
• Refractiveerrortypesandsubnormalvisualacuitycaseidentification
• Opticalmanagementofametropia
• A
ppropriateprescriptioncorrectionperrefractiveandnon-refractive
conditions and management plan
• A
ccommodationandpresbyopia:comfortablenearvision;amplitude
of accommodation – methods of measurement, effects of age; crossedcylinder tests of accommodation; relative ranges of accommodation;
accommodative facility test; determination of the presbyopic addition
Optics
• Physicalandgeometricaloptics
• Identifyingandresolvingopticalproblems
• O
pticalinstrumentation:stops,pupilsandwindows;cameras,simple
magnifiers and eyepieces, microscopes, and telescopes
• O
pticsofthicklensesandlenssystems:Gaussianoptics–reflection
and refraction at plane and spherical surfaces; cardinal points of thick
lenses and lens systems; image forming systems; matrix method
• P
roductionandmeasurementoflight:dualnatureoflight;black
body radiation; luminous intensity; illuminance; luminance; Lambert’s
law of emission; fundamental laws of photometry; reflectance,
transmittance and absorbance; examples of photometers; principles
and applications of lasers
• L ensaberrations:dispersivepowerofopticalmaterials;achromatic
prisms and lenses; monochromatic aberrations; ray tracing
• Wavenatureoflight:Fresnel’slawofreflection;interferometry
andapplications;opticalcoating;FresnelandFraunhoferdiffraction;
zoneplatesandtheirapplication;resolvingpower;polarizationby
reflection;scattering,dichroismandbirefringent;polarizers,applications
ofpolarizedlight
Ophthalmic Optics and Dispensing
• O
phthalmiclenspowerandformpresentation:lenspowerandform
transposition; writing of prescriptions and lens shapes presentations
General and Ocular Pharmacology
• AsperGeneralandOcularPharmacologyinElementsOnetoThree
Visual Science
• E
mmetropiaandametropia:definitionofdifferentrefractiveconditions;
frequency of distribution of ametropia
• R
etinalimagesizeandmagnification:effectsofrefractiveerrorson
retinalimagesize;spectacleandcontactlenscorrectiononretinal
imagesize
The Patient Examination 25
ELEMENT 8
Assess the oculomotor and binocular function
Requirement
• A
ssessandevaluatewithprisms,covertest,headtilttest;ocular
alignment and binocular function; placement and adaptability
of accommodation; visual information processing
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Manifestdeviation
Latent deviation
Fixation
Versions
Vergences
Ocular pursuits
Saccades
Ocular motility
Suppression
Diplopia
Stereopsis
Normal and anomalous correspondence
Accommodation
Enabling Sciences – topics to cover
Mathematics
• AsperMathematicsinElementSeven
Optometry Curriculum – topics to cover
Anatomy for Optometry
• T heextraocularmuscles:anatomy,functions,nervousand
vascular supply
Ocular Physiology
• AsperOcularPhysiologyinElementsTwotoSix
Ocular Disease
• Decreaseinvisualacuityofacuteandchroniconsets
The Patient Examination 26
Element 8
Clinical Optometry
• E
ntopticphenomena:physiologicalvisualsensationsandtheircause
and effects
• Investigationofbinocularity:theoriesandprinciplesofbinocularvisual
functions; heterophoria and heterophoric tests – principles and
methods;accommodation-convergencerelationship–AC/Aratios;
assessment of fusional vergences – methods and normal findings,
vergence-facility test; stereopsis – measurement and clinical
applications; identification of binocular anomalies – nomenclature,
analysis of binocular status
• H
irschbergtestandanglekappatest,theoryandmethodsofthe
unilateral and alternate cover tests; assessment of binocular motility;
near point of convergence and other evaluations; near point of
accommodation; evaluation of ocular dominance
• H
eadaches:clinicalpresentationsofheadaches;variouscauses
of headaches; management of patients with headaches as the
chief compliant
Optics
• AsperOpticsinElementSeven
Visual Science
• B
inocularvisioninhumansandotheranimals:anatomicalandstructural
features in different species with binocular vision; levels of binocularity in
different species; evolution and environmental adaptation
• S ensoryaspectsofbinocularvision:visualprojection;corresponding
and disparate retinal points; theoretical and empirical horopters;
Panum’s area and fusional space; physiological diplopia;
fixation disparity
• F usionalresponsesandnearvisioncomplex:fusionalmovement;
heterophoria; accommodation, convergence and pupillary action
• D
epthperceptionandstereopsis:physicalfactorsaidingdepth
judgment;stereopsis;theoreticalmodelsforstereopsis
• N
ormaleyemovements:fixationeyemovement;saccades;pursuit;
ductions; versions; vergence
• A
niseikonia:effectofunequalretinalimagesizeonbinocularvision
and space perception
• B
inocularinteraction:advantagesofbinocularvision;binocular
summation and inhibition; theoretical models
• D
evelopmentofnormalbinocularvision:binoculardevelopmentfrom
infancy to adulthood; sensitive period; effect of visual deprivation
The Patient Examination 27
Element 8
Clinical Binocular Vision
• V
isiontherapyconcepts,procedures,andinstrumentation:synotophore,
synotiscope, stereoscopes, anaglyphs, physiological diplopia techniques
and their applications
• H
eterophoriaanditsmanagement:aetiologyandclassification;clinical
signs and symptomatology; compensation and decompensation;
factors affecting compensation; investigation of compensation; fixation
disparity; management of heterophoria problems – effect of the
refractive correction, visual therapy and prismatic therapy, prognosis
• A
ccommodationandconvergenceanomalies:accommodationand
convergence excess and insufficiciency, investigation and management
• Heterotropia:aetiologyandclassification;comitanceandincomitance
• S ensoryadaptations:developmentofsensoryadaptationsinstrabismus;
amblyopia, eccentric fixation, anomalous correspondence, suppression
– clinical signs and investigations
• M
anagementofcomitantstrabismusandsensoryadaptations:
occlusion therapy, pleoptics, antisuppression training, restoration of
normal correspondence; training the motor angle of strabismus;
selection of cases for treatment and prognosis; pre and post surgical
orthoptics; role of refractive correction and prisms
• M
anagementofincomitantstrabismus:developmentofmotor
adaptations; clinical signs and investigations; indications for referrals;
optometric management
• N
ystagmus:latentandmanifestnystagmus;formsofnystagmus,clinical
investigation and significance, optometric management
The Patient Examination 28
PATIENT
MANAGEMENT
ELEMENT 9
Assess suitability of spectacles and prescribe
Requirement
• Assessandevaluate
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Visual requirements: recreational and vocational
Magnificationrequirements
Prism requirements
Dispensingrequirementsandlimitations
Anisometropia
Aniseikonia
Lens design
Enabling Sciences – topics to cover
Mathematics
• AsperMathematicsinElementSeven
Optometry Curriculum – topics to cover
Clinical Optometry
• C
asehistorytakingandsymptomatology:roleofcasehistoryin
the consultation; questioning techniques and question types; what
comprises a case history; recording the history; symptomatology
– an overview of symptoms found with various forms of ocular
problems (refractive, binocular, organic)
• P
rescriptiondecisions:aetiologyofrefractiveerrorsandtheinfluence
of etiological theories on the refractive prescription and monitoring
the refraction; relating the prescription to the occupational and other
needs of the patient
• C
linicalcasemanagement:simulatedandrealclinicalcasestobuild
up problem solving techniques in case management
Optics
• AsperOpticsinElementSeven
Visual Science
• AsperVisualScienceinElementsThreetoEight
Patient Management 30
Element 9
Ophthalmic Optics and Dispensing
• V
ergencemethodofraytracing:theory,methodandapplication
of tracing paraxial ray through single and complex lens systems
• B
asicopticalpropertiesofsinglevisionlenses:opticalproperties
of spherical and sphero-cylindrical lenses; principles of focimeter
and lens measure
• O
phthalmiclenspowerandformpresentation:lenspowerandform
transposition; writing of prescriptions and lens shapes presentations
• O
phthalmicprismsandlensdecentration:specificationofophthalmic
prisms and interactions of prisms; theory and calculation of prismatic
effects on lens decentration
• O
bliquelycrossedcylinders:effectsandcalculationofcylinderscrossed
at any angle
• A
ccuratetransposition:calculationofexactlensformsforthicklenses,
with bi-toric surfaces
• L ensmaterialsandtheirfabrication:opticalandphysicalproperties
of common ophthalmic lens materials; selection of lens materials;
processes of lens making
• L enticularandFresnellenses:opticalprinciplesandophthalmicuses
oflenticularandFresnellenses
• F ramematerialandtypes:meritsofdifferenttypesofspectacleframe
materials; frame types and component parts; effects of frame designs
on fitting
• F rameandfacemeasurement:introductiontospectacleframeand
face measurement
• Assessinglensimagequality
• B
ifocalsandtrifocals:principleandterminology,opticalproperties
and fitting of bifocals and trifocals with maximum visual efficiency
and wearing comfort
• M
ultifocals:principleandterminology,opticalpropertiesandfittingof
multifocals with maximum visual efficiency and wearing comfort
• L ensthicknessconsiderationsandcalculation:calculationofthickness
in edged lenses
• L enseffectivity:effectsofworkingdistanceandvertexdistanceon
the prismatic and refractive powers in spectacles
• S pectaclelensdesign:principlesandmethodsofophthalmiclens
designs; aberration correcting lenses; lens material selection for
spectacle prescriptions; safety prescriptions
• T intedlenses:radiationandtheeye;ophthalmicusesoftinted/
photochromatic lenses; Polaroid lenses
• S pectaclefitting:factorstobeconsideredinlensandframeselections;
principlesandpracticalaspectsofspectacleframefitting;adjustments;
safety and efficiency; optical and fitting suitability evaluation
Optometry Clinic
• S pectacleframedispensingandadjustment:fittinganddelivery
of spectacles to patients
Patient Management 31
ELEMENT 10
Assess contact lens-wear suitability and prescribe
Requirement
• Assessandevaluate
–
–
–
–
Contact lens visual requirements
Fittingparameters
Patient compliance
Contact lens performance
Enabling Sciences – topics to cover
Cell Biology and Biochemistry
• AsperCellBiologyandBiochemistryinElementOne
Physiology
• AsperPhysiologyinElementOne
Microbiology
• AsperMicrobiologyinElementTwo
Foundation Disease
• AsperFoundationPathologyofDiseaseinElementOne
Optometry Curriculum – topics to cover
Anatomy for Optometry
• AsperAnatomyforOptometryinElementsTwotoFive;andEight
Ocular Physiology
• AsperOcularPhysiologyinElementsTwotoSix
Ocular Disease
• Decreaseinvisualacuityofacuteandchroniconsets
• Managingocularemergencies
• Cornealandconjunctivalproblems
Clinical Optometry
• AsperClinicalOptometryinElementsTwotoThree;andSixtoNine
Optics
• AsperOpticsinElementTwo
Ocular Pharmacology
• Pharmacologicalmanagementofcontactlensrelatedproblems
Patient Management 32
Element 10
Visual Science
• AsperVisualScienceinElementsThreetoEight
Contact Lens Practice
• C
ornealshapeandmeasurements:cornea,cornealshape
(topography) and the use of keratometer in contact lens practice;
sources of error; contact lens terms
• C
ornealphysiologyandlenswear:opticalpachometer;introductionto
contact lenses, indications and contra-indications for contact lens wear
• T earfilmandblinking:effectsofnormalblinkingonlenswear,tear
exchange and lens rotation; abnormal blink patterns and their
effects; effect of lens wear on the tear film; tear function tests and
their significance
• P
ropertiesofcontactlensmaterials:rigidcontactlensmaterials;oxygen
permeability and transmissibility; wettability; water absorption
• L ensverification:measuringBOZRandotherradii,diameters,thickness,
back vertex power; measuring water content; examining edges
and surfaces
• Astigmatismandcontactlenses
• C
ontactlensconsultations:functionsprocedures;preliminary,fitting,
aftercare routines (stress on slit lamp examinations) and delivery visits
• S oftlenses:lensdesigns;specificindicationsandcontraindications;
fitting principles and assessment of fit; effect of altering parameters;
optimum fitting
• S olutionsandstains:preservativesusedincontactlenssolutions;
solutions necessary for care of all types of contact lenses; use of stains
in contact lens practice; sodium fluorescein
• O
pticsofcontactlenses:tear/cornealenssystem;residualastigmatism;
magnification and accommodation with contact lenses and their
implications;toricRGPs
• G
aspermeablerigidlenses:objective;specificindicationsand
contraindications; trial sets and initial lens selection; fluorescein pattern;
assessment of lens fit; over-refraction; effect of altering parameters;
optimum fitting criteria
• R
igidandgaspermeablerigidlensesfittingphilosophiesanddesigns;
fluorescein patterns; common fitting techniques; forces acting on the
lens/eye
• M
anagingcontactlenscomplications:contactlensspoilageand
preventative measures; ocular and lens deposits
• M
anagingcontactlens-relatedocularcomplications:signs,symptoms,
aetiology, treatment and prognosis; importance of compliance in
contactlenswear(usageandcareprocedures);breachesinusage/
careprocedures;waystomaximizecompliance
• E
xtendedwearlensesanddisposablelenses:patientselectionand
management;fittingphilosophies;softversusRGP;management
• Cosmeticcontactlenses
Patient Management 33
Element 10
• Scleral,hybridandpiggy-backlenses
• Contactlensesforprebyopesandkeratoconus
• Introductiontoorthokeratology:indicationsandcontraindications,
limitations,howortho-Kdiffersfromextendedwear,myopiccontrol
withortho-K
Contact Lens Clinic
• Comprehensivecontactlens-historytaking
• Suitabilityofpatientsforcontactlenswear
• A
ssessinganterioreyeandmeasuringocularparametersrequiredfor
contactlensfitting/aftercare
• E
valuatingandhandlingdifferentlenstypes;identificationofcommon
contact lens-related issues
• Lensfitting,evaluationanddispensing
• Managingpatientandaftercare(routineandproblemsolving)
• Legalandethicalissuesrelatedtocontactlenspractice
Patient Management 34
GENERAL HEALTH
ASSESSMENT
ELEMENT 11
Assess signs and symptoms of the patient’s general health
Requirement
• Perform
– CPR
• Identify
– Patient’s general welfare
o Emotional and social factors
o Abuse and assault
• Recognizeandunderstand
–
–
–
–
–
Signs of malingering
Deviationsfromphysicaldevelopmentalnorms
Elements of a physical examination
Medicalreports
Medicalpathologylaboratoryreports
o
o
o
o
o
Complete blood counts
Erythrocytesedimentationrates(ESR)
Cholesterol levels
Blood glucose measurements
Thyroid function tests
– Endocrine diseases and the eye
o Diabetes
o Grave’s disease and endocrine orbitopathy
– Radiologicalreports
o X-rays
o Magneticresonanceimaging(MRIs)
o Computedaxialtomography(CAT/CTscans)
– Cardiovascular diseases and the eye
o Sphygmomanometry readings and hypertension
o Atherosclerosis and carotid auscultation
o Aneurysm and stroke
– Blood diseases and the eye
o Anemia
o Leukemia
o Lymphoma
o Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
– Neurologic diseases and the eye
o Headache
o Multiplesclerosis
o Brain tumors
o Intracranial pressure
o Neuromuscular diseases
– Nutritional disorders
o Vitamin deficiencies
– Rheumatoiddisorders,vasculitisandcollagenosis
o Rheumatoidpolyarthritis
o Ankylosing spondylitis
o Reiter’ssyndrome
o Sjögren’ssyndrome
o Giant cell arteritis
General Health Assessment 36
Element 11
– Tumors
o Brain tumors and vision
o Ocular metastasis of primary tumors
– Congenital and hereditary conditions
o Common genetic disorders
o Common congenital disorders
• Fetalalcoholsyndrome
• Rubella
• Syphilis
• Toxoplasmosis
Enabling Sciences – topics to cover
Anatomy
• AsperAnatomyinElementOne
Cell Biology and Biochemistry
• AsperCellBiologyandBiochemistryinElementOne
Physiology
• AsperPhysiologyinElementOne
Microbiology
• AsperMicrobiologyinElementTwo
Foundation Disease
• AsperFoundationofDiseaseinElementOne
Cell Biology and Biochemistry
• AsperCellBiologyandBiochemistryinElementOne
Physiology
• AsperPhysiologyinElementOne
General Health Assessment 37
SPECIALIZED CARE
ELEMENT 12
Assess and provide care for the paediatric patient
Requirement
• Understandthedevelopmentandnormsofchilddevelopment
• Knowthevisualandrefractivedevelopmentnorms
• Understandrelationofvisionandlearning
• Beabletoexaminetheinfantandchild
• Managementofvisualproblemsintheinfantandchild
Enabling Sciences – topics to cover
Anatomy
• AsperAnatomyinElementOne
Physiology
• AsperPhysiologyinElementOne
Microbiology
• AsperMicrobiologyinElementTwo
Foundation Disease
• AsperFoundationofDiseaseinElementOne
Optometry Curriculum – topics to cover
Anatomy for Optometry
• AsperAnatomyforOptometryinElementsTwotoFive;andEight
Ocular Physiology
• AsperOcularPhysiologyinElementsTwotoSix
Optics
• AsperOpticsinElementTwo
Ocular Disease
• D
iseasesoftheeyelidsandthelacrimalsystem:signsandsymptoms
of inflammation, trauma, tumour and degeneration; differential
diagnosis of congenital anomalies; optometric action
• A
nteriorsegment:congenitalanomaliesoftheanteriorsegment;
infection, inflammatory and toxic conditions; dystrophic conditions;
differential diagnosis of red eye; optometric management
• C
rystallinelensandcataract:differentialdiagnosisoflenticular
anomalies; signs of cataract; complications and management;
optometric management
• O
cularinjuryandtrauma–definition:ocularfirstaid;optometric
management
Specialized Care 39
Element 12
• C
onditionsoftheorbitandorbitalstructures:congenitaland
developmental anomalies; signs and symptoms of infection
and inflammatory conditions; sings and symptoms of orbital
trauma and tumours
• Proptosis:conditionsaffectingtheeyesandocularadnexae
• D
iseasesofthevitreousandretina:vascularanomalies;inflammatory
conditions; dystrophies; laser and cryotherapy treatment; congenital
and developmental conditions; trauma and foreign bodies; optometric
involvement
• M
acula:congenitalandinheritedconditions;dystrophies;toxic
conditions; treatment
• N
euro-ophthalmology:reviewofanatomy,physiology,andretinotopic
visualfieldorganization;congenitalpapillaryanomalies
• C
onditionsrequiringimmediatereferral:recognitionofconditions
requiring immediate referral; necessary action
Clinical Optometry
• Thepreliminaryexamination:goalsofperformingpreliminarytests
• H
istorytaking;Hirschbergtestandanglekappatest,theoryand
methods of the unilateral and alternate cover tests; assessment of
binocular motility; near point of convergence and other evaluations;
near point of accommodation, the evaluation of ocular dominance.
• A
ssessmentofvisualacuity:clinicalmethodsofmeasurement;
relationships between refractive error and acuity; effect of amblyopia
and abnormal eye conditions on vision
• R
etinoscopy:spotandstreakretinoscopy–staticmethods;retinoscopy
inastigmatism;nearpointretinoscopy–Mohindratechnique;dynamic
methods;variationsofdynamicretinoscopy–MEMretinoscopy,
chromoretinoscopy
• A
uxiliaryrefractivetechniques:principles,methodsandapplicationsof
autorefraction, photorefraction and laser refraction
• Investigationofbinocularity:theoriesandprinciplesofbinocularvisual
functions; heterophoria and heterophoric tests – principles and
methods;accommodation-convergencerelationship–AC/Aratios;
assessment of fusional vergences – methods and normal findings, the
vergence-facility test; stereopsis – measurement and clinical
applications; identification of binocular anomalies – nomenclature,
analysis of binocular status
• Clinicalusesofdiagnosticdrugs:cycloplegicrefraction
• D
irectophthalmoscopy:basicaspects;appearanceofthenormal
fundus and its variations; ophthalmoscopic signs of ocular disease;
clinical practice of ophthalmoscopy
• Indirectophthalmoscopy:principlesofindirectophthalmoscopy;
mononocular indirect and binocular indirect opthalmoscopy –
instrumentation and clinical procedures; appearance of the normal
fundus; abnormal changes; clinical applications of techniques
• C
olourvisionandcolourvisiontests:clinicalassessmentofcolourvision;
applications of colour vision tests; congenital vs. acquired colour vision
defects; clinical manifestations of acquired colour vision defects
Specialized Care 40
Element 12
Optometry Specialties
• P
aediatricoptometry:visualandrefractivedevelopmentand
norms; clinical examination of children; management of visual
problems in children
• R
efractivenormsandmeasuringrefractiveerrorininfantsand
young children; norms and measurement of visual acuity
and other visual parameters; genetic and environmental factors
in myopia; vision and learning problems; management of visual
problems in children
Specialized Care 41
ELEMENT 13
Assess and provide care for the low vision patient
Requirement
• Considerationof
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Magnificationrequirements
Working distances
Associated pathology
Lighting requirements
Computer software for low vision
Closed circuit television
Independent living aids
Mobilityaids
Telescopes
• P
rescribelowvisiondevicestomeetpatient’svisualand
functional requirements
• K
nowledgeoforganizationsprovidingrehabilitative
and low vision services
Enabling Sciences – topics to cover
Microbiology
• AsperMicrobiologyinElementTwo
Optometry Curriculum – topics to cover
Anatomy for Optometry
• AsperAnatomyforOptometryinElementsTwotoFive;andEight
Ocular Physiology
• AsperOcularPhysiologyinElementsTwotoSix
Optics
• AsperOpticsinElementTwo
Ocular Disease
• A
nteriorsegment:anomaliesoftheanteriorsegment;infection,
inflammatory and toxic conditions; degenerative and dystrophic
conditions; differential diagnosis of red eye; optometric management
• C
rystallinelensandcataract:differentialdiagnosisoflenticular
anomalies; signs and symptoms of cataract; senile cataract; secondary
cataract; complications and management; optometric management
• O
cularinjuryandtrauma–definition:ocularfirstaid;optometric
management
• C
onditionsoftheorbitandorbitalstructures:developmentalanomalies;
signs and symptoms of infection and inflammatory conditions; signs and
symptoms of orbital trauma and tumours
• G
laucoma:definitionandincidence;reviewofaqueousphysiology
and angle anatomy; signs and symptoms, investigative techniques;
secondary glaucoma; criteria for referral
Specialized Care 42
Element 13
• D
iseasesofthevitreousandretina:vascularanomalies;inflammatory
conditions; retinal detachment; degeneration and dystrophies; laser
and cryotherapy treatment; developmental conditions; trauma and
foreign bodies; optometric involvement
• Macula:degenerationanddystrophies;toxicconditions;treatment
• O
cularsignsofsystemicdiseases:signsandsymptoms;optometric
management
• N
euro-ophthalmology:reviewofanatomy,physiology,andretinotopic
visualfieldorganization;symptomsandinvestigativetechniquesof
visual field loss: signs and symptoms of optic nerve disease; differential
diagnosis of ophthalmoplegia; papillary pathway and tests; papillary
anomalies; differential diagnosis of papillary defects; neural problems
involving visual pathway
Clinical Optometry
• C
asehistorytakingandsymptomatology:roleofthecasehistoryin
the consultation; questioning techniques and question types; what
comprises a case history; recording the history; symptomatology – an
overview of symptoms found with various forms of ocular problems
(refractive, binocular, organic)
• E
valuationofnormalandabnormalpupilresponsesandiriscolour;
investigation of confrontation visual fields and screening for central field
• A
ssessmentofvisualacuity:conceptsofaidedandunaidedacuity;
comparisons between systems of recording visual acuity; clinical
methods of measurement; relationships between refractive error and
acuity, high contrast versus low contrast visual acuity
• R
etinoscopy:spotandstreakretinoscopy–staticmethods;retinoscopy
inastigmatism;nearpointretinoscopy–theMohindratechnique;
dynamic methods
• Keratometry:clinicalapplicationinrefraction
• A
uxiliaryrefractivetechniques:principles,methodsandapplications
of autorefraction, photorefraction and laser refraction
• S ubjectiverefraction:monocularsubjectiverefraction;principlesand
methods; duochrome tests
• S litlampbiomicroscopy:methodsandpracticeofilluminationand
observation; appearances of normal ocular tissues; clinical applications
of biomicroscopy; use of vital stains
• C
linicalusesofdiagnosticdrugs:clinicalapplicationsofophthalmic
diagnostic drugs – indications, contraindications and precautions for
use; evaluation of effectiveness of various preparations
• Intraocularpressuresandtonometry:measurementofintraocular
pressure; applanation and indentation tonometry; non-contact
tonometry; clinical applications of tonometry in practice
• D
irectophthalmoscopy:basicaspects;appearanceofthenormal
fundus and its variations; ophthalmoscopic signs of ocular disease;
clinical practice of ophthalmoscopy
• Indirectophthalmoscopy:principlesofindirectophthalmoscopy;
mononocular indirect and binocular indirect opthalmoscopy –
instrumentation and clinical procedures; appearance of the normal
fundus; abnormal changes; clinical applications of techniques
Specialized Care 43
Element 13
• F undusbiomicroscopy:contactfunduslens;theHrubyandVolklenses
and their principles and applications in clinical practice; fundus
appearance with biomicroscopy
• G
onioscopy:principlesofmethods;typesofgoniolenses,theirmethods
of application; appearance of the anterior angle by gonioscopy;
abnormal signs in the anterior angle; three-mirror retinal evaluation
• V
isualfieldsandvisualfieldtests:Bjerrumscreen;visualfieldscreeners;
principles and practice; perimetry – static and kinetic perimetry;
automated perimetry; detection of visual field defects
• M
acularfunctions:varioustechniquestoassesstheintegrityand
functionality of the macula, Amsler grid, photostress test, neutral-density
filter test, colour comparison test and brightness comparison test
• C
ontrastsensitivityfunction:theoryandclinicaluseofcontrastsensitivity
function, contrast sensitivity function curve, commercially available
contrast sensitivity charts and systems; clinical significance and
interpretations of contrast sensitivity function
• P
hoto-documentation:methodsofocularphotography–anterioreye
and fundus
• Inter-andintra-professionalcommunication:discussionon
handling inter- and intra-professional relationships; communicating
information amongst professionals; writing referral letters
Optometry Specialties
• Lowvision:visualimpairmentdefined;examinationofthelowvision
patient; optical aspects of low vision aids; prescription techniques
of low vision aids; management of low vision patients; recent research
• V
isualimpairmentdefined:legal,medicalandsocialdefinitions;
prevalence and incidence; causes of visual impairment
• E
xaminationofthelowvisionpatient:visualacuityassessment;clinical
expectations of visual acuity; refraction and the refractive correction;
other investigations including visual field and contrast sensitivity
• M
agnificationandlowvisionaids:principlesofmagnification;optical
principles of magnifiers and telescopic aids; types of low vision aids
available; clinical assessment of low vision aids; training and
applications of low vision aids
• M
anaginglowvisionpatients:multi-disciplinaryapproach;rehabilitation
services; the optometrist in the multi-disciplinary team
• Lowvisionservices;currentservices;futureplanningandprojection
• R
ecentresearch:clinicalapplicationsofrecentresearchintolowvision
causes and management
Specialized Care 44
ELEMENT 14
Assess and provide care for the geriatric patient
Requirement
• Abilityto
– U
nderstandthevisualfunction,physiologicalandanatomical
changes with age
– Deliverappropriatecarethatconsidersdisabilities
– Select appropriate equipment for domiciliary visits
Enabling Sciences – topics to cover
Anatomy
• AsperAnatomyinElementOne
Physiology
• AsperPhysiologyinElementOne
Microbiology
• AsperMicrobiologyinElementTwo
Foundation of Disease
• AsperFoundationPathologyofDiseaseinElementOne
Optometry Curriculum – topics to cover
Anatomy for Optometry
• AsperAnatomyforOptometryinElementsTwotoFive;andEight
Ocular Physiology
• AsperOcularPhysiologyinElementsTwotoSix
Optics
• AsperOpticsinElementTwo
Ocular Disease
• C
rystallinelensandcataract:differentialdiagnosisoflenticular
anomalies; signs and symptoms of cataract; senile cataract; secondary
cataract; complications and management; optometric management
• C
onditionsoftheorbitandorbitalstructures:anomalies;signsand
symptoms of infection and inflammatory conditions; signs and symptoms
of orbital trauma and tumours
• Proptosis:conditionsaffectingtheeyesandocularadnexae
• D
iseasesofthevitreousandretina:vascularanomalies;inflammatory
conditions; retinal detachment; degenerations; optometric involvement
• Macula:degenerations;toxicconditions;treatment
• O
cularsignsofsystemicdiseases:signsandsymptoms;optometric
management
Specialized Care 45
Element 14
Clinical Optometry
• A
ssessmentofvisualacuity:conceptsofaidedandunaidedacuity;
comparisons between systems of recording visual acuity; clinical
methods of measurement; relationships between refractive error and
acuity, high contrast versus low contrast visual acuity
• R
etinoscopy:spotandstreakretinoscopy–staticmethods;retinoscopy
inastigmatism;nearpointretinoscopy–theMohindratechnique;
dynamic methods
• A
uxiliaryrefractivetechniques:principles,methodsandapplicationsof
autorefraction, photorefraction and laser refraction
• S ubjectiverefraction:monocularsubjectiverefraction;principlesand
methods;binocularsubjectiverefraction;nearsubjectiverefraction
• A
ccommodationandpresbyopia:comfortablenearvision;the
amplitude of accommodation – methods of measurement, effects of
age; crossed-cylinder tests of accommodation; relative ranges of
accommodation; accommodative facility test; determination of the
presbyopic addition
• S litlampbiomicroscopy:methodsandpracticeofilluminationand
observation; appearances of normal ocular tissues; clinical applications
of biomicroscopy; use of vital stains
• C
linicalusesofdiagnosticdrugs:clinicalapplicationsofophthalmic
diagnostic drugs – indications, contraindications and precautions for
use; evaluation of effectiveness of various preparations
• Intraocularpressuresandtonometry:measurementofintraocular
pressure; applanation and indentation tonometry; non-contact
tonometry; clinical applications of tonometry in practice
• D
irectophthalmoscopy:basicaspects;appearanceofnormalfundus
and its variations; an introduction to the ophthalmoscopic signs of
ocular disease; clinical practice of ophthalmoscopy
• Indirectophthalmoscopy:principlesofindirectophthalmoscopy;
mononocular indirect and binocular indirect opthalmoscopy –
instrumentation and clinical procedures; appearance of normal fundus;
abnormal changes; clinical applications of techniques
• F undusbiomicroscopy:contactfunduslens;theHrubyandVolklenses
and their principles and applications in clinical practice; fundus
appearance with biomicroscopy
• G
onioscopy:principlesofmethods;typesofgonio-lenses,methodsof
application; appearance of anterior angle by gonioscopy; abnormal
signs in the anterior angle; three-mirror retinal evaluation
• V
isualfieldsandvisualfieldtests:Bjerrumscreen;visualfieldscreeners;
principles and practice; perimetry – static and kinetic perimetry;
automated perimetry; detection of visual field defects
• M
acularfunctions:varioustechniquestoassesstheintegrityand
functionality of the macula, use of Amsler grid, photostress test,
neutral-density filter test, colour comparison test and brightness
comparison test
• C
ontrastsensitivityfunction:theoryandclinicaluseofcontrast
sensitivity function, contrast sensitivity function curve, commercially
available contrast sensitivity charts and systems; clinical significance
and interpretations of contrast sensitivity function
Specialized Care 46
Element 14
• C
asehistorytakingandsymptomatology:roleofthecasehistory
in the consultation; questioning techniques and question types; what
comprises a case history; recording the history; symptomatology
– an overview of symptoms found with various forms of ocular problems
(refractive, binocular, organic)
• A
dvancedOptometricInvestigation:principlesandclinicalapplications
ofnewoptometricinstruments;suchasNerveFibreAnalyzer(NFA);
Orbscansystem;IOLMasterandOpticalCoherenceTomography(OCT)
• P
rescriptiondecisions:aetiologyofrefractiveerrorsandtheinfluence
of etiological theories on the refractive prescription and monitoring
the refraction; relating the prescription to the occupational and other
needs of the patient
Optometry Specialties
• G
eriatricoptometry:anatomicandphysiologicalchangewithage;
changes in visual functions with age; examining the aging patient;
aphakia and pseudophakos; housebound or bedridden patient
• A
natomicandphysiologicalchangewithage:changesinocular
structure with particular reference to retina and lens; development
of cataract and age-related maculopathy; clinical implications of
age related changes
• C
hangesinvisualfunctionswithage:effectsuponvisualacuity,colour
vision, adaptation, contrast sensitivity, visual field; changes in binocularity
• E
xaminingtheagingpatient:effectsofcommonsystemicandocular
disease; aims and goals of examination; amendments to routine to
account for change in visual function
• T hehouseboundorbedriddenpatient:optometricexamination;role
of the optometrist in institutional care; domiciliary visits
Specialized Care 47
PROFESSIONAL
RESPONSIBILITIES
ELEMENT 15
Continued professional and practice based-learning and development
of the optometrist so that modern, evidence-based care can be provided
Requirement
• Developmentofknowledge,clinicalexpertiseandskills
• Ethicalpractisevalues
• Professionalpatientmanagement
• Practicemanagement
• Legalunderstanding
• Professionalroleincommunity
Enabling Sciences – topics to cover
Applied Statistics and Research Methodology
• R
eferencejournalpapersandliterature:locating,critiquing,citing,
reviewing and referencing
• P
rinciplesinvolvedinconception,design,conductandcompletion
ofresearchprojects
• Researchethics
• Structuringaliteraturereview
• Generatinghypotheses
• Experimentaldesigns
• Describinganddisplayingquantitativeandqualitativedata
• Choosingandusingappropriatestatisticaltools
• Interpretingandreportingstatisticaltestresults
• Howscienceisdone;the“ResearchMethod”andalternativeviews
• Developingskillsforprojectwork
• Plagiarismanditsavoidance;citingsources
• Ethicalissuesinresearch
• T ypesofdata;displayingdata;averagesanddispersion;identifyingand
handling outliers
• Introductiontoprobability;characteristicsofnormaldistribution;
sampling distribution of mean and standard error; degree of freedom
• S amplesizeconsideration;nullhypothesis;experimentalhypothesis;
error in hypothesis testing (type I and type II errors)
• Definitionofpower;oneandtwo-tailedtests;conceptofpvalues
• P
arametricandnon-parametrictests;student’sTtest;Wilcoxontest,
Mann-Whitneytests,KrustalWallistest;Chi-squaretest
• P
rincipleofindependenceofdata;correlation;researchquestions;
experimental and non-experimental designs; random assignment;
matched assignment
• C
ontrolgroups;placeboeffect;masking;prospectivevs.retrospective;
longitudinal vs. cross-sectional; validity and reliability of data; repeated
measures; sensitivity and specificity; false positive and negative
• P
opulationsandrandomsamples;samplingmethods;random,
systematic and stratified sampling; external validity
• Descriptiveresearch;surveysandquestionnaires;interviewtechniques
Professional Responsibilities 49
Element 15
Project
• D
rawingrelevantinformationfromliteraturewithregardto
research topics
• Conscientiousandrationalpursuitofaresearchtopic
• W
rittenandposterpresentations:logicalandclearinterpretation,
presentation and discussion of information and results; demonstration
of deep understanding
Psychology in Health Care
• D
evelopmentalissuesacrossthelifespan:majorstagesinhuman
development and particular issues that are encountered within
these stages
Optometry Curriculum – topics to cover
Practice Management
• S tartingapractice:modesofpractice;businessplans;business
registration; location; practice design; business registration and
legal requirements
• M
arketing:strategiesandplans;consumerbehaviour;market
segmentation; pricing strategies
• A
ccountingandtaxation:managingfinances;budgeting(capital
budget, monthly revenue and expense budget); inventory control;
setting up an accounting system; banking; cash flow; estimate
payback period of equipment; financial risk and control; taxation
and taxation planning
• M
anagementsystems:patientrecordmanagementsystem;inventory
control system
• Financialmanagement:financialreporting;managementreporting
• Managingstaff:motivatingstaff;continuousdevelopment;appraisals
• Estateplanning:goalsandstrategies;investment;MPF
Professional Responsibilities 50
Element 15
Community Optometry
• V
ision-careprogramme:planning,organizingand
conducting a vision-care programme in collaboration
withanon-optometricorganization
• R
oleofoptometristsinthecommunity:asprimarycareproviders;
their role in the prevention and modification of occupational problems
• V
isualscreening:developmentofvisualscreeningprogrammes;
cost effectiveness of visual screening and its relation to incidence
of disease; screening protocols and regimen; visual screeners
• V
isualhazardsandocularprotectioninoccupationsandsports:nature
andtypesofoccupational/sportseyeinjuriesandtheirprevention;
typesandusesofprotectiveeyewear;radiationhazardsinindustryand
their prevention
• V
isualergonomicsandlighting:humanvisualcapabilitiesandanalysis
of visual demands in visual tasks, visual requirements for different
occupations; visual fatigue and its relation to visual task and visual
demand; introduction to basic concepts in lighting design
• V
isualdisplayterminal(VDT):thevisualdisplayunit,itsvisualdemands,
its related eye problems, their causes and solutions
Professional Studies
• P
atientrightissuesandmedicalethico-legalissuesinvolvingthe
optometry profession, and other healthcare professions
• E
xploring,evaluatinganddevelopingone’sowncodesandstandards
for practice
• A
nalysisofmedicalethico-legalissues,clinicaldecision-making
and problem-solving
• PromotingandadvancingtheOptometryprofession
• Introductiontothelegalsystems
• Biomedicalethics
• Medicalnegligence
• Consent
• Confidentialityandprivacyissues
• CodeofPractice
• Professionalissues
New Technologies
• C
urriculumshouldincludeprovisionsforupdatingstudents
on new technologies and future developments.
• T opicssuchasOCT,ultrasoundbiomicroscopy,electronic
medical records.
* Elements are accompanied by practical and clinical session
Professional Responsibilities 51
World Council of Optometry
42 Craven Street
London WC2N 5NG
United Kingdom
Tel: +44 20 7839 6000
Fax: +44 20 7839 6800
Email:[email protected]
worldoptometry.org
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Registered charity number: 1133429
With thanks to the Brien Holden Vision Institute for supplying the images used in this document.
www.brienholdenvision.org