Download Part F Essay Quest... - The Ecclesbourne School Online

AS SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH
Exemplar answers to 20-mark ‘part (f)’ questions
EXEMPLAR ANSWERS
Assess the usefulness of different types of interviews in sociological research.
‘Most sociologists find the statistical data produced by governments to be very valuable
sources of evidence.’ Assess this claim.
‘Ethical and practical considerations are of less importance than theoretical factors in influencing a sociologist’s choice of research method.’ Evaluate this claim.
Assess the strengths and weaknesses of primary data used in sociological research.
Assess the advantages and disadvantages of different types of observation in sociological research.
Assess the usefulness of quantitative data in sociological research.
‘Despite it’s problems, the social survey remains the most effective method of sociological investigation.’ Assess this claim.
Evaluate the usefulness of different types of secondary data other than official statistics.
Using these exemplar answers
• Each specimen answer is formatted into an opening summary, a ’Deconstruction’ of the question (your
first paragraph in an answer), a main section(s) and a final ’Evaluation’ (your concluding paragraph).
These sections offer a good analytical and evaluative structure to an answer. Putting material is this kind
of order will help to gain marks for the skills of analysis and evaluation.
• There is more information in each specimen answer than you would probably have time to cover in an
exam which is why the main section usually suggests that you could make mention of the evidence/
arguments.
• Some of the material is highlighted in bold and italics. These points are examples of statements that are
likely to gain you further marks for analysis and for evaluation. Try to include as many of these as possible in your answer.
• You should try to include a few opening points in your first paragraph before launching into the main part
of your answer. You can draw example opening points from the ‘Deconstruction’ section in each answer.
• You should try to include a few evaluation points in your final paragraph after the main part of your answer. You can draw example final evaluation points from the ‘Evaluation’ section in each answer.
• Finally, you should insert examples of research studies from your own notes to illustrate the points made
in these answers.
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ASSESS THE USEFULNESS OF DIFFERENT TYPES
OF INTERVIEWS IN SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH
SUMMARY
There are several different types of interviewing that sociologists can use in their research. The
most common are structured interviews and unstructured interviews. Other types include group
interviewing and semi-structured interviews. Sometimes an interview will have elements of structure and elements that are less structured in it. The interview is a fairly flexible tool that can be
applied in different ways in the study of different social groups and issues. You will get marks
for showing your knowledge of the uses of interviews. There are a lot of marks also available for how well you can analyse different kinds of interviews and evaluate the strengths
and weaknesses of each type. The structure of this answer format should help you to organise
your knowledge in a way that helps you to display these analytical and evaluative skills. You
should also try to make reference to examples of interviewing in sociological research.
A DECONSTRUCTION
• There are different kinds of interviews in social research. Usually they are separated into formal and informal interview techniques. This categorisation is quite useful, but it is an
oversimplification as some interviews combine formal and informal elements. Other
interviews may take the form of group interviewing or may develop out of participant
observation.
• The usefulness of different types of interviews is usually judged in terms of which is
best suited to creating the kind of data a sociologist wants to gather. Unstructured interviews generate qualitative data whilst structured interviews produce quantitative
data. Each kind of interview also has practical strengths and weaknesses that the sociologist will take into account when deciding their interview approach.
• The usefulness of each kind of interview also depends upon the social group and issue
being investigated.
B THE USEFULNESS OF FORMAL INTERVIEWS
Formal interviews use a fixed list of questions asked of all interviewees. The responses to these
questions are usually fixed by the researcher. This type of interview is really the face-to-face verbal delivery of a questionnaire.
Advantages – reliability, replicability and time
• Positivist sociologists see the formal interview as having the advantage of creating data which
is high in reliability. With a fixed list of questions, the interview can be easily replicated at
other times with other interviewees.
• Pre-coded questions (with fixed response categories) make it simple to analyse the data on
computer. Patterns and trends can be identified from this data. Cause-and-effect relationships
can then be suggested.
• The more limited role of the interviewer in this type of interview reduces the risk of ‘interviewer
effect’. The interviewer is just asking the questions on their list, not making up new ones as
they respond to what the interviewee has said.
• In practical terms, the formal interview is also quicker and cheaper to complete.
Disadvantages - Loss of validity
The data from formal interviews looks statistically impressive but does it tell us what interviewees really think? Interpretivists criticise formal interviewing on the grounds that
the data generated is not an accurate statement of the views of those interviewed. It loses
validity for several reasons.
• Because the questions and the response categories are designed and selected by the researcher, there is the real danger that they will impose their views on the interviewee. Interviewees have to force their views into the researchers’ categories. Often these categories are
too narrow, overlap or are open to interpretation. Quite often, the answer interviewees would
like to give is not available.
• Fixed response questions may use words that respondents might understand in different
ways.
• Even with a set list of fixed response questions and answers, there is still some interviewer
effect and how the interviewee perceives the interviewer may well influence their responses.
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C THE USEFULNESS OF INFORMAL INTERVIEWS
Informal interviews are not based on a set list of fixed response questions. Instead they are
open-ended and free flowing allowing the interviewee to respond in their own words and to raise
issues they feel are relevant. Any structure is likely to be limited to a list of general areas to be
discussed. The data created by informal interviews is qualitative, often very vivid and personal in tone.
Advantages – greater validity
• Interpretivist sociologists who use informal interviews because of the greater validity of the
data they create. This results from the more open-ended style of interviewing involved.
• The greater trust created may allow research into sensitive subjects, generating more honest
responses.
• Respondents are given the opportunity to reply in their own words, expressing their feelings
and attitudes in ways which are meaningful to them, rather than being forced to use the researcher’s categories.
• The validity of the data also increases through the flexibility of informal interviewing, leads can
be followed up and the respondent can take the interview in the direction they want.
Disadvantages – lack of reliability and is there really greater validity?
• This approach is often criticised by positivists for being low in reliability. Each informal interview is unique and cannot be repeated.
• Furthermore, the data cannot be converted into statistics and therefore it cannot be analysed
in any meaningful way.
• Because it is a time-consuming approach, the samples used tend to be small and therefore
generalisations cannot be made from the research results.
• The informal interview may also not be as high in validity as is sometimes claimed. A
great deal depends upon how the researcher interprets the interviewees responses
and different researchers may interpret responses in different ways. Therefore the interviewer may still be imposing their own ideas. Interviewer bias can also affect the direction of
the interview and the responses given, again reducing the validity of the data.
D EVALUATION
• All interviews have the problem of knowing whether the interviewee is answering honestly. What people say they do may not be an accurate reflection of what they actually
do.
• How either main type of interview is judged depends very much on the sociologists’
theoretical position. Positivists see the quantitative data generated by formal interviews as much more useful than the qualitative material which emerges from informal
interviews. On the other hand, interpretivists prefer informal interviews because the
data generated is much more valid than that from formal interviews.
• Furthermore, these two approaches to interviewing do not have to be seen as complete
opposites. They can be used in a complementary way. Many interviews use both structured and unstructured elements as the research situation demands. Structured elements may be very useful in identifying patterns of behaviour whilst informal elements
may be more appropriate in uncovering explanations of those patterns. One good application of the two approaches was the research carried out into domestic violence by
Dobash and Dobash in which, although relying on informal interviewing, they also
asked all interviewees certain questions at some point in the interview.
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‘MOST SOCIOLOGISTS FIND THE STATISTICAL DATA PRODUCED BY
GOVERNMENTS TO BE VERY VALUABLE SOURCES OF EVIDENCE.’
SUMMARY
Government departments create statistical data through surveys and as a by-product of their
day-to-day work. Some sociologists find this data very valuable and use it in their research. Others see many problems with officially produced information and tend not to use it. You will get
marks for showing your knowledge of different kinds of official statistics.. There are a lot
of marks also available for how well you can analyse different kinds of government statistics and evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of each type. The structure of this answer
format should help you to organise your knowledge in a way that helps you to display these analytical and evaluative skills. You should also try to make reference to examples of official statistics in sociological research.
A DECONSTRUCTION
• Government departments and agencies generate a wide range of data about social behaviour. Most of this data is collected and presented in a quantified form and is given the general
title of ‘official statistics’. These are often the result of the day-to-day activities of government,
the monitoring of the activities of a particular agency. For example, the Department for Education and Employment collects statistical data about the number of schools, numbers of pupils
on roll, attendance, examination performance etc. as a matter of course. It also produces the
‘Employment Gazette’, a monthly digest of data relating to employment and unemployment
collated from the returns made by employment offices throughout Britain.
• Government departments also regularly carry out their own surveys using standard sociological methods. The most well known of these is the Census, carried out every ten years and
completed by virtually every household in the country. This survey gathers data about household relationships, occupational and employment status, etc.
• Positivist sociologists in particular find official statistics very useful but Marxists and
Interpretivists are more sceptical of its value. The idea that ‘most’ sociologists find official data useful is therefore open to question.
B THE VALUE OF OFFICIAL STATISTICS TO SOME SOCIOLOGISTS
• Many of the advantages official statistics have result from the fact that they are already in existence. This means that they are readily available, in accessible form and cheap. Governments maintain a consistent policy of monitoring their activities and this ensures a constant
flow of official data. Some data is published monthly, most at least annually, so the sociologist
can analyse it for trends over time. The data is pre-coded and usually pre-analysed which
means that it can be immediately used.
• Official data is often based on very large samples. In the case of the Census this is as complete a sample that can possibly be created. In other cases, for example divorce, marriage,
births, deaths, morbidity, the sample is also a more or less complete one. Samples like
these are much bigger than those used in primary sociological research.
• Officially collected data is often very comprehensive in coverage. Most aspects of social life
are covered by official data.
• Officially collected data is often the starting point for sociological research. For example, the
recent trend towards comparative male underachievement in education was identified by the
analysis of educational performance as recorded by the Department for Education and Employment. Primary sociological research has since tried to identify the causes of this trend.
• Official data also may provide very useful background material for a research study. It may
not be the main focus of the study but it can provide a number of ideas on which further research might be based.
• It is also wrong to think that official statistics always misrepresents reality in some
way. This may be more true of statistics which result from the monitoring of the day-today work of government departments, but officially sponsored survey work usually
meets the criteria of sociological enquiry.
• Positivists see official data as a valuable source of evidence as it meets their criteria of reliability, replicability and representativeness.
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C PROBLEMS SOME SOCIOLOGISTS FIND WITH OFFICIAL STATISITICS
• The sociologist is not involved in producing official statistics and this means that they
will have had no control over the process by which the data has been gathered. Sociologists have to accept the definitions and concepts used by government departments, the
ways they have been operationalised and how the data is presented and interpreted. Official
definitions rarely match those of the sociologist. For example, how the government defines
and measures unemployment may well be different to that of the sociologist or the subjects of
research. This makes it difficult for the sociologist to compare their own material with that of
officially produced data. Similarly, governmental definitions of social class are based on occupational groups whilst some sociological definitions relate class to ownership of the means of
production. The two are clearly not the same.
• Interpretivists have developed their own critique of official statistics. They argue that official statistics are socially constructed. Behind what looks like ‘facts’ is a social process of
subjective decision-making by the individuals and groups involved. For example, before a
criminal act is recorded in official statistics it has to have been observed, identified as a crime,
reported, investigated by the police and dealt with by the courts. At each point in this process,
social actors and groups make decisions which affect whether the act moves towards being
classified as a ‘crime’. The official statistical picture of criminal activity is the result of a complex process of social interaction that results in a ‘dark figure’ of unrecorded crime. The true
level of crime is this ‘dark figure’ plus reported crimes, yet it is only the latter which is presented as the real level of crime. The implication here is that official statistics do not accurately identify the social characteristics of a phenomenon. Any sociological explanation or
theory which is based on official statistical data is therefore going to be based on inaccurate information.
• Marxists and feminists have questioned the political and ideological roles of official
data. Official statistics are not produced in an atmosphere of political neutrality as the definitions employed, the areas of social life investigated or recorded and the way the statistics are
presented, are all determined by civil servants or government ministers. Data can be manipulated for political reasons, even suppressed, as in the case of the Black Report into health
inequalities. The example of the way in which the official definition of unemployment was altered nearly twenty times in the 1980s, with all but one change removing a group from the official level of unemployment, indicates the extent to which governments can go in order to use
official statistics to support a political position. Another example of the way in which a political
purpose can be served by the presentation of selective statistics is that of school league tables which make no consideration of social class variations between school populations.
Feminists have pointed to the way official statistics often reflect male social dominance in the categories they use and the information they do and do not collect.
D EVALUATION
• Official statistics are more valuable to some sociologist than others. Positivists value
them for their reliability, representativeness, replicability and comparability. Interpretivists, Marxists and feminists see them as far from having the status of ‘facts’. Official
statistics are socially constructed and may be politically biased and these issues have
to be taken into account when using them in sociological research.
• Rather than being a source of useful data for the sociologist, official statistics have often been the focus of research itself. The nature of official data about suicide - on
which Durkheim based his classic study - has itself been examined by interpretivist sociologists looking at the role played by coroners, police, witnesses and others in how a
death is or is not defined as suicide.
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‘ETHICAL AND PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS ARE OF LESS IMPORTANCE
THAN THEORETICAL FACTORS IN INFLUENCING A SOCIOLOGIST’S CHOICE
OF RESEARCH METHODS.’ EVALUATE THIS CLAIM.
SUMMARY
Selecting which research methods to use in their research is a very important issue. The methods used determine the nature and scope of the research as well as the type of evidence the sociologist will create. Several factors have an influence on the process of selecting research techniques. The most important of these are the theoretical position taken by the researcher, practical considerations and ethical issues.
You will get marks for showing your knowledge of these factors. There are also a lot of
marks available for how well you can analyse each factor and especially for how well you
evaluate the comparative importance of each factor. The structure of this answer format
should help you to organise your knowledge in a way that helps you to display these analytical
and evaluative skills. You should also try to make reference to examples of the influence of each
of these factors in sociological research.
A DECONSTRUCTION
• Choice of research method is a very important part of any research project. The fact that all research studies include a chapter explaining and justifying the method selected by the research
team shows the importance of this issue.
• Sociologists are influenced in their choice of method by three main considerations. One is the
theoretical standpoint of the sociologist – whether they want to collect quantitative or qualitative
data. Then there are the practical aspects of research - time, money, opportunities etc. Sociologists are also influenced by the ethical issues associated with certain research techniques.
All play a role in determining choice of methods - are ethical and practical concerns less
important than theoretical factors?
B THE IMPORTANCE OF THEORETICAL FACTORS
Many sociologists would argue that the greatest influence over their choice of research method is
their theoretical standpoint. Which kind of data do they feel is most useful – quantitative or
qualitative?
• Sociologists who see the social world, like the physical world, as being an objective reality,
will use methods that generate quantitative data. ‘Society’ determines how we act and this is
seen in the way social behaviour is patterned. The aim of sociology is therefore to identify
these patterns and to reveal the ‘society’ behind them. Sociologists therefore need to use
methods that measure social behaviour and which can be analysed for patterns and trends.
This will have to be quantitative in form.
• For Positivists therefore, the only methods worth using are structured research techniques
like surveys, formal interviews or sources such as official statistics, as these create quantifiable data. They see little point in collecting the meanings people hold about events as these
are subjective views which cannot be quantified.
• On the other hand, if the sociologist assumes that the social world has no single objective reality but that it is all really a question of what each social actor or group perceives ‘reality’ to
be, then they will want to collect qualitative data. The purpose of research is to find out the
meanings held by individuals and social groups. This involves going to the groups and allowing them to act or speak normally.
• So Interpretivists would therefore want to use unstructured research methods like informal interviews or participant observation as these allow respondents to say or act how they think.
• The theoretical standpoint of a researcher is a positive influence on choice of method –
it determines the type of data the sociologist wants to use. However, ethical and practical factors then act as constraint on methodological preference.
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C
ARE PRACTICAL AND ETHICAL CONCERNS LESS IMPORTANT INFLUENCES OVER
CHOICE OF METHOD?
Practical factors
• What a researcher can actually do is limited by the practical considerations of time, funding,
choice of topic, personal preference and the opportunity for research.
• The amount of time available for a study has an impact on both the choice of method and the
scale of the research. Participant observation studies and unstructured interviewing take more
time per research subject than social surveys.
• Finance has a major impact on the scale of a research study and on the methods used. The
amount of finance available affects the size of a research team, sample size and the time
available for research to be carried out in. Postal questionnaires tend to be the most costeffective approach with unstructured techniques requiring more time and training to be carried
out effectively. However, it is unlikely that a sociologist would base their choice of method
solely on how much time and money they had.
• The source of funding is a further practical consideration and few researchers have a completely free hand. Research can be sponsored by government, local government, businesses,
voluntary organisations etc. and will inevitably reflect the concerns of these funding bodies.
• Choice of method is also affected by the nature of the research issue/subject. A sociologist
has to be sensitive to the subjects of research. Every social actor and social group has both
a public and a private face and may not welcome intrusion into the latter. Suspicion of
‘outsiders’ might mean the researcher having to establish trust and avoid using formal research tools.
• The research opportunity plays a part here especially if such an opportunity suddenly appears. With no time for preparation, the researcher is likely to be forced by circumstances to
employ open-ended approaches, ‘going with the flow’ of the research opportunity.
Ethical concerns
Some methods raise ethical issues that can also limit what the researcher can do.
• Confidentiality It is usually seen as important to protect the individuals being researched.
This is easier to do with some methods (like postal questionnaires) than others.
• Informed consent There is a lot of pressure on sociologists to gain the consent of those
they are researching – which means that covert research is morally dubious.
Practical considerations tend to be a negative limiting factor rather than a positive influence on choice. Practical considerations tend to cut off research avenues. Working within
practical limitations, sociologists can make more positive choices based on other
considerations.
D EVALUATION
• Theoretical, practical and ethical factors are all important. The former is a positive influence whilst the others exert a negative limitation on choice of method. So theoretical
concerns are the main influence on selection of method.
• Of course there is the argument that there does not have to be a simple choice between quantitative or qualitative research methods. It is not always a question of one
or the other. Several sociologists have highlighted the advantages of using both types
of methods. This approach, usually referred to as ‘triangulation’ sees the two approaches as complementary rather than opposites, with the strengths of one balancing
out the weaknesses of the other.
• For some sociologists this ‘either one or the other’ approach is not relevant. Some
want quantitative data to identify trends and then qualitative data to provide explanations of the trends.
• Finally, it also depends upon the nature of the social group and issue being studied.
Some methods are inappropriate for the study of certain groups, for example, questionnaires in the investigation of deviant groups or participant observation in the study
of voting behaviour.
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ASSESS THE STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF PRIMARY
DATA USED IN SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH
SUMMARY
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A DECONSTRUCTION
• Primary data is collected first hand by the sociologist, applying sociological concepts and
theories. This can be quantitative material generated through postal questionnaires, structured interviews, longitudinal studies and even experiments. Primary data can also be qualitative, the result of unstructured interviewing and participant observation..
• Collecting their own first-hand, primary data has many advantages to the sociologist, mainly
associated with the amount of control they can have over the research process. Most research attempts to gather at least some original, primary data rather than to analyse existing
data.
• Primary data also has some drawbacks. What one sociologist sees as important material to collect, another might not view in the same way. Practical research is not easy
and there are always problems with the reliability, representativeness and validity of
primary data.
B HOW USEFUL IS PRIMARY DATA?
The strengths of primary data
• Primary research gives the researcher a lot of control over the research process. They
collect data in ways they think are appropriate rather than having to rely on data created by
other organisations such as government institutions which have their own aims and values.
• The researcher can create data which is specifically relevant to the research aims. A lot of
secondary data does not fit into sociological frameworks or may use definitions and concepts
that the sociologist does not fully accept.
• Controlling question design/structure/format, means that the sociologist can make sure everything they do fits their research purpose. Every question will have a purpose linked to the research aim.
• In primary research, the researcher can select which methods to use - quantitative, qualitative, a combination and if so, what balance of methods.
• The researcher can also use their own definitions of important concepts/ideas and not be restricted by official classifications. Furthermore, the sociologists has a free hand in deciding
how to operationalise these concepts, that is, the best way to translate concepts into measurable forms.
• The researcher also has control over the selection of the research sample to be studied. They
can decide whether a representative, purposive, snowball or opportunity sample is most appropriate for their specific research purpose.
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B HOW USEFUL IS PRIMARY DATA? (cont.)
• Once the data is collected, because the researcher has designed the research process, they
are in a much better position when it comes to interpreting and presenting the data. The researcher will have ‘lived’ the research process, becoming closely identified with it and having a very full understanding of what has been done.
• Sometimes there is no secondary data relating to a particular social group or issue. This
means that the sociologist has no choice but to create their own evidence.
C
Problems with primary data
• Collecting your own data can be very time consuming and this may limit how much data is
collected. Also, by the time the material has been collected, logged, analysed, interpreted
and published, it may well be getting out of date. Much secondary data, such as official statistics, is immediately available for the sociologist to use.
• The level of funding also usually limits the scale and direction of research. Sociological research is rarely well-funded so the primary data collected may not be comprehensive or as
detailed as that from research carried out by governments or large businesses.
• The source of funding, whether government, local government, research bodies, private
foundations, pressure groups etc. has influence over what is researched and what methods
are used. The sociologist may not be able to pursue what they think is important because of
these limitations.
• There are difficulties with the creation of the type of sample required. Response rates, contacting panel samples, etc. all make it difficult to generate the most appropriate research
sample.
• Each method of collecting primary data - interviews, questionnaires, observation and experiments - has its own specific weaknesses which can reduce the validity, representativeness
and reliability of the data collected.
D EVALUATION
• Primary data is very important in sociological research. If all the sociologist did was to
use evidence already in existence, few aims of sociological research would ever be
met.
• Primary data has many strengths, particularly in comparison with the alternative - secondary data.
• Being able to design and control their own research offers many benefits to the sociologist. They can judge the reliability and representativeness of the methods they
choose to use and the validity of the data created.
• This level of control has problems. The research is likely to be more limited in scale
and may be open to the influence of funding organisations.
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ASSESS THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DIFFERENT
TYPES OF OBSERVATION IN SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH
SUMMARY
Seeing how people behave is a very important and useful way of gathering data about social interaction. Social behaviour can be observed in different ways. Observation can be structured or
unstructured, covert or overt, short-term or long-term. Each of these approaches to observation
has strengths and weaknesses. Positivist sociologists prefer structured observation whilst interpretivists have a preference for unstructured, participant observation. There is also a lot of debate about how ethical it is to observe people covertly, without their permission.
You will get marks for showing your knowledge of these different types of observation.
There are also a lot of marks available for how well you can analyse each type and especially for how well you evaluate their strengths and weaknesses. The structure of this answer format should help you to organise your knowledge in a way that helps you to display these
analytical and evaluative skills. You should also try to make reference to examples studies that
have used these styles of observation.
A DECONSTRUCTION
• Each approach to observation has separate advantages and disadvantages to the sociologist.
• Structured observation is usually seen by positivists as being a more reliable research
method which creates quantitative data about social behaviour. Structured observation is a
way of measuring behaviour to identify patterns, trends and relationships between social factors.
• Participant observation is preferred by interpretivists who want to uncover the meanings people hold - and the best way to do this is by joining in with their activities and seeing things
‘from the inside’.
• There is a debate in sociology about whether observation should be covert or overt.
• In general terms, the advantages and disadvantages of each approach are usually
judged in terms of how reliable the method is and how valid is the data created. Useful-
B THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
Advantages - Validity
• Interpretivists see PO as creating data that is higher in validity than that created by
other methods.
• This is a naturalistic approach to the collection of evidence. Interpretivists argue that valid
data is most likely to be created when a group is studied in its normal social setting.
• Observing a group’s normal social routines is likely to produce a more authentic account of
their world-view than asking questions. It is often said that in PO studies, you see what a
group does rather than what it says it does.
• It is also an open research process. Participant observation is a fluid, flexible approach in
which the research process is directed less by the researcher and more by the researched.
• Participant observation offers the kind of sociological insight, which is not always found in surveys. It is argued that only by sharing the experiences of a group can the sociologist achieve
the necessary degree of insight and provide meaningful data.
Other advantages
• Sometimes a research opportunity will suddenly offer itself. PO is flexible enough for this kind
of opportunity to be taken up (e.g. Patrick)
• Unstructured research like PO does not require the extensive planning that surveys for example, need.
Disadvantages
Does PO create valid data?
• Several things can prevent PO creating valid data. The presence of an observer will
change a group’s behaviour, the observer is also going to be influenced by the group and ultimately, all observation is limited by what the observer sees and how they interpret actions.
How can the observer be certain that they have understood the meaning of events from the
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B THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION (cont.)
• Positivists consider PO studies to be fundamentally flawed because they are not replicable,
nor would they necessarily produce the same results if carried out by different researchers.
• Few participant observation studies make any attempt at being representative of a wider research population. They are very much ‘one-off’ studies and there is no way of knowing how
representative or not they are. Therefore no generalisations can be made on the basis of the
data created.
• Not all social groups and issues can be studied in this way, for example, PO is not particularly
appropriate to the study of large-scale social movements
C OVERT AND COVERT OBSERVATION
Covert PO
• Covert PO does not disturb the behaviour of the group so the observed interaction is ‘normal’.
It also allows the observer to dig deeper into the group’s behaviour because of their status as
a group member which also leads to more valid data. Access to certain areas of the groups’
behaviour may be only be possible if the real identity of the researcher is not known.
• However, if the real purpose of the observer is uncovered, the whole research may be jeopardised. Covert PO is difficult to keep up for a long time and recording behaviour is difficult
without raising suspicions. There are ethical problems of trust, lack of informed consent etc.
with covert PO.
Overt PO
• With their identity known, the researcher can openly ask questions to clarify meanings and
they may have more freedom in being able to join in or not join particular activities. Because
they have gained the group’s consent, there are fewer ethical issues involved.
• However, knowing the observer’s true identity/purpose may affect the group’s behaviour, reducing the validity of the data created and some aspects of the group’s behaviour may be
closed to covert researchers. The group may simply refuse access.
D THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF STRUCTURED OBSERVATION
• With this approach the researcher records behaviour in a systematic way, usually using some
from of record sheet. What is going on in the observed situation is recorded by ticking appropriate boxes at regular, established time intervals.
• Positivists see this form of observation as useful because it is much more reliable than
unstructured observation, easily replicable and creates quantifiable data. Using two or more
observers recording the same interaction means that results can be checked.
• However, this is difficult to carry out in a covert manner and can only really be dome if the observer does not participate in the group’s activities. Interpretivists argue that the data produced loses validity because the presence of an observer may change behaviour, and because recording in this way says little about meanings, motives etc. The categories used may
overlap, be open to dispute, may not cover all the possible behaviour forms etc. Categorising
observed behaviour in this way still depends upon the interpretations made by researchers –
different researchers may categorise the same event differently.
E EVALUATION
• Each type of observation has its strengths and weaknesses. Positivists see structured
observation as being much more useful because their aim is to identify patterns in behaviour and from this, what causes these patterns. Interpretivists are more concerned
about uncovering the meanings people hold and they see participant observation as
one of the best ways to achieve this.
• It is possible to use both structured and participant observation, one to identify behaviour patterns and the other to offer insight into these patterns.
• Whether observation should be overt or covert is a problematic issue. It is morally dubious to carry out covert research yet sometimes this is the only way to investigate
some groups and issues. If the consent of the group can be gained then the research is
on safer ethical ground.
• There are practicalities about research as well, sometime the research opportunity just
happens in which case, participant observation is probably the most adaptable approach to use.
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Assess the usefulness of quantitative data to the sociologist.
SUMMARY
Many sociological research studies collect quantitative data. Quantitative data enables the sociologist to identify trends and patterns in social behaviour and as a result, understand the causes
of these trends and patterns. Positivists favour using quantitative data because they see it as
more likely to meet their criteria of reliability and representativeness. Interpretivists criticise
quantitative data for its lack of validity.
You will get marks for showing your knowledge of quantitative data. There are also a lot of
marks available for how well you can analyse this type of data and especially for how well
you evaluate its strengths and weaknesses. The structure of this answer format should help
you to organise your knowledge in a way that helps you to display these analytical and evaluative
skills. You should also try to make reference to examples studies that have used these styles of
observation.
A DECONSTRUCTION
• Quantitative data is evidence collected by the sociologist which can be put into statistical form
and analysed for trends and patterns. This is either created using structured research instruments such as formal interviews and postal questionnaires or by using official statistics. .
• How useful quantitative evidence is judged to be depends mainly on what the sociologist
sees as important in research. Positivists have the aim of identifying cause and effect relationships so they see numerical data as being the most appropriate form of evidence. Alternatively,
interpretivists who place greatest emphasis on understanding the meanings held by social actors
and groups find quantitative data of little use.
B THE USES OF QUANTITATIVE DATA
• Comparisons can be drawn either within the data or between different sources of data.
Patterns and trends over time can be identified. The sociologist is able to see if there are
any changes in behaviour patterns and when these changes have occurred. The rate of
change, if any, can be identified, as can any unusual ‘blips’. For example, the current divorce
rate can be compared with that of previous years or with those of other societies. The rate of
change in the divorce rate that occurred in the 1970s and 1980s can be seen to have slowed,
with the figures appearing to reach some kind of plateau. Sudden increases in divorce can be
seen immediately after the Second World War and following the introduction of the Divorce
Law Reform Act. To the sociologist, statistical changes like these are important as they
indicate alterations in social behaviour which then require explanation. Qualitative data
cannot be analysed in this way as it appears in textual form which is numerically unclassifiable.
• Correlations can be drawn from statistical data. This is when two or more factors seem to
act in a connected way. For example, one of the most recent areas of educational research is
into the tendency for males to underachieve in education this decade. It was quantitative data
in the form of examination pass rates that indicated this trend and which caused concern
amongst educationalists and in turn, prompted sociological investigation into why this has occurred.
• Positivist sociologists see statistical correlations as suggesting the causes of social
behaviour. Thus for Durkheim, being Protestant caused a greater tendency towards committing suicide. He went further and argued that behind this was a law of social behaviour relating to the degree of social integration and the rate of suicide. The search for causal relationships is fundamental to scientific enquiry which is why those who would like sociology to mirror the methods of the natural sciences have a clear preference for collecting quantitative
data.
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B THE USES OF QUANTITATIVE DATA (cont.)
• Quantitative data is drawn from a larger sample of respondents than in qualitative research.
Positivists emphasise the need to use a representative sample. Most quantitative data is
collected with representativeness in mind and therefore generalisations can be made
on the basis of the results from the sample. Qualitative research cannot make this claim as it
tends to focus on very small groups of research subjects or one social situation.
• This also has a social policy dimension. The relationships of social class, gender and ethnicity
with health, education, crime employment etc. are not just of sociological interest, they are of
great social and political importance as well. Quantitative data collected by governmental organisations and other institutions monitors the effects of social policy and is used to justify
new policy directions.
C Problems with quantitative data
• The issue of validity. Statistical data looks very impressive, but what does it really
tell us about social behaviour? Interpretivist sociologists have identified the ways that quantitative data may not give an accurate view of social behaviour. If the data is not an accurate depiction of social reality then what use is it? The collection of quantitative data is itself a social
process. The statistical image presented is socially constructed and therefore may well not be
an accurate depiction of social reality.
• For example, official statistics concerning criminal activity are far from being objective ‘facts’
and they in all likelihood understate the true level of crime and distort the social characteristics
of those who commit crime. Before a criminal act is recorded as such it has to be identified as a
crime, reported and then acted upon. At each point in this process, social actors make decisions whether to report it etc. and the end result is an official level of reported crime and a ‘dark
figure’ of unrecorded crime. Any sociological theory which is based on using official statistics is
likely, as Durkheim’s was, to be undermined by this critique.
• Even the quantitative data gathered first hand by the sociologist is of questionable
validity. Any structured research instrument imposes the definitions, questions and response
categories that the sociologist thinks appropriate. Any responses which do not fit, any questions
which the respondent might feel are important to be considered, any interesting responses
which in other circumstances could be usefully followed up and any questions with ill-defined
wording all contribute to a loss of validity.
• Quantitative data tends to be very descriptive rather than analytical. It might reveal patterns of social behaviour but it is questionable how useful it then becomes in terms of providing
explanations of why those patterns exist.
D
EVALUATION
• It is clearly the case that sociological research relies to a great extent on the use of
quantitative data. It is extremely useful for identifying trends and patterns in behaviour
as well as correlations between social factors. Without data of this kind it is difficult to
see how sociology could function as an academic subject.
• However, quantitative data does have weaknesses particularly in terms of its validity,
which lead some sociologists to conclude that although it looks impressive, the statistical image of social behaviour is often inaccurate.
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‘Despite it’s problems, the social survey remains the most effective
method of sociological investigation .’ Assess this claim.
SUMMARY
The social survey has often been seen as THE method of sociological research. It does have its
weaknesses - particularly in terms of the questionable validity of some survey results - but it has
many strengths as well. These strengths mainly relate to the reliability and representativeness of
social surveys.
You will get marks for showing your knowledge of the reasons why the survey can be
seen as an effective research technique. You should also examine the problems with this
approach. There are a lot of marks also available for how well you can analyse surveys
and evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of this approach. The structure of this answer
format should help you to organise your knowledge in a way that helps you to display these analytical and evaluative skills. You should also try to make reference to examples of interviewing in
sociological research.
A DECONSTRUCTION
• The social survey is the research method most often associated with sociology. It is a largescale, structured research instrument used to gather quantitative data about social behaviour.
• It remains probably the most used research technique and there are some very good reasons
why this is so. Positivists tend to see surveys as having many advantages because as a
method it meets their criteria of being reliable, replicable and representative.
• However, the social survey also has problems with the validity of the data it creates.
What does it actually mean? Does the quantitative data created in a survey actually tell us
about the meanings held by individuals and groups?
• All research methods have problems and it may well be the case that despite the problems of validity - and other weaknesses - the social survey is still the most effective
way to carry out sociological research.
• Much also depends upon what issue and social group the researcher is concerned
with. Some issues - particularly sensitive ones - may not be easily investigated using
surveys.
B
SOCIAL SURVEYS - ‘DESPITE ITS PROBLEMS…’
The social survey has some weaknesses
• Validity Just how meaningful is the data generated by social surveys? Interpretivist
sociologists criticise survey data as failing to produce valid data for a number of reasons. Fixed response questions impose the researchers’ meanings onto the questionnaire,
respondents may not understand the questions in the same way and what people say they do
may well be different to what they do. Survey data presented in statistical form often
looks very impressive but just how meaningful is data like this?
• Can social behaviour be measured in a quantifiable manner? Social behaviour is so complex and ever-changing that it may not be measurable.
• Comparing data Although its usually possible to compare data within a survey, the range of
definitions, concepts and question styles used in different research studies makes comparison of data between studies very difficult.
• Representativeness is difficult to achieve in practice. Identifying the characteristics of a
population, finding or creating a sample frame, selecting a sample, maintaining it over the research period and getting a high response rate all create difficulties in terms of representativeness.
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C
SURVEYS - ‘THE MOST EFFECTIVE METHOD OF SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH’?
Positivists have argued that the survey has many strengths that makes it a very effective
form of sociological research.
• Comparative data Positivist sociologists want data that can be compared and analysed for
trends and patterns. To do this requires everyone in a study to be asked the same questions
in the same way and with the same responses. Social surveys do just that.
• Representativeness Social surveys are sample surveys, that is, they question only a small
number of the whole research population. If that sample is representative of the whole research population, then the results of the sample can be generalised to the whole population.
• Large-scale research Postal surveys in particular allows large-scale research to be carried
out. A statistically relevant sample can be created usually with a few hundred respondents but
representative of a much larger group. Using postal surveys, this can be achieved in a fairly
inexpensive manner, even given the problems of low response rates.
• Mailed surveys Research populations are often spread over a wide area making it difficult to
question them face-to-face. Mailed surveys can reach a geographically dispersed sample relatively quickly and efficiently.
• Researcher distance Mailed surveys are more neutral. They remove the researcher from
the presence of the respondent, reducing the likelihood of interviewer effect. Alternatively, with
interview surveys, the presence of the researcher has its positive uses in that questions and
the purpose of the interview can be explained. If the interviewer maintains a low personal profile, this may reduce ‘interviewer effect’.
• Reliability The survey is also replicable not only in the sense that other researchers can repeat it to verify the results, but also in that the raw data can be analysed and re-interpreted by
other researchers. Other sociologists can check the survey process for methodological flaws.
• Compared to other methods, the survey has many advantages
• Participant observation does not create data which can be analysed for trends and correlated behaviour patterns. The data generated is descriptive and unstructured making
it difficult to draw generalised conclusions.
• Surveys also create primary data which gives it clear advantages over other, secondary, sources of material. The researcher can develop their own concepts, operationalise them in the way they feel is most appropriate, focus only on issues of sociological
importance and so on.
D EVALUATION
• No single method has a monopoly over ‘usefulness’ in sociological research, all methods have their strengths and weaknesses.
• It all depends on how ‘usefulness’ is defined. What does the sociologist want a study
to do? If the aim is to generate quantifiable, analysable and comparative data, then the
survey is a very appropriate research technique. If however, the need is to create data
which offers an insight into the way a social group sees the world, then it is less useful.
• The research group and issue are also important factors. Surveys are less effective for
researching sensitive issues and groups that are likely to be defensive about their attitudes and activities.
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Evaluate the usefulness of different types of secondary
data other than official statistics.
SUMMARY
You will get marks for showing your knowledge of the uses secondary data other than official statistics. There are a lot of marks also available for how well you can analyse and
evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of different kinds of secondary data. The structure
of this answer format should help you to organise your knowledge in a way that helps you to display these analytical and evaluative skills. You should also try to make reference to examples of
interviewing in sociological research.
A DECONSTRUCTION
• Secondary data is data which is already in existence and which may be of use to the sociologist in their research. Apart from official statistics, this can be found in several forms:
media reports
personal documents
oral histories
existing qualitative sociological research
historical documents
• These sources of secondary data are mainly qualitative in nature although some may
be analysed in such a way as to be presented in statistical form.
• Although secondary data of these kinds tends to have a fairly limited application to sociology, they do have their uses in specific research contexts. As with any research data,
they also have their problems.
B
The usefulness of different types of secondary data
Personal documents
• These can be diaries, memoirs, autobiographies, letters and so on which individuals have
created for a variety of uses. Because they are written for personal purposes these tend
to have a fairly high degree of validity although sociologists should always be aware that
any personal document is written with an audience or audiences in mind. So there is a danger
of bias in documents like these. The memoirs of politicians for example, may well be full of
‘old score settling’! Sometimes personal documents are the only records of a particular group
or activity, for example the diaries of Cabinet Ministers are the only way of knowing what may
have happened in a group whose minutes of meetings remain secret for up to 100 years. Personal records often provide a genuine insight into important decision-making processes.
• There are many difficulties in using personal documents. There is no way of knowing how
representative a particular document is or of evaluating its accuracy and validity. Some
social groups leave comparatively few personal documents partly because of differential literacy levels and partly as a result of the way they may see their lack of social importance.
Some documents are written some time after the events they are referring to. Politician’s
memoirs often fall into this category and may be written with the benefit of ‘20-20 hindsight’!
Oral Histories
• Oral history involves interviewing people about their memories of past events, committing
their oral statement to paper or onto audiotape.
• The main advantage of this approach is that it allows the voices of ‘ordinary people’ to
be heard. Few outside of any social elite leave much in the way of written personal records
so there is a real gap in our understanding of how the majority of people felt in the past. Oral
history also has the advantage of the respondent being guided into areas of sociological interest. Many personal documents cover a mass of material and take a good deal of sifting
through. Oral histories can be structured so that memories of specific activities for example,
behaviour at football matches or the employment experiences of women can emerge.
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B
The usefulness of different types of secondary data (cont.)
• Oral histories have their limitations. Memory is an inaccurate instrument, being affected by
later experiences, the accounts of others and partial recollection. The distance oral histories
can go back into the past are also limited by the natural life span of respondents. Those being
interviewed may not have any recollections which are relevant or the researcher may not
know what areas of experience are there to be explored.
Media reports
• Much of our knowledge and understanding of the world comes from media sources. This media material is available for sociological analysis. The two main ways of analysing media
reports are quantitative and qualitative investigation. The former measures the amount of
coverage given to a particular issue, the number of repeated images, etc. whilst the latter attempts to uncover the meanings attached to particular words and images.
• One advantage of using media material is that it is very comprehensive - possibly too comprehensive to deal with all aspects of media reporting. Furthermore, it is sometimes claimed that
Britain’s mass media represents a wide range of opinion. Reports can be fairly easily organised into systematic data of use to the sociologist; for example, children’s literature can be
analysed in terms of the gender representation of characters. News reports can be quantified
in terms of the amount of time or space given to particular points of view, as has been successfully done by the Glasgow Media Group’s studies of television coverage of major issues.
• However, both the media reports themselves and the ways sociologists can try to analyse
them have some major problems. Media reports are essentially biased. All the main daily
newspapers in Britain have a political slant as is usually evidenced by their coverage of general election campaigns. The whole issue of media content is itself the focus of a lot of sociological enquiry. Quantitative measurement of the content of media reports is limited in
its usefulness in that it might identify patterns but cannot explain them. Simply measuring content gives little indication of why media reports may be biased. Qualitative reporting
attempts to do this but suffers from the problems associated with exploring the meanings carried by words and images. The main issue here is interpretation. To get to the meaning of
an image involves interpreting it and any interpretation is going to be open to challenge, being
itself a value judgement.
Historical documents
• Sometimes an historical perspective is useful in a sociological study especially as it tends to
remind us that we often wrongly assume some social activity to be a recent development.
Geoffrey Pearson’s study of the history of football hooliganism was a useful antidote to the
view often presented in the British media during the 1970s that it was a new form of social delinquency.
• Historical documents have their problems particularly in terms of their representativeness, accuracy and interpretation.
Existing sociological research
• Many research studies begin with a review of the existing sociological research into whatever
area they are examining. These studies often provide a springboard for further research, because of the way in which they can be seen to have weaknesses which another study can follow-up. However, it is often difficult to directly compare the results of one piece of research with another as concepts, definitions, systems of measurement and general
methodological approaches will vary considerably.
C EVALUATION
• Qualitative secondary data can provide insights into social behaviour that are useful to
sociologists particularly those who accept the need to explore the meanings social actors attach to events. They can provide an historical or ‘insider’ perspective.
• However, they are limited in terms of availability, representativeness, failings of memory, systematisation and relevance to all areas of sociological enquiry. They are therefore rarely the main element in a research study, but often contribute an important dimension to research.
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