Download Banker`s Bible - The Dublin School of Grinds

6th Year
Biology
Higher Level
Wesley Hammond
Banker’s Bible
‘Nothing consoles and comforts like certainty does’ (Amit Kalantri)
No part of this publication may be copied, reproduced or transmitted in any form or
by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without
prior written permission from The Dublin School of Grinds.
Ref: 6/bio/h/wh/ BankersBible
6-HOUR
CRASH
COURSES
MAY & JUNE 2017
TEACHERS THAT WILL INCREASE YOUR CAO POINTS
The final push for CAO
points...
6th Year Fees
1 Course
The Dublin School of Grinds is running 6-hour
Crash Courses at the end of May and the
beginning of June. These courses give students
the best possible advantage as they prepare for
the all-important State Examinations. One last
ounce of effort could make all the difference.
€160
2 Courses €290
3 Courses €390
4 Courses €460
5 Courses €510
3rd Year Fees
How these courses will benefit you:
»» They will give you an exam strategy plan to
help you maximise your grade on the day
»» They will provide you with a final boost of
confidence before exam day
»» They will offer you one last opportunity to
avail of expert teaching before the State
Examinations
1 Course
€105
2 Courses €190
3 Courses €275
Subject
Accounting
Level
H
Date
Time
Friday 2nd June
9am - 3pm
Biology
H
Sunday 28th May
9am - 3pm
Biology
H
Saturday 3rd June
9am - 3pm
Business
H
Friday 2nd June
9am - 3pm
Chemistry
H
Friday 2nd June
9am - 3pm
Economics
H
Sunday 4th June
9am - 3pm
English
H
Sunday 28th May
9am - 3pm
English
H
Sunday 4th June
9am - 3pm
French
H
Saturday 3rd June
9am - 3pm
Geography
H
Saturday 27th May
9am - 3pm
Irish
H
Saturday 3rd June
9am - 3pm
Maths Paper 1
H
Saturday 27th May
9am - 3pm
5 Courses €445
Maths Paper 1
H
Saturday 3rd June
9am - 3pm
Maths Paper 2
H
Sunday 28th May
9am - 3pm
Maths Paper 2
H
Sunday 4th June
9am - 3pm
9am - 3pm
Maths
O
Saturday 27th May
Maths
O
Friday 2nd June
9am - 3pm
Physics
H
Sunday 4th June
9am - 3pm
Spanish
H
Friday 2nd June
9am - 3pm
3rd Year
Stress Buster Course
Fees: €50
Venue: The Stillorgan Plaza
(next to Odeon cinema)
Date: Saturday 20th May
Time: 10:30am - 12:00pm
To book, call us on 01 442 4442 or book online at
www.dublinschoolofgrinds.ie
DSOG Crash Courses May2017 2pg A4.indd 2
6th Year
4 Courses €360
Note: At these courses our teachers will predict what questions are most
likely to appear on your exam paper. These questions will be covered in
detail and our teachers will provide you with model H1 answers.
This course has been specially developed
to ease students’ worries and show them
the techniques which will help them to
stay calm both in the lead up to the State
Examinations and on exam day itself. This
course is tutored by Enda O’ Doherty, who
has 25 years’ experience in the field.
Crash Courses Timetable
Subject
Business Studies
Level
H
Date
Time
Saturday 27th May
9am - 3pm
English
H
Saturday 27th May
9am - 3pm
French
H
Sunday 28th May
9am - 3pm
Irish
H
Sunday 28th May
9am - 3pm
Maths
H
Sunday 28th May
9am - 3pm
Science
H
Saturday 3rd June
9am - 3pm
Spanish
H
Sunday 4th June
9am - 3pm
H = Higher O = Ordinary
Please note: all 6-Hour Crash Courses will take place
in The Stillorgan Plaza (next door to Odeon Cinema).
05/05/2017 12:17
The syllabus contains a large list of definitions that you can be asked to define in
your Leaving Certificate. This set of notes contains all the definitions from each
topic of the Biology syllabus. Examiners have asked in previous exam papers
between 25 to 40 definitions, meaning this booklet is worth between 20% to
27% of your Biology Leaving Certificate Paper.
Contents
The Scientific Method…………………………………………………………………………….3
Characteristics of Life ……………………………………………………………………………3
Food……………………………………………………………………………………………………...3
Ecology………………………………………………………………………………………………….4
Study of an Ecosystem …………………………………………………………………………...6
Cell Structure ………………………………………………………………………………………...6
Cell Diversity …………………………………………………………………………………………6
Enzymes ………………………………………………………………………………………………..7
Photosynthesis……………………………………………………………………………………….7
Respiration…………………………………………………………………………………………….7
Diffusion and Osmosis ……………………………………………………………………………8
Cell Division…………………………………………………………………………………………...8
Classification and Heredity …………………………………………………………………….8
DNA and RNA…………………………………………………………………………………………9
Genetic Crosses………………………………………………………………………………………9
Variation and Evolution…………………………………………………………………………10
Genetic Engineering………………………………………………………………………………10
Bacteria ………………………………………………………………………………………………..11
Fungi…………………………………………………………………………………………………….11
Amoeba………………………………………………………………………………………………...12
Structure of a Flowering Plant………………………………………………………………..12
Transport and Food in a Plant ……………………………………………………………….12
Blood…………………………………………………………………………………………………….13
The Heart………………………………………………………………………………………………13
The Lymphatic System…………………………………………………………………………...14
Human Digestion……………………………………………………………………………………14
Homeostasis…………………………………………………………………………………………..15
Human Breathing…………………………………………………………………………………...15
Excretion……………………………………………………………………………………………….15
Plant Responses……………………………………………………………………………………..15
The Nervous System…………………………………………………………………………….…16
The Endocrine System …………………………………………………………………………...17
The Skeleton and Muscles……………………………………………………………………….17
The Human Defence System……………………………………………………………………18
Viruses…………………………………………………………………………………………………..19
Sexual Reproduction in the Flowering Plants ………………………………………….19
Vegetative Propagation…………………………………………………………………………..20
Human Reproduction……………………………………………………………………………..20
Definitions Asked in Previous Exam Papers……………………………………………..22
©The Dublin School of Grinds
2
Wesley Hammond
Important definitions in each topic:
The Scientific Method:

A hypothesis is an educated guess based on observations.

A theory is when a hypothesis has been proven correct by many
experiments.

A law or principle is formed when a theory has been proven to be
correct over a long period of time.

A control is used for a comparison in an experiment.

A variable is factor that can change in an experiment.

A replicate is when an experiment is repeated.

Data measurements and information gathered from an experiment.

Ethics looks at if something is right or wrong.

Double blind testing means that neither the person receiving the drug,
nor the person giving the drug knows what type of treatment the patient
is receiving (the real treatment or the placebo).
Characteristics of life:

Metabolism is the sum of all the chemical reactions in a living thing.

Continuity of life means that living things come from other living things.

Excretion is the removal of metabolic waste made in the body.

Response is the way in which living things react to a stimulus.
Food:

Biomolecules are chemicals made in living things.

A trace element is when it occurs in small amounts.

Monosaccharides are a single sugar unit(e.g glucose, fructose).

Disaccharides are two sugar units joined together (sucrose, maltose).
©The Dublin School of Grinds
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Wesley Hammond

Polysaccharides are many sugar units joined together (starch, cellulose
and glycogen).

A triglyceride consists of one glycerol molecule and three fatty acids.

A phospholipid consists of one glycerol molecule, two fatty acids and a
phosphate.

Water soluble vitamin is one that dissolves in water (e.g Vitamin C).

Fat soluble vitamin is one that dissolves in fat (e.g vitamin D).

Anabolic reaction converts a small molecule into a more complex
(larger) one (photosynthesis).

Catabolic reaction breaks down a large molecule into a simpler one (e.g
respiration, digestion).
Ecology:

Ecology is the study of how living things interact with their environment.

An ecosystem is interaction of living organisms with their environment
(e.g grassland).

A biosphere is the part of the planet containing living things.

A population is the number of organisms for one species living in an
area.

A community is all the different populations living in an area ( e.g
rabbits, snails and foxes).

A habitat is where an animal or plant lives.

Biotic factors are living factors ( e.g food, competition, predation or
humans).

Abiotic factors are non living factors (e.g temperature, soil, rainfall).

Edaphic factors relate to the soil (e.g soil pH, soil temperature).

Climatic factors relate to the climate (e.g wind, rainfall).

Consumers are organisms that take in food from other organisms (e.g
rabbits).

Producers make their own food (e.g all plants).
©The Dublin School of Grinds
4
Wesley Hammond

A food chain shows a number of organisms in which one is eaten by
another (grass
rabbits
Fox).

A trophic level is a feeding stage in the food chain (the food chain above
has 3 trophic levels).

A primary consumer eats a producer.

A secondary consumer eats a primary consumer.

A tertiary consumer eats a secondary consumer.

A decomposer breaks down dead organic matter (e.g bacteria, fungi or
earthworm).

A herbivore eats plants only.

An omnivore eats both plants and animals.

A carnivore eats meat only.

Detritus feeders feed on dead leaves and dead organic matter.

A food web is two or more inter-linked food chains.

A niche is the functional role an organism plays in the ecosystem.

A pyramid of numbers represents the number of organisms at each
trophic level of a food chain.

Pollution is the release of any harmful substances into the environment.

A pollutant is the substance that is causing the pollution.

Conservation is the wise management of our natural resources and the
preventing of organisms becoming extinct.

Competition is the struggle between two organisms for a resource (e.g
food, shelter or mates).

Contest competition is the physical struggle between two organisms and
only one gets the resource (e.g two male deer’s fighting for a female).

Scramble competition is where a number of organisms struggle for a
resource but they all get some of the resource (e.g all young seedling
plants competing for light and space).
©The Dublin School of Grinds
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Wesley Hammond

Intra-specific competition is when two organisms of the same species
compete.

Inter-specific competition occurs between organisms of different
species.

Predation is the killing and eating of another organism.

A predator catches and kills another organism.

The prey is the organism been killed and eaten.

Symbiosis occurs when two organisms living in close association with
each other and at least one of them benefits.

Parasitism occurs when one organism lives on another (the host) and
causes it harm.

Exoparasites or ectoparasites live on the host on the outside.

Endoparasites live on the host on the inside.

An adaption is a feature of the organism that increases its chance of
survival (e.g rabbits can run fast to escape from predators).

Nitrogen fixation: the conversion of nitrogen gas into ammonia or
nitrates.

Nitrification: the conversion of ammonia to nitrite and then nitrate.

Denitrification: the conversion of nitrates to nitrogen gas.

Nutrient recycling is when carbon or nitrogen are exchanged between
living and non living parts of the environment.
Study of an ecosystem:

A key is used to identify plants or animals.

A qualitative study records if a plant or animal is present or absent.

A quantitative study records the number of organisms present.
Cell Structure:

A cell membrane is selectively permeable (allows only certain things in
and out of cell).
©The Dublin School of Grinds
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Wesley Hammond

Nucleus is the control centre of cell.

A ribosome is where protein is made in a cell.

Mitochondria is where energy is made in the cell.

Prokaryotic cells do not contain a nucleus or cell organelles containing
membranes.

Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus and contain cell organelles with a
membrane.

Chloroplast is the cell organelle were photosynthesis takes place.

Chlorophyll is the green pigment that absorbs light.
Cell diversity:

A tissue culture is the growth of cells in a sterile nutrient outside an
organism.

A tissue is a group of cells working together that carry out the same
function.

An organ is a group of tissues working together and carrying out the
same function.

A system is a group of organs that work together that carry out nor or
more functions.
Enzymes:

An enzyme is a biological catalyst.

An enzyme is made up of a protein.

A catalyst is used to speed up a chemical reaction without being used up
in the reaction.

A substrate is what an enzyme acts on.

A product is what is produced when an enzyme acts on the substrate.

A denatured enzyme has lost its shape and function (caused by an
incorrect temperature or pH).
©The Dublin School of Grinds
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Wesley Hammond

An immobilised enzyme are enzymes that are attached to each other or
trapped in an inert material.

Bioprocessing is the using of enzymes in chemical reacitons to make a
new product.

A bioreactor is a container in which new products are made by living
cells or enzymes.

The active site of an enzyme is the part that joins with the substrate.

Optimum activity of enzyme is when the enzyme is working at its
maximum rate.

Specificity of an enzyme is when it only reacts with one type of
substrate.
Photosynthesis:

Light stage does require light during photosynthesis (light dependent
stage).

Dark stage does not require light during photosynthesis (light
independent stage).

Photolysis is the splitting of water during photosynthesis.
Respiration:

Aerobic respiration is the controlled release of energy from food using
oxygen.

Anaerobic respiration is the controlled release of energy from food
without the use of oxygen.

Fermentation is also known as anaerobic respiration.

Cytosol is the cytoplasm minus the cell organelles of a cell.
Osmosis and Diffusion:

Diffusion is the movement of molecules from a region of high
concentration to a region of low concentration.

Osmosis is the movement of water across a selectively membrane from a
region of high concentration to a region of low concentration.
©The Dublin School of Grinds
8
Wesley Hammond

Turgor pressure occurs when there is pressure of the vacuole and the
cytoplasm against the plant cell wall.

Plasmolysis occurs when the plant cell losses water and the cell
membrane moving away from the cell wall.

Active transport is the energy required to move molecules from a low
concentration to a high concentration.

Passive transport does not require energy for the movement of
molecules.
Cell division:

Chromosomes consist of DNA and protein.

Chromatin are a mass of chromosomes that are elongated.

A haploid cell has one set of chromosomes.

A diploid cell has two sets of chromosomes.

The interphase occurs when the cell is not dividing.

Mitosis occurs when the nucleus of a cell divides into two identical nuclei.

Meiosis occurs when the nucleus of a cell divides into four nuclei which
contain half the number of chromosomes of the parent nucleus.

Carcinogens are cancer causing agents.

Mutagens are agents that cause mutations.

Oncogenes are cancer causing genes.

Cancer occurs when mitosis in a cell occurs to often and too quickly.
Classification and heredity:

A species is a group of organisms that can naturally interbreed with each
other and produce offspring that are fertile.

Variation within a species occurs when members of the same species
have different characteristics.

Acquired variations develop during life and are not inherited.

Inherited variations are controlled by your genes.
©The Dublin School of Grinds
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Wesley Hammond

A gene is a section of DNA that carries the code for the production of
protein.

Heredity occurs when genes pass on characteristics from parents to their
offspring.

Gene expression is the way in which genetic information is decoded in a
cell to allow the production of protein.

Junk DNA (non coding DNA) is DNA that do not help in the production of
protein.
DNA and RNA:

A triplet (codon) is a sequence of three bases.

Complementary bases are when each base has a different corresponding
base.

Anti codon is a sequence of three bases on the tRNA that complement
three bases on the mRNA.

DNA profiling makes a pattern of DNA bands of a person, which can be
used to distinguish that DNA from other DNA.

Restriction enzymes are used to cut the DNA into different fragments.

Genetic screening is the testing of DNA for an altered gene.

Translation is the making of a protein using the mRNA code.

Transcription is the making of mRNA from DNA.

Genetic code is the instructions carried by the sequence of DNA for the
formation of protein.

A nucleotide consists of a phosphate group, deoxyribose (sugar) and a
nitrogen base.

Purines are double ringed molecules and include adenine and guanine.

Pyrimidines are single ringed molecules which include cytosine and
thymine.
©The Dublin School of Grinds
10
Wesley Hammond
Genetic crosses:

Alleles are different forms of the same gene.

The locus of a gene is its position on a chromosome.

A dominant allele prevents the recessive allele working.

A recessive allele is prevented from working by the dominant allele.

Phenotype is the physical make up of a gene.

Genotype is the genetic make-up of a gene.

Homozygous is when two alleles are the same.

Heterozygous is when the two alleles are different.

Progeny is the offspring produced.

Incomplete dominance occurs when neither allele is recessive or
dominant.

A somatic cell is all the body cells except the reproductive cell.

Autosomes are all the non sex chromosomes.

The law of segregation :
Inherited characteristics are controlled by pairs of factors which separate
from each other at gamete formation where only one is found in each
gamete.

The law of independent assortment:
When gametes are formed either of a pair factors is equally likely to
combine with another pair of factors.

A dihybrid cross involves two inherited characteristics.

A monohybrid cross involves one inherited cross.

Linkage is when genes are located on the same chromosome.

Sex linkage is when a characteristic is controlled by a gene on the X
chromosome.
©The Dublin School of Grinds
11
Wesley Hammond
Variation and evolution:

A mutation is a change in the amount or structure of the DNA.

A mutagen is what causes a mutation to occur.

A gene mutation are changes in a single gene.

A chromosome mutation is a change in the number or structure of one
or more chromosomes.

Evolution is the genetic change in a species over a long period of time.
Genetic engineering:

Genetic engineering is the artificial alteration of a gene.

A cloning vector is a piece of DNA that can accept foreign DNA and
replicate itself.

DNA ligase is an enzyme used to join foreign DNA the DNA of the cloning
vector.

Isolation is when plasmid DNA is removed from the bacteria and the
chromosome being removed from the human cell.

Ligation is the joining of two separate DNA strands together.

Transformation is the uptake of DNA in a cell.

Bacteriophage is a virus that can attack bacteria.
Bacteria (monera):

Binary fission is how bacteria reproduce asexually.

Endospores allow bacteria to survive harsh conditions.

Autotrophic means an organism that makes its own food.

Photosynthetic bacteria make their own food using light (e.g purple
sulphur bacteria).

Chemosynthetic bacteria make their own food from chemical reactions
(e.g Nitrifying bacteria).

Heterotrophic means an organism that takes in food from other
organisms.
©The Dublin School of Grinds
12
Wesley Hammond

Saprophytes take in food from dead organic matter.

Parasites take in food from a live host and cause harm.

Facultative parasite is when it gets its food from a live or a dead
organism.

Obligate parasite can only get food from a live organism (host).

A pathogen is a disease causing micro-organism.

Antibiotics are chemicals made by micro-organisms that kill other
harmful micro-organisms.

Antibiotic resistance means a micro-organism is no longer affected by
the antibiotic.

A batch culture is when a fixed amount of nutrients are added to a
bioreactor containing micro-organisms to make a product. .

A continuous flow culture is when nutrients are continuously added to a
bioreactor containing micro-organisms to make a product.
Fungi:

A mass of hyphae is called a mycelium.

Hypha is a tube in the fungus.

Sporulation is the making of spores.

Budding (involves mitosis) is the process in which yeast reproduce
asexually.

Sterile means that all micro-organisms are killed.

Aseptic means procedures that are carried out to prevent unwanted
micro-organisms.

A nutrient medium provides food for micro-organisms to grow.

An agar plate is a petri dish containing a jelly (or solid medium).
Amoeba:

Osmoregulation is the controlling of the water concentration in a cell.
©The Dublin School of Grinds
13
Wesley Hammond
Structure of a flowering plant:

Internode is the distance between the two nodes.

Node is where the stem is attached to the stem.

A tap root or primary root is the main root of a plant (e.g carrot).

A fibrous root is a group of equally sized roots (e.g grasses).

A meristem is part of a plant that can carry out mitosis for growth (e.g
apical stem or root tip).

Herbaceous plants do not contain wood (lignin).

A woody plant contains lignin.

A lenticel is an opening in a stem for gas exchange.

Venation of a leaf is the the pattern of its veins.

Parallel venation on a leaf is when veins run parallel with each other (e.g
grasses).

Net venation on a leaf is when veins are branched (e.g buttercup).

Dermal tissue protects the plant.

Ground tissue is where photosynthesis takes place.

Vascular tissue transport materials through a plant.

A cotyledon is a seed leaf (monocots contain one seed leaf, dicots contain
two seed leaves).
Transport and food storage in a plant:

Transpiration is the loss of water from the leaf of a plant.

Root hairs absorb water by osmosis.

Active transport the movement of molecules across a cell membrane
from a region of low concentration to a region of high concentration and
requires energy.

Cohesion is the sticking of water molecules to each other.
©The Dublin School of Grinds
14
Wesley Hammond

Adhesion occurs when water molecules stick to the walls of xylem.

A bulb is known as a modified bud.
Blood:

Plasma liquid part of the blood. Transport materials (glucose, amino
acids, carbon dioxide, urea, and vitamins) around the body.

Red blood cells (erythrocytes) are made in the bone marrow and
transport oxygen around the body.

Haemoglobin is a protein found in red blood cells which transports
oxygen around the body.

White blood cells (leucocytes) fight infection.

Phagocytes are white blood cells that surround and engulf their prey
(bacteria or viruses).

Lymphocytes are white blood cells that produce antibodies which help
the body to fight infection.

Platelets clot the blood which prevents blood loss and prevents the entry
of harmful micro-organisms.
The Heart:

Blood pressure is the force of blood against the wall of an artery.

Closed circulatory system is when blood remains in the blood vessels.

Open circulatory system is when blood leaves the blood vessels.

Valves prevent the back flow of blood.

Inelastic protein prevents the walls of blood vessels from over
expansion.

Muscle and elastic fibres in the blood vessel allows it to alter the size of
the blood vessel.

A tricuspid valve is found on right side of heart and has three flaps.

A bicuspid valve is found on left side of heart and has two flaps.
©The Dublin School of Grinds
15
Wesley Hammond

Semi-lunar valves found in the pulmonary artery and aorta prevent
blood from re-entering the heart.

Diastole occurs when the heart chamber relaxes.

Systole occurs when the heart chambers contract.

A pacemaker sends out electrical impulses causing the muscle of the
heart to contract.

A pulse is the expansion and contraction of an artery.

A portal system is when the transport of blood begins and ends in the
capillaries.
The lymphatic system:

Tissue fluid is plasma without red blood cells and platelets.

Lymph is made from tissue fluid and contains white blood cells, fats and
proteins.

Lymph nodes are swelling found along the lymph vessels.
Human Digestion:

Ingestion is the intake of food to the body through the mouth.

Digestion is the breakdown of food.

Absorption is the passing of nutrients into the blood by a process called
passive transport.

Egestion is the removal of unabsorbed food through the anus.

Mechanical digestion (physical digestion) is the breakdown of food
using teeth.

Chemical digestion is the breakdown of food using enzymes.

Peristalsis helps food move through the alimentary canal by muscle
contractions.

Incisors are teeth used to cut and slice the food.

Canines are teeth used grip and tear the food.

Premolars are teeth used to crush and grind the food.
©The Dublin School of Grinds
16
Wesley Hammond

Molars are teeth used to crush and grind the food.

Bile is made in the liver and stored in the gall bladder. It helps break
down fats and neutralises chime from the stomach.

Deamination is the breakdown in the liver of amino acids into urea.

A lacteal is used to absorb fatty acids and glycerol into the blood stream.

Symbiotic bacteria lives on a host and creates benefits. (e.g produce
vitamins B and K and prevent the growth of disease causing bacteria in
the large intestine).
Homeostasis:

Homeostasis is the way an organism maintains a constant internal
environment.
Human Breathing:

Epiglottis is used to close the trachea when you swallow food.

Larynx is used to make sound (voice box).

Alveoli are air sacs used to carry out gas exchange.
Excretion:
 Excretion: removal of metabolic waste out from the body.

Ectotherms lose or gain heat to their environment.

Endotherms create their own heat from metabolic reactions.

Epidermis of the skin protects the body.

The dermis of the skin protects the internal organs.

Melanin protects the skin from UV rays.

Piloerection causes the hairs of the skin to stand up and trap warmer air.

Glomerular filtrate is the plasma that has left the glomerulus and
entered the Bowman’s capsule.

Filtration occurs when substances are forced out of the blood and into
the kidneys.
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Wesley Hammond

Reabsorption occurs in the kidneys to take back useful substances back
into the blood.

Secretion occurs when certain substances are moved from the blood and
into the kidneys.
Plant Responses:

A stimulus causes an organism to react in a certain way.

A response is how an organism reacts to a stimulus.

An auxin is a growth regulator found in plants.

Tropism is a change in the response of plant to a certain stimulus.

Positive tropism is the growth of a plant towards a stimulus.

Negative tropism is the growth of a plant away from a stimulus.

Phototropism is how a plant grows in response to light.

Geotropism is change of the growth of a plant in response to gravity.

Hydrotropism is the change in the growth of a plant in response to
water.

Chemotropism is the change in the growth of a plant in response to
chemicals.

Thigmotropism is the change in the growth of a plant in response to
touch.

Growth regulators are chemicals that control the growth of plant.

Growth promoters increase the rate of growth of a plant (auxins).

Growth inhibitors slow down the rate of growth of a plant (ehtene).

Adverse external conditions mean that surroundings are harmful to
organism(s).
The Nervous system:

A neuron is a nerve cell.

Sensory neurons carry electrical impulses towards the central nervous
system.
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Wesley Hammond

Motor neurons carry electrical impulses away from the central nervous
system to the muscles and glands.

Interneurons carry electrical impulses from the sensory neuron to the
motor neuron.

A receptor is a cell that detects a stimulus.

Dendrites carry impulses towards the cell body of a neuron.

An axon carries an impulse away from the cell body of a neuron.

Schwann cells make the myelin sheath.

Myelin sheath insulates the electrical impulse.

Ganglion is a group of cell bodies.

The refractory period is the time in which a stimulus fails to cause a
response.

A synapse is the area in which two neurons come into close contact with
each other.

A synaptic cleft is the gap between two neurons.

Cerebrum of the brain controls voluntary movements, thinking, memory
and language.

The cerebellum controls muscular coordination and balance.

The medulla oblongata controls involuntary actions such as breathing,
blood pressure and sneezing.

Refractory period is the short time in which the impulse doesn’t cause a
response.

A reflex action is an automatic and involuntary response to a stimulus.

Threshold is the smallest stimulus requires to cause the neuron to carry
an impulse.

All or nothing law is when the threshold is not reached no impulse is
carried but if threshold is reached, impulse is carried.
©The Dublin School of Grinds
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Wesley Hammond
The Endocrine system:

Exocrine glands release their substances into ducts or tubes.

Endocrine glands are ductless glands that release hormones straight into
the blood stream.

A hormone is a chemical messenger produced by endocrine glands which
is transported in the blood. .

When the level of a hormone (in the blood) controls (the production) of
another (or itself)
Skeleton and Muscles:

Axial skeleton is made up of the skull and cranium.

The appendicular skeleton is made up of the pelvic girdle, pectoral
girdle and limbs.

Pectoral girdle is made up from the collarbone and shoulder blade.

Pelvic girdle is made up the hip bones and the sacrum.

Cartilage protects bones and acts as a shock absorber.

Osteoblasts are bone forming cells.

Osteoclasts are bone digesting cells.

A joint is where two bones meet.

Ball and socket joints all movement in all directions (e.g shoulder and
hip).

Hinge joint allows movement in one direction only (e.g knee and elbow).

Ligaments connect bone to bone.

Tendons connect muscle to bone.

Antagonistic muscles are two muscles have the opposite effects to each
other (e.g bicep and tricep).
©The Dublin School of Grinds
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Wesley Hammond
Human Defence System:

Immunity is the ability of an organism to prevent disease.

The general defence system acts as a barrier to all micro-organisms
trying to enter the body.

The specific defence system attack and destroy certain pathogens using
white blood cells and antibodies.

An antigen is a foreign molecule that causes the production of antibodies.

An antibody is a protein made by white blood cells in response to an
antigen.

Induced immunity allows an organism to resist disease caused by
pathogens which causes the production of antibodies.

Active immunity is the production of a person’s own antibodies caused
by antigens entering the body.

Artificial active immunity is the production of antibodies due to
pathogens being medically introduced to the human body.

Natural active immunity is the production of antibodies to the
pathogens entering the body in a natural way.

Passive immunity takes place when antibodies are given to organisms
that have been made by another organism.

Artificial passive immunity takes place when a person is given
antibodies by injections, which are made by another organism.

Natural passive immunity takes place when a child receives antibodies
from their mother.

B-cells are made in the bone marrow.

T-cells are made in the thymus gland.

B-cells produce antibodies.

Memory B-cells remain after the infection so they can respond if an
antigen enters body again.

Helper T-cells stimulate B-cells and killer T-cells.

Killer T-cells cause abnormal cells to burst.
©The Dublin School of Grinds
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Wesley Hammond

Suppressor T-cells turn of the immune system when the antigen has
been destroyed.

Memory T-cells stimulate memory B-cells and killer T-cells.

A vaccination is a safe dose of a pathogen which causes antibody
production.
Viruses:

A bacteriophage is a virus which attacks bacteria.

A virus consists and a capsid and nucleic acid (DNA or RNA).
Sexual Reproduction in flowering plants:

Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of sex cells from both parents.

Gametes are haploid sex cells.

Receptacle supports the floral part of flower.

Petals can be used to attract insects.

Stamens are the male part of flowers.

Sepals protect the flower.

Carpels are the female part of the flower.

Stigma is where the pollen lands on carpel.

The style is where the pollen grows to reach the ovary.

The exine of a pollen grain is a thick outer wall (allows pollen to survive).

Pollination is the transfer of pollen from the anther to a stigma of a
flower from the same species.

Self-pollination is the transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma on
the same plant.

Cross-pollination is the transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma
of a different plant but from the same species.

Fertilisation is the fusion of the male and female gamete to form a
diploid zygote.
©The Dublin School of Grinds
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Wesley Hammond

A non-endospermic seed has no endosperm.

An endospermic seed has an endosperm.

Plumule is part of seed that develops into future shoot.

Radicle is part of seed that develops into future root.

Dispersal is the transfer of a seed away from the parent plant.

Dormancy is when a seed is undergoing no growth and there is reduced
metabolism.

Germination is the regrowth of a seed (embryo) after a period of
dormancy.
Vegetative Propagation:

Vegetative propagation is asexual reproduction in a plant.

Asexual reproduction involves one parent.

Runners are stems that run along the ground and forms new plants.

A root tuber is a swollen underground root from which new plants can
grow.

Layering is when a branch of a plant is bent down and covered in soil
which will form a new plant.

Grafting is when one plant is joined on to another plant.

A cutting is when one plant is cut and grows into a new separate plant.
Human Reproduction:

Ejaculation is the release of semen from the penis.

A gonad is an organ that produces sex cells (e.g testis in males, ovary in
females).

Gametes are also known as sex cells.

The primary male sex characteristics involve the growth of the male
sex organ (penis and testis).
©The Dublin School of Grinds
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Wesley Hammond

Secondary sexual characteristics are the features that distinguish males
from females apart from the sex organs.

Infertility is when an organism cannot produce new offspring.

Ovulation is the release of an egg from the ovary.

The menopause is when the menstrual cycle stops occurring.

Menstruation is the shedding of the lining of the womb (uterus).

Fertilisation is the fusion of the male and female gametes to form a
diploid zygote.

Puberty is when an individual reaches sexual maturity.

Semen is the mixture of seminal fluid and sperm.

Insemination is when semen is released into the vagina.

Birth control limits the amount of children being born.

Contraception is the preventing of fertilisation taking place.

Implantation is the embedding of a fertilised egg into the uterus.

In-vitro fertilisation (IVF) is the removing of an egg outside the female
body and fertilising it.

A morula is a solid ball of cells formed after 3 days from a zygote dividing
by mitosis.

A blastocyst is a hollow ball of cells formed after 5 days from a morula.

The amnion is a membrane that contains amniotic fluid to protect the
embryo.

Germ layers are layers of cells in the blastocyst which forms adult tissue.

Gestation is the length of time from fertilisation to birth inside the
uterus.

Lactation is the production and secretion of milk by the mammary glands
of the female.
©The Dublin School of Grinds
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Wesley Hammond
Definitions asked in exam paper 2005 (higher level):

These definitions were worth 22% in the 2005 paper.
Term
Excretion
Hypothesis
Control
Data
Replicate
Theory
Diffusion (passive
transport)
Bioreactor
Replication[in relation
to DNA]
Transcription[in
relation to DNA]
Eukaryotic organisms
Genetic engineering
Recessive
Alleles
Genetic screening
Linkage
Sex linkage
Aerobic respiration.
Anaerobic respiration.
Competition
Contraception
Auxin
Exocrine gland
Endocrine gland
Pathogenic[bacteria]
Antibiotics
Saprophytic fungi
Parasitic fungi
Definition
Removal from the body of the waste products of
metabolism
A (possible) explanation (for an observation)
(Set up for) comparison
Measurements or observations or information
gathered[from the experiment(s)]
A repeat of an experiment or procedure
A supported hypothesis
a process by which soluble foods are absorbed
into the blood from the small intestine
A vessel / container / named industrial
example e.g. vat
Making a copy
(Matching) RNA production
(notion of both DNA and RNA must be given)
(Possesses) nucleus / membrane-bound
organelles
Manipulation of genes
its expression is masked by dominant (allele)
form of a gene
Testing (people) for the presence of a (specific)
gene
(Genes) on the same chromosome
Gene located on a sex (or X) chromosome
Aerobic respiration requires oxygen
anaerobic respiration does not requires oxygen
Rivalry (fight) for resource or named resource
/organisms requiring limited resources
Prevention of fertilisation (conception) or
implantation or pregnancy
growth regulator found in plants or named
plant or plant part
Ducted [gland]
ductless or hormone producing [gland]
Disease-causing[bacteria]
Substances produced by micro-organisms / inhibit
(growth or reproduction) of bacteria or fungi
Feeds on dead organisms (matter)
living in or on another organism causing harm.
©The Dublin School of Grinds
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Wesley Hammond
Definitions that were asked in exam paper 2011 (higher level):

These definitions were worth 28% of the 2011 paper.
Term
A situation in which
one organism lives on
or in a second species,
feeding on it and
causing it harm.
Organisms capable of
making their own
food.
All the members of a
species living in an
area.
Micro-organisms and
other organisms that
return nutrients to the
environment by
decay.
A situation in which
two organisms of
different species live
together and at least
one benefits.
A struggle between
organisms for a scarce
resource.
One organism killing
and eating another
organism.
Endotherm
Digestion
Mechanical and
chemical digestion
Experiment
Theory.
‘junk’ DNA
Protease
Contest competition
and scramble
competition
Acceptable response per marking scheme
Parasitism
producers;
population;
decomposers;
symbiosis;
competition;
predation;
(An animal that) produces its (own) body heat or
(body) temperature independent of (temperature of)
environment
The breakdown of food
Mechanical: physical or grinding or cutting or churning
or chewing or emulsifying
Chemical: enzyme or acidic action or molecular
breakdown
Test of hypothesis or test of prediction
Hypothesis (or explained) supported (by experiment)
Non-coding DNA
An enzyme that digests protein
Contest:
(Results in) winner takes all (of a limited
resource)
Scramble:
(Results in) each gets some (of a limited
resource)
©The Dublin School of Grinds
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Wesley Hammond
Qualitative and
Quantitative surveys
Adverse external
environment
Positively phototropic
Hormone
Feedback
(in relation to hormone
action)
Excretion
Evolution
Gene
Allele
Homozygous
Heterozygous
Genotype
Phenotype
Linkage
Sex linkage
Metabolism
Selectively permeable
Saprophytic
Heterotrophic
Qualitative: What is present
Quantitative: How many present
Surroundings that are harmful to organism(s)
Growth towards light
A chemical messenger or product of endocrine (or
ductless) gland
When the level of a hormone (in the blood)
controls (the production) of another (or itself)
Eliminating waste Made in the body
Inheritable change within a population (or species) / in
response to change in the environment / by natural
selection
a section of DNA that codes for one polypeptide (or
protein or trait) or unit of heredity
an alternative form of a gene
identical alleles
different alleles (of a gene)
genetic makeup or genes (alleles) present
the expression of the genotype (and environment) or
physical makeup (or appearance)
genes on the same chromosome
(located) on sex-chromosome or on X- chromosome or
on Y-chromosome
All the chemical reactions in living cells
Only some substances are allowed through
Feeding on dead matter
Obtains food from other organisms or does not make its
own food
©The Dublin School of Grinds
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Wesley Hammond
Definitions that were asked in exam paper 2010 (higher level):

These definitions are worth 27% of the 2010 exam paper.
Term
Trace element
Triglyceride
Acceptable response per marking scheme
Small amount (needed) or indication of e.g. < 0.01%
Fat (or lipid or oil) unit (or molecule) or glycerol and three
fatty acids or ester
Tissue
Cells with common function (or with common structure)
Tissue culture
Cells grown on (or in) medium or cells grown outside
organism
Biosphere
Part(s) of earth that supports life
Ecosystem
Organisms and their (interactions with) environment
Habitat
(Place) where a species (or an organism) lives
Symbiosis
Relationship between (different) species in which at least
one benefits
Biotic factor
Living (organism’s influence on another organism)
Food Web
Interconnected food chains or more than one species at
each trophic level
Fauna
Animals
Hypothesis
Educated guess or (possible) explanation
Tropism
Growth of a plant in response to a stimulus
Plant growth regulator
Controls the growth (of a plant)
Transcription
making of (m)RNA using DNA (template)
Translation
making a protein using (m)RNA (code)
Haploid
(A nucleus having) one set of chromosomes
(or one copy of each chromosome)
Diploid
(A nucleus having) Two sets of chromosomes
(or two copies of each chromosome)
Homozygous
alleles the same
Heterozygous
alleles different
Genotype
genetic make-up or genes (alleles) present
Phenotype
expression of genotype (and environment)
or physical make up
Segregation
only one (member) of a pair of alleles (or chromosomes)
enters a gamete
Independent assortment. Either member of a pair of alleles (or chromosomes) can
combine (or transmit) with either member of another
pair (in gamete formation)
Reflex action
automatic / response to a stimulus / involuntary (or not
controlled by brain)
Endocrine (or ductless) (The) term is used to describe the glands that secrete
hormones in the human body?
Fertilisation
Fusion of gametes or formation of zygote
Dormancy of seeds
Period of reduced metabolism (or period of reduced
activity) or period of no growth.
An enzyme
Biological (or protein) catalyst (or explained)
The specificity of an
(Enzyme) acts on only a particular substrate
©The Dublin School of Grinds
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Wesley Hammond
enzyme?
Immobilisation[of
enzymes]
Bioreactor
Selective permeability.[
In relation to
membranes in cells]
Diffusion
Semen
(Enzyme) attached to an inert substance (or example of
inert substance) or fixed to each other
vessel in which products are made by cells (or
organisms)
Allowing some substances to pass through
Movement of molecules (or substances)
from area of high concentration to area of low
concentration
(or along a concentration gradient)
Sperm (cells) and (seminal) fluid
©The Dublin School of Grinds
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Wesley Hammond
Wesley Hammond
6th Year Biology Higher Level
Wesley Hammond has established himself as the
leading Biology teacher in Ireland. His unique style of
teaching instils confidence in students, by providing
them with the skills and techniques required to
master the marking scheme and syllabus content.
As an examination corrector, Wesley is adept at
understanding the avoidable mistakes for which
students frequently lose marks.
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