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AS Unit 1:
The Reformation in Europe, c.1500–1564
AQA History Unit 1
This unit is worth 50% of the AS qualification, and 25% of whole A Level qualification should you
choose to go on and study it in Year 13.
Change and Consolidation
This unit:
• promotes an understanding of change over time, usually of at least 50 years
• develops in students a strong sense of historical perspective, enabling them to understand
the key features of a period, its particular characteristics and the forces of change,
conservatism and consolidation
• focuses on change and consolidation; how governments establish themselves and respond,
with varying degrees of success, to the need for change
• develops students’ understanding of the relationships between key features and
characteristics of the period of study
• develops students’ understanding and awareness of cause and consequence, and of
continuity, within a broad historical context, enabling them to reach conclusions based on an
appreciation of longer term developments and the interplay between the long term and the
The Exam
1 hour 15 minutes
Three questions will be set from which candidates choose two. All questions will be in two parts, the
first carrying 12 marks and the second 24 marks. The first part will have a focus on a narrow issue or
development; the second will test the understanding of the links between a narrow issue or
development in a wider context.
• The first part will focus on the assessment of Assessment Objectives 1(a) and 1(b), the ability
to recall, select and deploy historical information accurately, with instructions to candidates
to offer explanations for events.
• The second part will focus on these and also on Assessment Objective 2(b), requiring
demonstration of understanding, the ability to arrive at judgements and an awareness of the
debate amongst historians around the issues in the question (there will be no requirement for
a specific reference to individual historians).
Examiner’s Hints
Unit 1
Answer the correct number of questions
Candidates are required to answer two questions from a choice of three, each consisting of a part (a)
and a part (b), ie four sub-questions in total. Whether due to timing issues or to a misunderstanding
of the rubric, a few candidates either answered all six sub-questions or answered only one question.
The format of Unit 1 papers is significantly different from our legacy units, so it is vital that all
candidates are aware in advance of what they are required to do.
Plan your use of time carefully
Timing issues caused other problems too. This is a one hour 15 minute paper, thus allowing roughly:
• 12 minutes in which to complete the (a) questions
• 25 minutes for the (b) questions.
1
A number of candidates failed to complete the paper and, in addition to those who attempted only
one question, there were others who missed out a question or lapsed into notes. Selecting relevant
material and maintaining a strong focus on the question is part of the skill being tested in this exam.
Candidates need to realise that they will penalise themselves heavily if they fail to tackle the two
questions required, in full. Furthermore, since they are asked to write in continuous prose – which is
the only way any sense of argument can be conveyed – notes will never score highly.
Make sure that you revise all of the content
It was clear from some scripts that candidates had not studied, or revised, the full specification
content for their chosen alternative. It must be emphasised that the three questions may be drawn
from any part of that content. Without a secure understanding of the complete content, candidates
will find it extremely difficult to perform well.
Assessment Objectives (AOs)
4 Scheme of Assessment
The Assessment Objectives are common to AS and A Level. The assessment units will assess the
following Assessment Objectives in the context of the content and skills.
AO1a - Recall, select and deploy historical knowledge appropriately, and communicate knowledge
and understanding of history in a clear and effective manner.
A01b - Demonstrate their understanding of the past though explanation, analysis and arriving at
substantiated judgements of:
• key concepts such as causation, consequence, continuity, change and significance within a
historical context
• the relationships between key features and characteristics of the periods studied.
AO2a - As part of a historical enquiry, analyse and evaluate a range of appropriate source material
with discrimination
AO2b - Analyse and evaluate, in relation to the historical context, how aspects of the past have been
interpreted and represented in different ways.
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Unit 1: The Reformation in Europe, c. 1500–1564
How extensive was religious change in Europe by 1564?
Introduction
This unit provides an overview of religious change and development in sixteenth century Europe, as
exemplified by the emergence of differing forms of Protestantism and of renewal within the Catholic
Church. An understanding of the variety of factors contributing towards this change, and their interconnections, will be developed through the study of the role of individuals such as Luther and Calvin;
radical groups such as the Anabaptists; the work of the Jesuits and the role of the Papacy; and
significant events such as the Council of Trent. Issues such as the impact of printing, the political,
economic and social developments which influenced the progress and success of the Reformation
and the Catholic Reformation will also be considered.
Content
Factors leading to the Reformation and the Catholic Reformation
• Humanism and the work of Erasmus
• The condition of the Roman Catholic Church in the early sixteenth century; the need for
change; renaissance popes; ignorance of the clergy
• The political climate: the fragmentation of power in Europe
• The extent of popular religion, ignorance and spread of heresy
• The beginnings of reform: the work of Paul III and the Consilium, the development of new
orders, including the Oratory of Divine Love
• The development of printing
Luther
• The 95 Theses and Lutheran ideas
• The indulgence controversy and its outcome
• The reasons for the success of Lutheranism: the support of princes, the absence of the
emperor; the impact of printing and the spoken word, Luther’s impact as a preacher
• The consequences of the Lutheran reformation in Germany, the German Peasants’ War, civil
war and the religious Peace of Augsburg, 1555
Calvin
• Calvin’s writings and religious ideas: the ‘Institutes of the Christian Religion’, the ‘Ecclesiastical
Ordinances’, double predestination, the Bible as the basis for all belief
• The conversion of Geneva and the structure and authority of the Genevan church; role of the
Consistory, Pastors, Grabeau
• Reasons for the success of Calvinism: the previous exposure of Geneva to Protestant ideas,
the theocratic state; the suppression of opposition such as Perrin, the Genevan Academy
• The extent to which Protestantism was established as an alternative faith.
Anabaptism and other Radical Movements
• The origins and ideas of the Anabaptists and other radical groups
• The development of the radical reformation and the extent of its success
• Reasons for the failure of the radical reformation
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The Jesuits
• Loyola and the foundation of the Order in 1540
• The structure and nature of the Order and its distinctiveness; the significance of the ‘Spiritual
Exercises’
• Their work and influence at the Council of Trent
• The importance of individuals such as Loyola, Lainez, Salmeron, Canisius, Xavier
• Their importance as educators, missionaries, preachers and confessors
• The extent to which they revitalised the Catholic Church and halted the Protestant advance in
Europe
The Papacy and reform
• Renaissance popes and their weaknesses: Julius II, the warrior pope
• The impact of reforming popes: Paul III and the decrees of the Council of Trent
• The extent to which the Catholic Church was reformed in this period
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Suggested Resources for The Reformation in Europe c1500–1564
Given below is a list of recommended resources. The books included in the lists which follow are not
to be regarded as set texts. It is not envisaged that all of the material listed will be used. Some titles
on this list may be out of print, but these should be available through libraries.
BOOKS
• A Armstrong The European Reformation Heinemann
• W Bouwsma (1989) John Calvin: A Sixteenth Century Portrait
• E Cameron (1991) The European Reformation Clarendon
• P Collinson (2005) The Reformation
• C Cook (2001) Longman Handbook of Early Modern Europe 1453–1763
• E Duffy (2006) Saints and Sinners: A History of the Popes
• M Greengrass (1998) The Longman Companion to the European Reformation 1500–1618
• H J Hillerbrand (1996) The Oxford Encyclopaedia of the Reformation
• D MacCulloch (2004) Reformation: Europe’s Divided House
• D Maland (1982) Europe in the Sixteenth Century
• M Mullett (1984) The Counter-reformation (Lancaster Pamphlets)
• M Mullett (1986) Luther (Lancaster Pamphlets)
• M Mullett (1989) Calvin (Lancaster Pamphlets)
• M Mullett (1999) The Catholic Reformation
• D Murphy, P Walsh-Atkins, M Tillbrook Europe: 1450–1661 A-level Flagship History seriesA
Johnston (1992) The Protestant Reformation in Europe
• A Pettegree, A Duke and G Lewis (1996) Calvinism in Europe 1540–1620
• A Pettegree (2001) The Reformation World
• A Pettegree (2005) Reformation and the Culture of Persuasion
• R Po-Chia Hsia (2005) The World of Catholic Renewal 1540–1710
• C Rowe AS History: Reformation in Europe, c1500–1564
• R W Scribner (1994) For the Sake of Simple Folk: Popular Propaganda for the German
Reformation
• R Tarr (2008) Luther and the German Reformation
ARTICLES
M Mullet (1996) Counter-Reformation and Catholic Reformation History Review
A Pettegree (1996) The Execution of Martin Luther History Review
USEFUL WEBSITES
www.historylearningsite.co.uk
Contains useful introductory material on each section of the unit.
www.activehistory.co.uk
Subscription site which contains much helpful material, including suggestions for classroom activity.
www.projectwittenberg.org
Comprehensive collection of primary sources about Luther.
www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/modsbook.html
Comprehensive range of primary sources on all parts of the unit.
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HIS1C: The Reformation in Europe, c. 1500-1564
Outline and Revision Notes
A: Factors leading to the reformation and Catholic Reformation
Humanism and the work of Erasmus
§ The Northern Renaissance, in common with the Renaissance in Italy, was dominated by a revival
of scholarly interest in the art, architecture, literature, philosophy, and society of classical Greece and
Rome
§ One important religious dimension of the Renaissance was Christian Humanism, a movement
that sought to apply the new understanding of classical languages to biblical scholarship in order to
return Christianity to its essence and its origins
§ In addition to retranslating and reinterpreting the Bible, Christian humanists extended their
interests to broader conceptions of reform with a view to ridding the Church of clerical abuses within
the Church hierarchy, as well as eradicating monastic corruption
§ The Dutch humanist Desiderius Erasmus (c. 1466-1536), the leading figure of the northern
Renaissance within the Holy Roman Empire, was a prolific author and a renowned biblical scholar as
well as an outspoken critic of Church abuses
§ The platform for the Christian humanist reform programme was located in the revision and
editing of the Bible.
§ By returning to the original languages (Hebrew and Greek for the Old and New Testaments
respectively), scholars like Lorenzo Valla and Desiderius Erasmus sought to produce an accurate
version of the Bible
§
Reformers could base their reform programmes on an accurate version of the Bible
§ This is significant because the language of the Vulgate (official, medieval Latin version of Bible)
had shaped much of late medieval Catholic theology
§ When the Vulgate was revised, it suddenly put into question some of the key doctrines within
Catholicism
Erasmus
§ Erasmus was the illegitimate son of a Dutch priest born in about 1466. His guardians sent him to
train as a monk with the Augustinian Order and although he hated monastic life he was able to
acquire an excellent education.
§ Eventually the monastery granted him extended study leave and he left the cloister never to
return. He studied in Paris, the academic centre of Europe at that time, and in 1499 arrived in
England where he was enchanted to meet the young Thomas More.
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§ For the rest of his life he constantly moved between the intellectual capitals of Europe (he
lectured in Cambridge for a time but disliked both the beer and the weather) until he finally settled in
Basle.
§ Erasmus was Europe's most famous academic author and edited numerous collections of the
classical authors. His 1516 Greek translation of the New Testament became particularly famous as it
showed up severe failings in the Latin Vulgate.
§ Erasmus wanted to reawaken the vitality of Christianity by spreading the purity of the Gospel
Message amongst all people, no matter how humble they might be.
§ His religious philosophy was that all should put their faith in the example of the Gospels rather
than ceremonial and hair splitting logic. Christianity was for all men not just theologians!
§ In 1509 he published, ‘In Praise of Folly’, his most popular work, in which ‘Folly’ praises her most
devoted followers including lazy monks, arrogant popes and stupid and boorish priests.
§ Early on Erasmus had seen Luther as a fellow traveller. However Erasmus never became a
Protestant. He wanted was a purer more heartfelt religion and he had little sympathy with national
Protestant Churches that would pull Europe apart rather than uniting it.
§ As the Lutheran crisis gathered momentum Erasmus made clear his distrust of the direction in
which Luther was moving.
§ As Luther's attacks on Rome and Church teaching became more strident, Erasmus increasingly
pulled back.
§ Erasmus provided a Latin edition of the New Testament in 1516, which Luther used as a basis for
his scholarship (and later for the translation of the Bible into German)
§ This is closely related to a further distinctive feature of the Northern Renaissance, that is, its
impact on the development of vernacular (native languages)
§
In 1400, the modern form of German did not exist; people spoke a variety of regional dialects
§ By the end of the Renaissance, the German language had made significant progress toward
standardization
§ The actions of governments, the printing press and the creation of literary masterpieces
combined to produce this result.
§ For example, in the fifteenth-century, some German state governments began to use German
instead of Latin for their documents.
§
Printing encouraged writer and editors to standardize spelling and usage.
§ Martin Luther’s (1483-1546) translation of the New Testament and Complete Bible in 1522 and
1534 respectively ensured that the East Middle Saxon version of German laid the roots for modern
German
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§ The Northern Renaissance had an ambivalent relationship with the Protestant Reformation, for
some humanists supported Luther (Melanchthon), while others turned against him (Desiderius
Erasmus)
§ During the early years of the Reformation, there were significant points of agreement between
Erasmus and the leading reformer, Martin Luther, especially in their emphasis on the Bible as the
primary source of knowledge of God and their outspokenness against institutional corruption in the
Church
§ While Erasmus would have appreciated Luther’s emphasis on the Bible and his criticisms of
Church corruption, he was essentially a reformer from within and was not as radical as Luther would
become in 1520
§ Erasmus was reluctant to break the unity of the Church and ultimately broke with Luther over the
question of Free Will in the mid-1520s
The condition of the Roman Catholic Church in the early sixteenth century
§ The Popes of the Renaissance were often an acute embarrassment to the Church. All too often
the Popes also put the beautification of Rome and the defence of the Papal States before their
spiritual duties as Supreme Head of the Church.
§ Germany, without a strong central government, naturally found itself particularly highly taxed in
order to pay for such papal excesses and numerous complaints about papal conduct originated in
Germany throughout the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries.
§ Annates (payment by a new Bishop of as much as half the proceeds of his diocese to Rome) was a
particularly unpopular tax especially as it was used to glorify Rome rather than contributing to the
upkeep of the Church in Germany.
§
Rome also made money by the sale of dispensations and, as we have seen, indulgences
§ The Papacy had also resorted to selling offices to make raise yet more money to subsidise their
lavish life style. Alexander VI, for example, created twelve new cardinals for 120 000 ducats.
§ Sixtus IV made his own nephew, the future Julius II, a Cardinal and appointed him to an
Archbishopric and seven bishoprics.
§ All the Popes of the Fifteenth Century had been Italian or Spanish. This was unpopular in
Germany. Rome seemed to be a distant and alien force sponging off the German people.
§ The Papacy was associated with arrogance and immorality. In 1497, Alexander VI forbade
Cardinals to take part in tournaments or carnivals and declared that their households should not
number more than eighty and they could keep no more than thirty horses.
§ Rodrigo Borgia, Pope Alexander VI, (1492 - 1503) fathered eight children and was ruthless in
arranging for them marriages with leading Italian dynasties which would further the fortunes of his
own Borgia family.
§ His son, Cesare Borgia (a noted murderer), was given huge amounts of Papal resources to
carving out for him an independent Principality in the heart of Italy.
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§ His daughter, Lucrezia, was given immense wealth and when one of her husbands proved
unfaithful to her the Pope arranged for him to be murdered.
§ When she finally arrived in Ferrara for her second marriage she was accompanied by 700
retainers all paid for by the Pope!
§
In all eight members of his family became cardinals during his Pontificate.
§ Giuliano delle Rovere took the name Julius II in homage to his warlike hero Julius Caesar and
during his Pontificate certainly lived up to his name the ‘Warrior Pope’.
§ He hated Venice and in 1508 organised the League of Cambrai against it in order to secure for
Rome Venetian lands.
§ In 1511 he established the Holy League against France designed on weakening French influence in
Italy.
§ Julius had raised the military prestige of the Papacy in Italy but at the expense of the Pope's
position as the spiritual head of the Church.
§ Perhaps as significant as this was Julius' commitment to the spectacular rebuilding of Rome. This
particularly outraged Luther! All Germans knew was that Church taxes were going up and
indulgences were being sold to pay for works of art that they would never see!
Pope Leo X (1513 - 1522)
§ Elected Pope at the age of only 38, Leo X was charming company, an accomplished, although
rather fat huntsman, and an impressive art critic.
§ During his Pontificate even more money had to be raised for grandiose works of art and
architecture. It was the Indulgence that Leo issued in March 1517 for the reconstruction of Saint
Peter's that provoked Luther into compiling his 95 Theses.
§ Despite some reforming gestures, Leo X’s [1513-1521] attempts to raise money for the
rebuilding of St. Peter’s was largely responsible for provoking the indulgences controversy, which
provided the spark for the Reformation in 1517.
§ His successor, Adrian VI [1522-1523], undertook half-hearted attempts at reform, yet these
came to an abrupt halt with his death in 1523.
§ Clement VII [1523-1534], though a Renaissance aristocrat and bastard son of Giuliano de’
Medici, was hard-working, efficient, free of sexual scandal and patron of Raphael and Michelangelo
(commissioned Last Judgement for Sistine Chapel).
§ Although he maintained poor relations with the Empire (e.g., the sack of Rome in 1527, when
Clement was held to ransom by imperial mercenaries), he reformed the Church particularly by
founding new religious orders (including the Theatines and the Capuchins).
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The extent of popular religion
§ The situation had become so desperate in some parts of Europe that some reformers of the
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries had made some particularly radical demands
§ The likes of John Wyclif in England and Jan Hus in Bohemia did not just call for an end to abuses,
but went further by demanding a change in the Church’s teachings
§ Wyclif asserted that Holy Scriptures should be the only valid source of authority, he criticized
indulgences and launched a scathing attack on monasticism, for which in his view there was no
Scriptural warrant
§ He also argued that bishops and priests who completely failed to fulfil their obligations should be
lawfully deprived of civil power
§
Finally, Wyclif also opposed the Catholic teaching on the Eucharist
§ Hus was strongly influenced by Wyclif, and similarly emphasized Scripture as the sole source of
authority and was highly critical of the corruption and authority of the Pope and the broader Church
hierarchy
§ He also criticized the Catholic version of the Mass and encouraged the reception of communion
in both kinds
§ Hus was eventually found guilty of heresy and though granted a safe-conduct, was burned at the
Council of Constance in 1415
§
The Church’s refusal to address these concerns ensured that it would continue to invite criticism
Why was the Church unpopular at the end of the fifteenth century?
Dislike of Clerical Privilege
§ The privileges of the clergy, especially tithe and papal taxation, had long been unpopular in
Germany as they were throughout most of Europe. Clerical exemption from taxation was also most
unpopular.
§ In 1513 the craft guilds of Cologne complained that Churchmen avoided paying all taxes.
Germany was especially heavily put upon to pay for an expanding Papal bureaucracy.
§ Part of Luther's early appeal was that he was certainly buying into an existing tradition of intense
German anti clericalism.
Monastic Corruption
§
There was widespread dislike of monasticism throughout Germany.
§ Monasteries had become some of the greatest landlords in society. Abbots often lived a life of
luxury.
§
Monastic property could also not be taxed.
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Secularised and Corrupt Bishops
§
Almost all German Bishops were from the nobility and were primarily great landowners.
§ Archbishops and bishops owned at least a fifth of German land and they often proved a great
deal more interested in making a PROFIT from this land than in leading souls to Christ.
§ Jean of Lorraine was consecrated Bishop of Metz at the age of three and went onto hold three
archbishoprics, six bishoprics and nine abbeys.
§ Albert of Brandenburg was not only a Bishop, but held two Archbishoprics, including Electoral
Mainz, by the time he was 24 even though he had no theological training at all.
§ Half the proceeds from the Indulgence that Tetzel was allowed to sell was to pay of the debts
that Albert had incurred by securing his Archbishopric from the Pope.
§ Throughout Germany in the later Fifteenth Century the peasantry dreadfully resented church
wealth and there were several peasant risings often directed against wealthy Churchmen.
The beginnings of reform
§ Paul III [1534-1549]: although certain inconsistencies exist in the career of Paul III (he saw the
Papacy as a potential source of prestige, power and income), he nonetheless laid the foundations for
a more coherent and systematic attempt at reforming the Church.
§ As a politician and a diplomat, he recognized the importance of being on friendly terms with
France and the Holy Roman Empire.
§ He was particularly concerned that no more countries should follow the example of England (i.e.
Henry VIII’s Break with Rome).
§ Despite the fact that his first appointments as cardinals were his teenage grandsons, he did
appoint a considerable number of influential, reform-minded cardinals in the 1530s, the most
important of which was Gasparo Contarini [1483-1542].
How did Contarini try to reform the Church?
§ Contarini, a former ambassador to Emperor Charles V, was trained as a diplomat, and was
author of the ‘Compendium’, which outlined his strong commitment to the reform of the Church,
focusing particularly on personal renewal (especially on the example of bishops).
§ Once he was appointed Cardinal, he was asked by Paul III to preside over a reform Commission,
which was published as the Consilium de Emendenda Ecclesia in November 1536.
§ The commission highlighted the following abuses within the Church: simony (buying/selling of
Church offices), pluralism (holding of more than one Church office), absenteeism (non-resident
office-holders), and the corruption of the religious orders.
§ The Commission was even more radical in that it urged Paul III to reform the Curia itself (all the
top office-holders in the Vatican). It laid the blame for the ills of the Church, including the outbreak of
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the Protestant Reformation, squarely on the Papacy, the Cardinals and the highest echelons of the
hierarchy.
Reforming the Curia: a bridge too far?
§ Despite Paul III’s enthusiasm for reforming Church abuses, the Curia resisted his measures to
end absenteeism and pluralism at the highest level of the hierarchy.
§ Members of the Curia were being asked to condemn practices upon which their prestige and
incomes relied.
§ They had no wish to leave the central administration of the Church to the provinces. Nor were
they eager to return to their own dioceses for fear of losing their influence at the Papal court.
§ This fundamental problem was destined to provide a continuing obstacle to the course of
Catholic reform and explains in large part why the Council of Trent was convened as late as 1545.
§ The other possible reason for the delay was due to the fact that many of the reform-minded
cardinals (like Contarini) were part of a group known as the spirituali, who had certain Lutheran
sympathies (not on the question of ecclesiastical authority or the sacraments, but on the theological
doctrine of justification by faith).
§ This explains their attempt to seek reconciliation at the colloquy of Regensburg in 1541, the
failure of which helped to discredit the spirituali, who were further weakened by Contarini’s death in
1542.
The Religious Orders
Reform of Older Religious Orders
§
Two main types of religious orders existed during the late medieval period.
§ Firstly, there were monks, who were contemplative and confined to a monastery, and whose
daily existence was based upon a rigorous and carefully scheduled prayer life.
§ The monastic orders include the Benedictines, Carthusians and Cistercians, all of which were
inspired by the rules and regulations of their founder (e.g. the rule of St. Benedict for the
Benedictines).
§ Secondly, there were friars, who in contrast were active and itinerant, and whose daily existence
was focused on preaching and praying – they also tended to beg in order to survive (for food and
shelter), hence the term mendicant friars.
§ The mendicant orders include the Franciscans, Dominicans and Augustinians, all of which were
also inspired by the rules of their founder.
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Reform
§ The renewal of religious orders consisted of the identification of abuses and problems,
particularly the existence of an undisciplined prayer life and the betrayal of the main vows of each
religious order (such as poverty and chastity).
§
Even some of the mendicant friars had started to acquire wealth and even property.
§ This encouraged the emergence of an Observant Reform movement, namely that monks and
friars went back to the original rules of their founder in order to lead a more strict religious and
spiritual life.
§ One of the leading advocates was Cardinal Ximenes, a Franciscan, who promoted a Franciscan
reform movement in Spain from 1506 onwards.
Foundation of New Religious Orders
§ In addition to the Observant Reform movement, there were numerous new orders founded in
the pre-1545 period, including a variety of different groups, both in terms of size, type of
membership and activities/responsibilities.
§ It is noteworthy that none of these orders was founded with the specific intention of combating
Protestantism. Their principal commitment was to religious reform on the level of the parish and
community.
§ Oratories of Divine Love: (mainly lay confraternities/brotherhoods, though they also included
some priests).
§ The first Oratory was founded in Vicenza in 1494, though a more formidable one was
established in Genoa, founded by Ettore Vernazza and dedicated to St. Catherine of Genoa.
§ The best-known Oratory was founded in Rome in 1517. Its membership was more exclusive,
with approximately 50 mainly aristocratic members.
§ Its intentions were certainly reform-minded, with strong emphasis on prayer, worship, study and
charitable work.
§ Yet they did not represent a formal religious order in that its members did not take vows or
wear a habit/uniform.
Theatines
§ Formed by four members of the Roman Oratory of Divine Love and founded in 1524, plus
officially recognized by the Pope in 1533.
§ Its membership was very small (with 14 in 1527 and 21 in 1533) and exclusive (with only priests
allowed to join).
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§ The Theatines were described as a ‘corps d’élites’, a highly ambitious and extremely talented
group, indeed a school for future bishops – including Cardinal Cajetan [1480-1547] and Gian Pietro
Carafa [1476-1559], Cardinal and later Pope Paul IV, and author of the Theatine rule.
§ Their activities included prayer and works of charity, as well as promoting Episcopal reform
programmes (Cajetan set an example by giving up a lucrative office in the Vatican in order to combat
the decadence of the parish clergy).
§ The Theatines were also the first order to found papal missions abroad and acquired an
international reputation.
Capuchins
§ Founded by Matteo di Bascio in July 1528 [1495-1552], in the diocese of Camerino, the order
came out of the Observant Franciscans.
§ It enjoyed an impressive growth in membership (from 700 in 1535 to 6000 in 1587), and after
1572, expansion extended beyond the Italian city states.
§ Although less exclusive (especially in terms of membership), the Order still benefited greatly
from the support of the Roman aristocracy (particularly the patronage of Vittoria Colonna, who also
supported Michelangelo).
§ The Capuchin Constitutions (drafted in 1529 and revised in 1536) outlined the main aims and
intentions of the order, including: a commitment to total poverty, preaching and ministering to the
underprivileged (orphans, plague victims and the sick in hospitals).
§
Above all, they emphasised the centrality of the Mass and worship.
§ Interestingly, most of them were largely unconcerned with intellectual endeavour/development,
placing greater emphasis on leading by example.
§ However, despite their numerical successes, the Theatines attracted a considerable amount of
controversy.
§ Firstly, they were opposed by the Observant Franciscans who labeled them as fanatics. Some of
them came to be associated with the spirituali, who were later criticized (some even condemned) for
holding Protestant sympathies.
§ This was confirmed by Bernardino Ochino’s (Vicar-General of the Order and therefore, leading
Capuchin of his generation) conversion to Protestantism and flight to northern Europe.
§ Although responsible for a considerable amount of renewal within the Church, the fact that
Pope Paul III tried to close down the Order points to its relative importance in the broader context of
the Catholic Reformation.
Ursulines
§ Established by Angela Merici in 1535, as an exclusively female, lay order, thereby rejecting the
notion of an enclosed order and reflecting a clear commitment to an active religious life, dedicated to
good and charitable works.
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§ Yet it is interesting to see how this initial intention to live a free and active life was gradually
undermined by the changing perspectives of the Catholic Church.
§ Largely due to the directives emanating from the Council of Trent, the Ursulines experienced
considerable change in the second half of the sixteenth century.
§ 1546, forced to wear standard form of dress/habit; 1566, forced to live in community; 1595,
became a traditional enclosed order of nuns – all of which was due to Trent’s understanding of the
limitations that should be imposed on female religious activity.
Printing
§ Germany had many major printing centres all eager to publish best sellers like Luther's
outspoken and extremely convincing attacks on the Church.
§ Between 1517 – 1520, 300 000 copies of Luther's writings were published ensuring that Rome
was unable to silence Luther early on while guaranteeing his message as large an audience as
possible.
§ Although possibly less than 3% of the population could read, the population was far higher in
towns and a few literate proponents of Lutheranism would be able to disseminate Luther's views into
the non-reading population.
§ Luther was a natural propagandist and ridiculed his opponents (the Catholic writer Johannes
Cochlaeus became Dr Snot Spoon).
§ He also published hymns, textbook sermons and catechisms (a large version for adults and a
small version for children).
§
Luther’s ability to write for both the educated and ‘Rude Saxons’ was also part of his appeal.
§ Luther’s writings are exciting and overwhelming in their intensity. Luther himself admitted that,
‘I never work better than when I am inspired by anger’.
15
QUESTIONS on Section A: Factors leading to the reformation and Catholic Reformation
‘EXPLAIN WHY’ QUESTIONS
A1
Why did the issue of indulgences lead to the Reformation in Germany by 1520?
(12 marks)
A2
Explain why there were demands for reform of the Church at the beginning of the
Sixteenth century.
(12 marks)
A3
Explain why Pope Paul III called a general council of the Church.
(12 marks)
ESSAY QUESTIONS
A4
How important were humanist ideas in influencing the course of the Reformation in Germany?
(24 marks)
A5
How important were the works of Erasmus in undermining the Catholic Church?
(24 marks)
A6
How important were the Renaissance popes in weakening the Catholic Church in
the years c.1500 to 1527?
(24 marks)
16
B: Luther
Luther’s 95 Theses (October 1517)
§ The practice of Indulgences (paying a sum of money, normally adjustable to the means of the
buyer, in order to secure the pardoning of sins) was common in the late medieval Church
§
In the mid-1510s, Pope Leo X introduced a new indulgences campaign, in order to raise money
for the rebuilding of St. Peter’s basilica
§
Johann Tetzel, a Dominican friar, was appointed to promote indulgences within the Germanspeaking lands, especially in ducal Saxony (which bordered electoral Saxony, where Luther
resided)
§
Given Wittenberg’s proximity to ducal Saxony, some inhabitants of the former went to buy
indulgences with their hard-earned cash
§
In response, there was growing criticism of these indulgence sellers, who were increasingly
resented
§
There was growing opposition to the belief that salvation could be exchanged for a sum
§
Luther wrote a letter of complaint to the Archbishop of Mainz, but to no avail
§
For that reason, Luther nailed his 95 Theses to the Castle Church door in Wittenberg in response
to the selling of papal indulgences around Germany, especially as promoted by Tetzel.
§
They were written by Luther in his capacity as a professor of Biblical Studies in order to question
the legitimacy and worth of indulgences.
§
To that effect, it was common and standard practice for theologians to pin theses on the Castle
Church door to give advanced warning of academic disputations, since it was the recognized
bulletin board for Wittenberg University
§
In the first instance, therefore, the 95 Theses did not represent a radical programme to overturn
the established Church
§
They were written in Latin and not intended for public discussion
§
It was not Luther’s initial intention to provoke a revolution and to reject Papal authority
Contents of the 95 Theses
§ The 95 Theses were principally concerned with the theology and practice of indulgences
(namely, that the Pope could issue a pardon for sins ensuring that believers would serve less
time in purgatory).
§
Luther mainly justified his attack on indulgences by emphasizing that they were not supported
by the Bible (thesis 62)
§
Throughout his early (as well as his later) works, Luther repeatedly extolled the virtues of the
Biblical message – it represented the main source of his teachings
17
§
The opposition to indulgences was also provoked by the corruption that surrounded the practice
(thesis 50), which was particularly resented
§
In fact, Albrecht of Brandenburg, Archbishop of Mainz, who supervised Tetzel, siphoned off
some of the funds raised by the indulgences campaign in order to pay towards his elevation to
the archbishopric of Mainz (he had acquired the post via simony)
§
His position as Archbishop of Mainz had entitled Albrecht to be one of the seven electors of the
Holy Roman Empire, hence his desperation to raise a considerable amount of cash
§
Luther extended this to an attack on the Pope’s wealth (thesis 86)
§
The German people were also resentful towards the Papacy because their money was being
directed towards the paying for the rebuilding of St. Peter’s in distant Rome
§
There was further disaffection towards Rome because it was undeniable that the established
Church supported the practice of indulgences
§
It is particularly significant that Luther did not merely restrict his attack to the financial
corruption of indulgences, but also targeted the teachings that underpinned them
§
Luther discredited indulgences, arguing that they did not have the power either to release souls
(thesis 21) or to bring salvation (thesis 32)
§
Despite all this, Luther did not totally dismiss indulgences (thesis 38) and nor did he question the
overall authority of the Pope
§
That said, the fact that indulgences were supported by the Papacy suggested to Luther that the
Pope was not fulfilling his proper spiritual role
1517-1521: What were the consequences of the 95 Theses?
§
Although Luther’s intention was only to prompt academic debate, the message of the 95 Theses
quickly spread beyond the narrow intellectual circles of Wittenberg university
§
The 95 Theses rapidly became a public manifesto because they were printed in such centres as
Magdeburg and Leipzig and in December they were translated into German in Nuremberg
§
Despite the fact that Luther intended for the 95 Theses to be read within academic circles, their
tone was surprisingly simple and not overly technical or theoretical
§
Their clarity facilitated their distribution and made them more easily accessible to a
readership/audience unversed in theology
§
As Michael Mullett has written, they ‘turned into a sensational printed artifact, precipitated fully
into the public domain, to be a manifesto for change and rebellion, against Papal Rome in a
country seething with a mixture of religious, moral, political and financial grievances against the
Roman Church’
§
One important reason for their success (as well as the subsequent progress which Lutheranism
enjoyed) was due to their apparent ‘nationalist’ tone
18
§
This was particularly exploited by figures like Ulrich von Hutten (1488-1523), a prolific author
with works emphasizing a patriotic German tone (with ‘Germanness’ being difficult to penetrate,
perhaps more striking was the anti-Roman slant).
§
The main emphasis was on the ‘nationalist’ resentment of a foreign Pope (whose authority was
transmitted through members of the higher echelons of the Church, especially when their
political authority/influence exceeded their spiritual role)
§
The 95 Theses laid the foundations for a more radical theological programme, since the
Augsburg (1518) and Leipzig disputations (1519) that followed saw an increasing separation
between Luther (who increasingly sought Scriptural defence for his ideas) and the Pope.
§
Yet it should be remembered, as Mullett reminds us, that ‘in October 1517 the protester against
indulgences was far from being the Protestant leader of later years and the full theology of the
Reformation was to emerge from, not to give rise to, the 95 Theses’.
§
That said, the angry reaction of the Archbishop of Mainz and Tetzel helped to escalate the affair.
The Theological breakthrough: Luther’s three major works (1520)
§
The Church’s apparent inability to address the corruption within the Church suggested that
reform would never be forthcoming
§
In response, Luther believed that it was time to dismantle the whole rotten edifice and restore
the purity of the Christian Church
§
On the basis of his biblical studies, Luther became convinced that in order to receive salvation,
believers did not need either the institution of the Roman Church or the mediation of priests
§
In the late 1510s, he discovered that the key to salvation lay in the personal relationship
between God and the believer
§
For that reason, he decided that the rituals of the Church were not necessary for salvation and
believed that no earthly institution could or should stand between God and the believer
§
To that end, Luther published three key works in 1520 which were integral to the formulation of
his main theological ideas (‘An Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation’ written in
German and, ‘On Babylonian Captivity of the Church’ and ‘On the Freedom of a Christian’, both
in Latin).
§
They represented an outright attack and rejection of the authority, hierarchy and teachings of
the Roman Catholic Church
Authority
§
Luther targeted the Papacy as the principal source of abuses within the Church
§
Its failure (as an institution) to remove abuses from its ranks meant that it had perverted true
Christianity.
§
Such was the degree of corruption that Papal authority had to be rejected
19
§
He crucially dismissed the Pope’s authority within the Church (as an arbiter in doctrinal matters
and Scriptural interpretation).
§
Luther also asserted that no revenues should be directed to Rome and that no believers should
bother to make Rome a centre for pilgrimage
§
He advocated that the Pope should have no authority over the Emperor and stated that it was
the duty and responsibility of the German princes to instigate reform
§
The call for a German council struck a resonant chord within the German lands because of its
patriotic tone (pro-German, and anti-Roman)
§
He denounced the entire Church hierarchy that functioned below the Pope (i.e. Cardinals,
Archbishops and Bishops) and challenged the excessive mediatory power given to priests.
§
It made so sense to empower priests to such a great degree when they could not even conduct
themselves properly
§
Luther also abandoned a dependence on Church Tradition as a valid source of Christian teaching
(i.e. doctrinal statements formulated in Church Councils and the writings of the early Christian
Church) unless it was supported by the Bible.
§
In Luther’s view, the late medieval Catholic Church had become wayward and had lost its sense
of purpose and direction, largely because it had neglected the Bible
§
The Catholic Church had had one centrally controlled Biblical text, known as the Vulgate
§
The fact that it was in Latin ensured that it could not be read by lay people, justified on the basis
that lay people untrained in theology would otherwise misinterpret its message
§
With their exclusive access to the Bible, the priesthood guided their flock through their lives and
only priests had the authority to administer the sacraments
§
Luther identified the Bible as the sole authoritative text for the formulation of Christian teaching
(hence the phrase ‘Sola Scriptura’).
§
Given its centrality, Luther placed great emphasis on making the Bible more accessible via
translation and preaching
§
Church reform had to be initiated and inspired by drawing out the various messages from the
Bible
§
Only by reference to Scripture alone could each person learn for themselves whether they had
faith and were therefore among the Elect
§
The Lutheran stress on individual reflection, using a vernacular Bible, helped to undermine the
Catholic emphasis on priestly power
§
Luther instead advocated a ‘Priesthood of all Believers’, so all men are equal and have the
potential to become priests
20
The Sacraments
§
Luther reduced the number of sacraments from 7 to 3 (he later also abandoned the sacrament
of confession) principally by arguing that the others were not justified in the New Testament.
§
It is worth noting that Luther did not scrap the sacramental system altogether – he still believed
in the need for a visible and an institutional Church
§
for that reason, he kept Baptism and Communion because they were explicitly supported in the
Bible
§
He explicitly challenged the Roman Catholic Church’s emphasis on priestly superiority
§
Ordination was abandoned as a sacrament because it represented a justification for treating
priests as an elite group (hence, Luther’s ‘Priesthood of all Believers’)
§
The eventual abandonment of the sacrament of confession was motivated by the belief that
forgiveness of sins should be a private matter between God and the believer
§
He was particularly critical of the Mass because it was the main source of priestly monopoly of
spiritual and sacramental power
§
For that reason, he promoted the taking of communion in both kinds for the laity (not just
priests) and transformed the Latin liturgy into a largely vernacular service (i.e. in the native
language).
Sola Fide
§
Lutherans and Catholics agreed that to enter heaven a soul must ‘justify’ itself before God,
which was no easy matter due to the presence of Original Sin
§
They agreed that Christ’s death created a ‘store’ of Grace which God used to save people
§
The key disagreement that separated Catholics and Lutherans was over how God chose to use
that store of Grace
§
Catholics believed that God puts the store of Grace at our disposal and gives us Free Will to
make our own way to Heaven – doing good works can, therefore, contribute to our salvation
§
The central tenet of Luther’s teaching was ‘Sola Fide’, justification by faith alone, which taught
that believers were saved/justified by faith alone (especially as defined by St. Paul’s letter to the
Romans)
§
This meant that it was not possible either to do good by oneself or to earn merit towards one’s
salvation (good works were only a product of faith).
§
It had a dramatic impact on the Catholic penitential system (system of penance) by undermining
the role of priests who were denied their intermediary role
§
It also led to the abandonment of the sacrament of confession and prevented the need for the
existence of indulgences, Masses for the dead and even purgatory.
21
§
It meant that there would be predestination and no free will – no amount of good works could
change the fate which God had already decreed for mankind
The reasons for the success of Lutheranism
§
Luther provided crucial impetus for the Reformation because he was a gifted theologian
§
His 95 Theses were well-received because he was able to capture the mood of frustration and
dissatisfaction with Church corruption within the German lands
§
He was also remarkable because of the way in which he then developed his ideas in 1517 into a
much more radical and comprehensive theological programme
§
Luther not only possessed the key ideas of the Reformation, but he was also able to articulate
them persuasively on paper and verbally
§
His three major works in 1520 accommodated a learned readership, but he also published
numerous other works for a readership not versed in theology
§
He was brilliant at simplifying his complex ideas and reducing his major works to the bare
essentials (this was often achieved with visual aids – combination of text and image)
§
In addition to being a prolific author, Luther was a highly competent preacher, which would
become the crucial medium for the communication of ideas in a predominantly oral culture
§
The historian A. G. Dickens would later describe Luther’s Reformation as part of a ‘powerful
preaching revival’
§
During the early years of his revolt, Luther showed tremendous courage and determination
§
This is manifest in his forceful and defensive stances at the Augsburg and Leipzig determination,
in addition to his willingness to attend the imperial summons at Worms in 1521
§
He was well aware of the fact that Jan Hus had also received a safe-conduct from an Emperor (a
century before) which had been ignored, thereby leading to his execution
§
This is even more striking because Eck had shortly before Worms accused Luther of being a
disciple of Hus
§
A final strength of Luther was his pragmatism – he realized that he would need to court the
German nobility, given the political structure of the Holy Roman Empire
§
He did this to great effect by targeting the nobility in his Address to the Christian nobility of the
German nation and later by condemning the peasantry following the peasants’ war of 1525
(thereby appeasing the German princes and safeguarding his movement)
How did the authorities react to Luther from 1517 to 1521?
§
Firstly, the indulgences controversy highlighted one of the apparent problems with the Church’s
teachings
22
§
The practice of indulgences appeared to offer salvation in exchange for a sum, that is to say, by
paying money one’s sins could be pardoned
§
Luther’s problems with indulgences developed into a more radical programme, namely the
teaching on justification by faith alone
§
He was not convinced that individuals could do anything to contribute to their salvation, and
therefore dismissed the view that good works had a central role to play
§
This culminated in an attack on purgatory and an acceptance of predestination
§
Secondly, the concentration on papal abuses and clerical misconduct reflected one of the
fundamental problems with the Church
§
As Luther intensified his attack on the Church, he quickly realized that papal authority would
have to be rejected
§
Similarly, the frustration with clerical corruption developed into an attack on the sacramental
system and priestly power that it represented
§
Thirdly, the source of authority, on which Luther based his ideas, was of course the Bible
§
Having defended himself on Biblical grounds during the early revolt (he promised to stand down
if he could be corrected by Eck and Cajetan borrowing ideas from the Bible), he made the Bible
absolutely central to his theology
§
The number of sacraments (three then eventually two, Baptism, Eucharist, and Confession was
later abandoned) was defined by their existence and justification in the Bible
How did the Papacy react to Luther?
The Augsburg Disputation (October 1518)
§
Initially, the religious authorities sought to deal with the Luther affair ‘internally’
§
Being an Augustinian friar, Luther was called in front of the leading figures of the Augustinian
Order at a meeting in Heidelberg – he failed to give way on his opinions about indulgences
§
The Church was ineffective in its response to Luther and arguably exacerbated the situation,
though it was hardly helped by political factors
§
Pope Leo X wanted Luther to be questioned in Rome, but this did not happen due to Elector
Frederick the Wise’s intervention (Luther was one of Frederick’s university professors at
Wittenberg)
§
Failing to summon Luther to Rome, Leo X, therefore, sent Cardinal Cajetan, whose responsibility
it was to question Luther and to ensure that he retract the views of the 95 Theses
§
Although still a scholarly debate (and not open to the public), Luther defended himself by
resorting only to the authority of the Bible
23
§
By declaring that he would only renounce his views if proved wrong by the Bible, Luther was
indirectly/implicitly denying papal supremacy (as the authoritative interpreter of the Bible)
§
This unsuccessful disputation (from the Church’s perspective) further strengthened the divide
between Luther and Rome
§
Not only did Luther remain unconvinced, but his stern resistance increased both his notoriety
and the ever-widening gap between the Pope and himself
§
His survival owed a considerable amount to Cajetan’s failure to encourage Frederick the Wise to
withdraw his protection
The Leipzig Disputation (June 1519)
§
After the failure of the Augsburg disputation, the Church was determined to put an end to the
‘Luther affair’.
§
On this occasion, Luther was attacked by Johannes Eck, a much more formidable
theologian/opponent than Cajetan
§
Eck sought to succeed where Cajetan had failed, that is, by attempting to discredit Luther
§
Luther continued to defend himself with numerous references to the Bible, the only true test of
Christian truth (in his view)
§
However, Eck managed to force Luther to admit that he shared similar views to Jan Hus, who
had been condemned for his views and burnt in 1415 at the Council of Constance
§
This associated Luther with heresy and separated him from Rome and the Church
§
Although Eck had managed to link Luther’s ideas with those of a previously condemned heretic,
this was ultimately counter-productive as it gave him even greater publicity
§
The condemnation of Luther as a heretic only counted if it led to his arrest by the secular
authorities
§
The failure of the Church to secure Luther’s arrest highlighted the powerlessness of the Papacy
Contribution of debates to development of Luther’s challenge
§ The fact that Luther was given a platform in the first place (at Heidelberg, Augsburg and Leipzig)
provided him with a crucial opportunity
§
His performances in the respective debates illustrated his resilience as an orator and a
theologian
§
This was particularly impressive given the standing of his formidable opponents (Cardinal
Cajetan as one of the leading clerics in the Church and Eck as one of the foremost theologians in
the German lands)
§
The debates also highlighted the failure of Catholic authorities to deal effectively with Luther
24
§
He was not contained by his own religious order, the Augustinian friars, some of whom were
even sympathetic
§
Even the Pope’s own representative, Cardinal Cajetan, could not handle the situation
§
Both Cajetan and the formidable Eck could not convince Luther to abandon his views
Papal Reaction/Condenation
§ It had never been the Church’s habit to debate and compromise with theologians who
challenged Church teachings
§
Given Luther’s ever-growing confidence and determination, compromise seemed unlikely –
academic debate was permissible but only within strict parameters
§
By 1519, Luther had definitely gone too far from the perspective of the Church authorities
§
In practice, however, it was very difficult for Rome to deal with Luther effectively partly because
of the considerable distance between Rome and the German-speaking lands
§
This was obviously exacerbated by the growing ‘national’ resentment towards Rome, which
highlighted the financial exploitation of the Church
§
Following the Augsburg and Leipzig disputations, having failed to summon Luther to Rome, Leo X
arguably had little alternative but to excommunicate Luther.
§
In June 1520, a papal bull, Exsurge Domine, was published giving Luther the choice of either
recanting or being excommunicated.
§
Once Luther publicly and emphatically rejected the bull, Leo X officially excommunicated him
(Decet Romanum Pontificem).
§
Such was Luther’s resentment towards the Papacy that after his excommunication, Luther and
his followers described the Pope as the anti-Christ
§
Although it seems clear that the Church gravely mishandled the Luther affair (by
underestimating the threat that he posed), it is less evident what they could have done to
counter Luther’s revolt
§
Central to Luther’s survival at this early stage was that the papal excommunication was not given
proper political backing
§
This was largely due to Frederick the Wise’s support and the powerlessness of the Habsburg
Emperors (Maximilian I and Charles V) to enforce any imperial ban on Luther
§
From Luther’s perspective, it appeared as though the Church would not bother to answer his
queries
§
For him, the indulgences controversy and the important problems that it represented had not
been adequately addressed or resolved by the Church
25
§
It convinced him that real authority in the Church had to be located somewhere other than
Rome and the Papacy
§
It encouraged him to develop a more radical and mature theological programme
How did the Holy Roman Empire react to Luther?
§
The fragmentary nature of the Holy Roman Empire ensured that Charles V’s political relations
with his German subjects were hardly secure from the outset.
§
In fact, his predecessor and grandfather, Maximilian I, had also been constrained by the political
framework in which he operated.
§
Charles V’s political relations were partly worsened following his election to the Imperial Crown,
as many princes feared the implications of the growing ascendancy of the Habsburg dynasty.
§
With the outbreak of the Protestant Reformation, German subjects saw in Luther’s revolt an
opportunity to undermine and weaken the Emperor’s power and influence.
§
In this way, the main reason for the significant change in Charles V’s political relations with his
German subjects can be attributed to the development and impact of the Protestant
Reformation
German ‘nationalism’
§ At the time of Luther’s revolt, there was a maturing sense of nationalism, partly political and
partly historical in inspiration
§
The fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries were characterized by a developing sense of German
identity
§
This was partly fabrication (self-serving fictions of princely courts), yet one cannot deny the
existence of a growing sense of German nationalism in the late medieval period
§
Since German identity was such a vague concept, German ‘nationalism’ tended to be defined by
what it was opposed to
§
It was thus aggressively xenophobic, especially against Italians, French and, above all, the Papacy
§
The opposition to the Papacy was made explicit by Nicholas of Cusa’s rejection of papal claims to
sovereignty
§
Numerous German scholars dedicated works to German history: in 1501, Abbot Trithemius
wrote a biographical collection of pious/learned Germans, entitled Illustrious men of Germany;
Conrad Celtis edited texts of German history, especially Germania (by the classical author
Tacitus) which soon became foundational text of nationalist movement
§
It should be added that German ‘nationalism’ could be directed against the Emperors, especially
given that the Habsburgs considered the interests and integrity of the German lands to be
secondary to the idea of Empire (Emperor Maximilian I never acquired command of German)
26
The nature of the Holy Roman Empire: The Imperial Diet
§ Despite the prestige that was attached to being Emperor, the fragmented political structure of
the Holy Roman Empire meant that it was very difficult to govern effectively even in normal
circumstances
§
The Empire was composed of disparate powers, ranging from larger princely territories to small
duchies and imperial cities (nb 85% of population was located in the countryside)
§
By tradition, the Emperor ruled only with the consent of the Imperial Diet, ‘a representative
assembly whose sheer size and diversity of interests made agreement almost impossible’
(William Maltby).
§
The Diet was divided up between seven electors, spiritual and secular rulers, and free imperial
cities
§
In practice, the workings of the Empire illustrated the limited powers of the Emperor and
ensured that the German-speaking lands remained a composite (combination) of different
territorial powers rather than a monarchy under the sway of a single ruler
§
In the 1490s, Emperor Maximilian I had gained approval of an imperial court to resolve disputes
between states, but the majority of the judges were to be named by the Diet not the Emperor,
thereby illustrating the limits of his authority.
§
Maximilian also established a system of imperial circles (Kreise), which was intended to provide
a measure of regional control by dividing the Empire into administrative districts – yet again, this
came under the control of princely influence
§
There was considerable tensions underlying the political framework of the Empire, illustrated by
the contrasting interests of the Emperors and the respective princes
§
Tom Scott has commented on these contrasting priorities: ‘on the one hand, the need for the
kings to establish a dynastic power base strong enough to enable them to rule effectively as
emperors; on the other, the concern of members of the Reich to establish public order and the
rule of law within Germany’
§
After the Emperor, the electors were without doubt the most powerful figures within the Empire
§
following his accession to the imperial throne, Charles V was indebted to the electors for their
support, especially to Frederick the Wise (who had at one stage been considered a serious
candidate)
The Princes and their place within the Empire
§
The princes feared that their traditional liberties might be undermined, particularly if imperial
resources were used for dynastic ends
§
There were frequent conflicts of interests between Emperor and German Estates
§
From the perspective of the princes, real power lay in the rights and responsibilities granted to
princes by Emperors
27
§
In order to justify their princely status, princes had to participate in imperial governance; in
return, they gained territory/principality and independent rights of rule (jurisdiction, defence,
taxation)
§
Over time, gradual accumulation of these lands/property had given rise to extremely powerful
lords
§
The nobility were the most powerful group within the Empire, yet they were far from unified
§
They included leading princes (electors, dukes) and the lesser nobility (imperial knights) who had
experienced a loss of prestige (they were no longer central to military affairs or political
developments)
Habsburg dynasty and Imperial possession
§ As the most powerful dynasty of its time, the Habsburgs had secured a massive inheritance
§
in addition to the Austrian hereditary lands, Charles had inherited Castile and Aragon (and
therefore Spain), which granted possession of parts of the New World, as well as Sardinia, Sicily
and Naples
§
via Maximilian’s marriage to the duchess of Burgundy in 1477, the Habsburgs also gained the
Burgundian lands
§
in the 1520s, they also secured control of the Bohemian and Hungarian lands, which would force
them to confront the Turkish threat directly
§
although these considerable possessions ensured that the Habsburgs maintained the largest
Empire in Europe by far, it would make it very difficult for them to control their possessions
§
It meant that their financial and military resources were easily overstretched and it forced the
Emperors to prioritise
§
from a Habsburg perspective, Luther presented a threat to the unity of Christendom, for which
as Emperors they were supposed to be the main secular defenders
§
yet the challenges posed by the French and by the Turks forced the Emperors to compromise
over the Luther affair
Maximilian I
§ In the two years preceding his death in 1519, the gravity of Luther’s revolt had not yet made
itself felt.
§
Emperor Maximilian underestimated the threat posed by Luther – in his view, it was a minor
religious inconvenience which the proper (religious) authorities would manage with relative ease
in due course
§
Maximilian’s predominant concern was dynastic, namely securing the imperial succession for the
Habsburg family
28
§
Moreover, it was thought that Luther was just another heretic who would eventually be
condemned; this was scarcely a new problem or so it seemed at the time
§
For that reason, Maximilian was unwilling to dictate to Frederick the Wise, for the latter’s vote
was crucial in the imperial election.
§
The imperial election was certainly not a foregone conclusion and yet no internal candidate had
sufficient power to be a serious contender (though Frederick the Wise was briefly considered)
§
Charles’ major rival for the imperial title was Francis I, King of France, against whom the
Habsburgs had been fighting since 1494
§
This explains why Maximilian was totally devoted to dynasticism during this period
§
During these crucial years (1517-1519), Luther’s academic theses were allowed to develop into a
very public and widely known manifesto.
§
Maximilian’s inertia towards the Luther affair also facilitated a radicalization in terms of religious
agenda, particularly regarding criticisms of the Pope
Charles V
§ Charles V was elected unanimously by the electors (after considerable bribery) because he was
thought to be the best choice for the German lands
§
Given that the Habsburgs controlled the German-speaking Austrian hereditary lands, Charles
was perceived to be the ‘German’ candidate
§
That said, Habsburg domination of the imperial title would quickly become a cause for concern
and opposition, and thus the loyalty of the princes was certainly not guaranteed
§
Charles V’s reactions to Luther were similar to that of Maximilian, especially regarding his
prioritization in favour of dynastic and political concerns.
§
He was particularly unwilling to pressurize Frederick into handing over Luther.
§
For political reasons, he was obviously indebted to Frederick the Wise for his support
§
Although he was increasingly convinced that Luther had betrayed some fundamental ideals of
Catholicism, Charles opted not to intervene directly and therefore not to apply diplomatic and
political pressure.
§
Charles persisted in this vein because he did not have full political control of the Holy Roman
Empire
§
Without a proper standing army, he was utterly dependent on the princes for their financial and
military support, not only for the administration of the Empire but also (more importantly) for its
protection against foreign invaders (notably the Turks).
§
For financial reasons, Charles was also weaker given that his family had spent a fortune on
bribing the electors during the imperial election
29
§
The Habsburgs owed the Fuggers (merchant banking family in Augsburg) a vast amount of
money
§
Luther’s princely patronage ensured that he would never be forced to attend a hearing in Rome,
which would have certainly sealed his fate.
§
Even as late as the imperial Diet of Worms (by which time Luther had already been
excommunicated), Charles V refused to permit the immediate arrest of Luther.
§
In this way, Charles failed to take advantage of (arguably) the only and final opportunity he ever
had to seize Luther
§
His subsequent lack of control meant that he was unable to enforce the Edict of Worms, a factor
that was constantly revisited by his personal absence from Germany during the critical decades
of the 1520s
Why did the German princes support Lutheranism?
§ Luther had deliberately targeted the nobility in his works, especially the vital ‘Address to the
Christian Nobility of the German Nation’.
§
Frederick the Wise remained a critical figure in the early years of the revolt until his death,
allowing Wittenberg to become the centre of the Reformation.
§
Other princes were receptive to Luther’s message for a variety of reasons.
§
The anti-Italian/Roman stance was appealing to many nobles and their subjects, since the Papacy
was representative of a foreign (even interfering) influence in the German lands.
§
Many princes had political motives for supporting Luther because they saw his movement as a
means of weakening the Emperor
§
Charles V’s success against Luther would only serve to strengthen his authority and control,
thereby potentially threatening their territorial supremacy.
§
For that reason, some joined the movement not necessarily out of genuine religious conviction,
but because they sought greater freedom from Habsburg authority
§
This largely explains why Catholic princes, like the Bavarian Wittelsbachs, were willing to make
alliances with Lutheran princes).
§
Princes inevitably saw the material benefits of joining the Reformation cause, which presented an
opportunity to increase their authority and wealth
§
This was primarily due to the secularization of Church property and the receipt of Church taxes Albrecht of Hohenzollern and Margrave Casimir of Brandenburg are notable examples
§
Some had no alternative and were forced to adopt Lutheranism due to popular pressure, such as
the Archbishop of Mainz.
§
Finally, some were attracted to Lutheranism due to sincere religious conviction
30
§
This was especially the case with Frederick the Wise’s successor, John of Saxony, as well as Philip
of Hesse.
The Imperial Diets’ ineffective response to the Lutheran challenge, 1521-1524
§ The Reformation served to compound further the fragmentary nature of the Empire by adding
religious divisions to political disunity.
§
The Reformation inevitably affected Charles V’s relations with his subjects because it placed them
in a religious camp that was diametrically opposed to his own.
§
His lack of control meant that he was unable to enforce the Edict of Worms, a factor that was
constantly revisited by his personal absence from Germany during the critical decade of the
1520s.
§
The Emperor’s absence in Spain, partly necessitated by the comunero revolt in Spain, ensured
that the princes increased their power and, crucially, their political self-awareness.
§
Above all, the princes became more active in preventing the enforcement of the Edict of Worms
throughout the 1520s.
§
For example, at the Diet of Nuremberg in 1524, princes declared that they were willing to enforce
the Edict of Worms but only to the extent that it did not provoke rebellion, disobedience and
murder.
§
In this way, the representatives of the Diet pacified the Emperor by accepting his demands yet
simultaneously reserving the right to ignore them
Consequences of Peasants’ War, 1525-1530
§ It is certainly interesting that in his ‘Admonition to Peace’ (April 1525) Luther had initially laid
equal blame on rulers for oppressing peasants and peasants for acting as judges in their own
cause.
§
It took only a month for Luther to realize the potential negative consequences of the uprising
upon the movement.
§
To that effect, in May 1525 he published his damning treatise entitled ‘Against the Robbing and
Murdering Hordes of Other Peasants’.
§
Rulers were encouraged to do their spiritual duty by offering terms to the rebels and punishing
them with swift and brutal force if they refused.
§
This reflected the more conservative reaction of Luther and that of the leading reformers to the
Peasants’ Revolt.
§
The revolt and its aftermath inevitably encouraged Luther to enforce a significant reorientation to
the Reformation movement.
§
It put an end to the freedom of religious dialogue which had characterized the early years of the
Reformation – in particular, this led to a notable decline in the publication of pamphlets devoted
to an emphasis on the common man.
31
§
Yet that the Reformation survived this crisis was a tribute to the firm roots that it had already put
down on German soil, as well as Luther’s timely and vitriolic critique of peasant radicalism
§
Absolutely central to the development of Lutheranism was the princely response to the Peasants’
war
§
It is noteworthy that it was a coalition of princes, not the Emperor, who defeated the peasant
armies in the mid-1520s.
§
The princes had proved that they could withstand a serious crisis without resorting to the
Emperor’s advice and support.
§
It granted them the confidence to be more self-assertive, independent and less willing to
compromise as the religious crisis intensified in the subsequent decades of the Protestant
Reformation.
§
The threat posed by the peasant rebellion illustrated that Lutheranism was a major force that
needed to be contained and carefully manipulated
§
Many princes decided to adopt a Reformation stance in order to control their territories more
effectively
§
The increasing control of the princes led to the most decisive stage that impacted on Luther’s
revolt, namely the princely Reformation
§
At the Diet of Speyer, the absence of many conservative representatives of the Diet led to the
adoption of a religious formula which allowed evangelicals an unexpected degree of freedom
§
In this way, the Edict of Worms was temporarily annulled, thereby encouraging more cities to
adopt the Reformation message.
§
At Speyer, they demanded a national meeting to discuss religious issues, arguing that until such a
conference was held, each prince and city could legitimately pursue its own religious policies.
§
From being an important political and diplomatic force in the early 1520s, princely support took
on a military dimension with the creation of the defensive League of Torgau in 1526, which was
dedicated principally to the prevention of the enforcement of the Edict of Worms.
§
Even with the return of a Catholic majority at the imperial Diet in 1529 and its inevitable attempt
to enforce a strict reaffirmation of the Edict of Worms, the evangelical movement was sufficiently
entrenched to risk a calculated act of defiance.
§
Six princes and 14 imperial cities signed a Protestation (from which Protestants derive their
name), which openly challenged the Emperor’s authority.
§
Three days later, Hesse, Electoral Saxony and the cities of Ulm, Strasburg and Nuremberg formed
a defensive alliance to protect themselves against the Catholics.
32
The Diet of Augsburg, 1530, and the foundation of the Schmalkaldic League, 1531
§
The Emperor himself attended, emphasising the gravity and importance of the Diet. Protestant
and Catholic delegates would meet in discussion and a common confession of faith would be
arrived at.
§
The presentation of a Protestant Confession of Faith at the Diet of Augsburg (1530) in the
presence of the Emperor was a highly significant watershed for the Reformation.
§
The Confession stated the Lutheran message with such distinct clarity that its permanence
appeared to be inevitable
§
It granted the Protestants an identity around which they could conform and a foundation upon
which they could further establish their cause.
§
Crucially, it was not only a religious identity, but also a political one since the Confession was
signed by political leaders and supporters of the Protest (7 princes and two cities)
§
In fact, however, the Diet achieved nothing. After nine years in which nothing practical had been
done to turn the clock back it would be almost impossible to reinforce orthodoxy.
§
The Lutheran Princes were given seven months to return to Rome before the Edict of Worms was
reconfirmed.
§
The Lutheran Princes and towns came together at Schmalkalden and formed a League for their
own mutual defence.
§
The League had the support of eight princes and eleven cities pledging to field 10,000 men and
2,000 horse and in the following years it considerably grew in strength.
§
One of the reasons why Charles found ruling Germany so difficult was that he never really
understood the depth of Lutheran feeling amongst his subjects.
The expansion of Lutheranism, 1532-1541
§
At the Diets of Speyer in 1526, Speyer in 1529 and Augsburg, 1530 the Habsburgs had failed to reimpose the Edict of Worms on the Lutheran Princes and Cities.
§
In 1531 Charles has secured the election of Ferdinand as King of the Romans and so his
designated successor.
§
It further outraged the German Princes who saw this as a further example of imperial tyranny
following the events of the diets of Speyer in 1529 and Augsburg in 1530.
§
The Catholic Duke of Bavaria now decided to ally with the League of Schmalkalden rather than
with his co-religionists!
§
Charles was forced to grant the Protestant Princes and cities legal toleration in the Religious
Peace of Nuremberg in 1532.
33
§
Charles remained convinced that the best way to reimpose his authority on the Empire was to
refrain from outright warfare.
§
Instead he would work for the calling of a General Council which would bring all sides together
without resorting to armed conflict. General Councils had been used to solve the problems of
Christendom in the past and so they would be able to again
§
The last thing the Pope wanted was a General Council of the Church to be called since this might
quite likely question Papal authority!
§
Throughout the 1530's Lutheranism was thus able to flourish protected by the Schmalkaldic
League and by Charles' own toleration granted at Nuremberg in 1532.
§
In 1534 the Schmalkaldic League restored the Protestant Duke Ulrich to Wurttemberg.
§
In 1535 Brandenburg became Protestant as did Ducal Saxony in 1539 (the two biggest remaining
Catholic states).
§
In 1536 the Wittenberg Concord gave unity to the Protestant cause especially as it was adhered
to by North as well as South.
§
In 1539 another compromise like that of Nuremberg was signed at Frankfurt providing
Lutheranism with yet more official toleration.
The Colloquy of Regensburg, 1541
§
In 1539 it became common knowledge that Philip of Hesse had contracted a bigamous marriage
with the support of Luther.
§
Soon after moderates from both sides called to Regensburg seemed eager to achieve the
compromise that Charles had hoped for.
§
However although compromise was reached on many issues and Charles was willing to back
negotiations on the marriage of priests and communion in both kinds, no compromise could be
reached on transubstantiation or papal authority.
Charles on the Offensive 1544 - 1547
§
In 1543 the Archbishop of Cologne had turned Lutheran.
§
In 1546 the Elector of the Palatinate, Frederick II, had also converted to the new faith.
§
This gave the Protestants a four to three majority amongst the electors ensuring that in future
the Habsburg imperial candidate could be rejected.
§
Charles did not attack Protestantism head on. He attacked the Schmalkaldic League which not all
Protestants adhered to.
§
Charles concentrated on appeasing the self-interest of three young German Princes who felt that
their territorial ambitions were being thwarted by the League. These were the Margrave Albert
34
Alcibiades of Brandenburg –Culmbach, the Margrave John of Brandenburg – Kustrin, and, most
importantly Duke Maurice of Saxony
§
All three of them were promised great rewards if they co-operated with the Emperor, in
particular Maurice who the Emperor was prepared to grant the lands and title of the Elector of
Saxony.
§
Maurice invaded Electoral Saxony and the remnants of the Schmalkaldic League taken by surprise
by the speed of Maurice's advance were defeated at Muhlberg in 1547.
§
Elector John Frederick of Saxony was captured and his electoral title and lands went, as promised,
to Maurice of Saxony.
Why did Charles' failure to impose Orthodoxy after Muhlberg, 1547 - 1555
Charles' Arrogance towards the Princes
§ Charles' decision to imprison both Philip of Hesse and John Frederick of Saxony at his own
pleasure shocked the German Princes and cities, whatever their religious affiliation.
§
John Frederick's electoral title, as we have seen, was also given to Maurice as well as the vast
majority of his lands. This brought into question the whole sanctity of property rights in the
Empire.
The Proposals for a Princely League
§ Charles further contributed to this sense of ill feeling when he announced at the Diet of Augsburg
(September 1547 - May 1548) that he had decided to establish a League of Princes with himself at
the top which would give political stability to the Empire.
§
This was designed to increase Charles' power over the Princes and it naturally caused panic
amongst them.
The Failure of the Interim
§ At Augsburg Charles did try to solve the religious differences of Germany by introducing the
Interim.
§
However the Pope refused to recognise the Interim since it infringed his authority and both Pope
and the ongoing Council of Trent doggedly stuck to utter religious orthodoxy.
§
To the Lutherans who had for over twenty years fought for a reformed religion the Interim was
quite simply not an option.
The significance of the Brothers' Quarrel
§ In 1550 Charles proposed that his own son Philip should succeed Ferdinand rather than
Ferdinand's own son Maximilian as he had been expecting.
§
The manipulation of the succession also convinced the Princes that Charles was indeed out to
establish a new imperial despotism.
§
He had ignored the rights of the Electors in 1531 when Ferdinand had been proclaimed King of
the Romans and now he was doing it again by appointing Philip as the successor to Ferdinand.
35
Was Charles at the height of victory more vulnerable than before?
The Defection of Maurice of Saxony
§ Charles imprisonment of Maurice's own father-in-law Philip of Hesse had made Maurice
extremely unpopular in Germany.
§
Maurice was also resentful of Charles since he had not granted him the bishoprics of Halberstadt
and Magdeburg which he wanted very badly.
§
Maurice now began to see greater opportunities available to him by breaking, rather than
maintaining his alliance with Charles.
§
With Albert Alcibiades and John of Kustrin he established the League of Torgau which in 1552
allied itself to Henry II of France at the Treaty of Chambord. In return for Metz, Toul and Verdun,
Henry promised both military and financial assistance.
Charles’ inertia
§ Charles must also take a great deal of blame for not responding to the threat from Maurice and
the other Princes quickly enough.
§
Between 1550 - 1552 Charles seems to have been unable to accept that his policies towards
Ferdinand, Maurice and the princes and Cities generally had build up an intense resentment
against him.
§
He seemed to think that his victory at Muhlberg had been so crushing that no German Prince
would ever again contemplate raising arms against the Emperor.
§
In May 1551 Maurice at last came off the fence announcing the establishment of the League of
Torgau which was explicitly committed to protecting German liberties against, ‘The beastly,
insufferable and everlasting servitude that is practised in Spain’.
Charles' failure
§ Charles made peace with the Princes in order to repel the invasion of Henry II of France in 1552.
§ This was achieved at the Treaty of Passau negotiated by Maurice of Saxony and Ferdinand who,
unlike Charles, still had some remaining credibility amongst the German Princes.
§ The existence of Lutheranism was accepted until the (inevitable) calling of another diet!
The Diet of Augsburg, 1555
§ At the Diet of Augsburg in 1555 a religious peace was negotiated in which both sides agreed to
tolerate both the Catholic and Lutheran Churches in Germany.
§ No missionary activity was to be allowed and no territory ruled by a bishop was allowed to
become Lutheran.
§ Most significantly each territory should follow the religion of its Prince. This formula
(subsequently to be known as Cuius Regio, Eius Religio) was final proof that Charles had failed to
impose his political and religious will upon Germany
§ The following year, in January 1556, Charles abdicated as Emperor in favour of his brother
Ferdinand and, having given Spain to Philip, retired to the monastery of Yuste in Spain to make his
peace with God after a lifetime of warfare, diplomacy and ceaseless travel. Within two years he
was dead.
36
QUESTIONS on Section B: Luther
‘EXPLAIN WHY’ QUESTIONS
B1
Explain why Luther attached the sale of indulgences in 1517.
(12 marks)
B2
Explain why Martin Luther was ordered to appear before the Diet of Worms in 1521.
(12 marks)
B3
Explain why Luther was excommunicated by the Catholic Church in 1520.
(12 marks)
B4
Explain why German peasants revolted in the years 1524 to 1525.
(12 marks)
B5
Why did the controversy over indulgences lead to conflict between Martin Luther and the
Papacy by 1520?
(12 marks)
B6
Explain why the Elector Frederick the Wise of Saxony protected Luther in the years
1517 to 1521.
(12 marks)
ESSAY QUESTIONS
B7
How important was the role of the princes in bringing about the success of the Lutheran
Reformation in Germany in the years 1525-1555?
(24 marks)
B8
How far was the success of the Lutheran movement in Germany due to the reformers’ use of
the printing press in the years 1517-1555?
(24 marks)
B9
How far was the success of the German Reformation in the years 1521 to 1529 the result of
the weaknesses of the Emperor Charles V?
(24 marks)
B10 How important was the papacy in changing the Catholic Church in the years 1534 to 1564?
(24 marks)
B11 How important were the German princes to the success of the Lutheran reformation in the
years 1531 to 1555?
(24 marks)
B12 How important was the support of German princes to the success of the Lutheran cause in
the years 1541 to 1555?
(24 marks)
37
C: Calvin
§
Calvin was greatly influenced by his formative years, both in terms of his education (in law and
theology) and in his association with the early French evangelical movement, which culminated
in his flight into exile.
§
He became the most systematic theologian of the Reformation – his Institutes of the Christian
Religion went through numerous editions and translations in the sixteenth century alone.
§
His notoriety was also derived from his contribution to Church organization and discipline, the
blueprint for which was established in Geneva.
§
Although it took Calvin well over a decade to be firmly established in his new environment, once
his position was secure Geneva became a major missionary centre.
§
Although recent historians have sought to reduce its significance, it was vital to the early
development of French Calvinism. The spread of Calvinism in France and the Netherlands was
made possible by the dynamism of the movement, and above all by its noble support.
§
The monarchical crises and the subsequent political instability that ensued in the French and
Dutch contexts explain in large part why Calvinism became a major force in sixteenth-century
Europe.
Calvin’s early life
§ Born in Picardy (1509), son of an ecclesiastical official
§
Consistent with his father’s wishes, Calvin switched from the study of theology to that of law in
1529
§
In 1531, following his father’s death, Calvin returned to Paris and switched to theological and
humanist studies (particularly the study of Latin and Greek)
§
In the early 1530s, Calvin moved in humanist circles, which included an evangelically inclined
group of reformers
§
Yet when Nicholas Cop’s sermon (1533) identified himself with the Lutheran doctrine of
justification by faith alone, Calvin took flight to Angoulême
§
Following the more radical Affair of the Placards (1534), a decisive turning point in the early
French Reformation, Calvin fled to Basle (an important centre of moderate evangelical learning)
Calvin’s influence
§ Situated in Basle, one of the leading intellectual centres, Calvin was determined to study
theology.
§
Here he finished the first edition of the Institutes of the Christian Religion, which granted him a
very successful and an international reputation (he now achieved considerable status in the
Protestant world).
38
§
The first Latin edition of the Institutes was published in 1536 and was revised and re-edited
numerous times – it was translated into French in 1541.
§
The Institutes was a summary of the major Protestant beliefs and became the theological
cornerstone of the second Reformation.
§
Following his move to the Swiss Confederation, Calvin became the driving force behind the
consolidation of Protestantism in Geneva.
§
Calvin gained international reputation for his theological prowess in his condemnation of Jerome
Bolsec and Michel Servetus.
§
Building upon the foundations laid by Luther, Calvin was a second generation reformer – his
form of Protestantism, known as Calvinism, became a dynamic international force, gaining
significant support in France, the Netherlands, the Palatinate (within Germany) and Scotland
Calvin’s ideas
§ Calvin came later than the first generation reformers, Luther and Zwingli, though he was still
very much in their Protestant theological camp (particularly with the centrality of Scriptures).
§
He retained great admiration for Luther and derived considerable inspiration from humanism –
in the pre-1541 period, he had a close relationship with Melanchthon, Luther’s close associate.
§
He became arguably the most systematic thinker of the Protestant Reformation, for which his
legal training was crucial.
§
Yet he regarded himself less a theologian than an interpreter of Scripture.
§
His most important work, the Institutes of the Christian Religion, was intended to be an
educational manual for the sake of teaching how to live the Christian life.
§
Calvin owed much to the medieval Church, especially his inheritance of the tradition that put
emphasis on the will of God.
§
Central to understanding the will of God was the emphasis placed by Calvin on the Knowledge of
God (true wisdom developed a knowledge of God as well as self-knowledge).
§
The role of Providence (God’s will manifested over the whole of Creation) was central to Calvin’s
teachings.
§
Providence represented God’s foreknowledge and reinforced the doctrine of Creation, which he
understood as being part of a continual process – part of God’s secret plan was that humans had
to accept that which they do not know.
§
Inextricably linked to the notion of Providence was the belief in predestination, namely that
humans are predestined to eternal life or eternal damnation.
§
Although Calvin insisted that believers did not discuss predestination, they began to see their
fate and God’s will in daily occurrences (especially manifest in suffering persecution, frequently
interpreted as a sign of election).
39
§
However perverse it may seem, repression in fact defined Calvinism; it gave its followers a sense
of legitimacy by defining the reality that they were God’s elect
The conversion of Geneva
§ Following the expulsion of the prince-bishop from Geneva and the failure of the Duke of Savoy
to exploit this political vacuum, Geneva became an independent republic.
§
Political power and decision-making was largely dominated by the Little Council, composed of 25
men elected annually by the Council of 200.
§
Yet the effective leadership was given to the four Syndics, who were elected annually.
§
In spite of (or perhaps because of) its spirit of independence, a number of political factions
emerged within Geneva – most divisive of all were the contrasting benefits of securing amicable
relations with either France or Berne
§
Although he was reluctant to become a Church leader, Calvin was persuaded to move by
Guillaume Farel, who planned to establish Protestantism in Geneva (which was in turmoil and
racked by faction).
§
In January 1537, Farel and Calvin drew up a series of articles for a new Church organization.
§
Although the magistrates were willing to accept them, the changes were not warmly welcomed
by the masses – the people feared the prospect of an increasingly powerful Church (regarding
disciplinary matters).
§
With the election of four new Syndics (who were pro-Berne), it was only a matter of time before
Calvin and Farel were expelled from Geneva
Strasburg (1538-1541)
§ Calvin then planned to return to Basle, but was persuaded by Martin Bucer to go to Strasburg
instead.
§
In the three year interim, Calvin remained in Strasburg where he was determined to be a
scholar.
§
The period in Strasburg was crucial because it had been one of the leading cities of the German
Reformation.
§
Calvin derived considerable inspiration from Bucer, who had been instrumental to the Strasburg
Reformation (above all, in terms of Church organization and worship).
§
The time in Strasburg allowed his theological ideas to evolve and mature, culminating in a
second edition of the Institutes (August 1539).
§
He also gained some experience of German affairs and how Lutheranism developed in these
crucial years.
§
For example, he attended the Colloquy of Regensburg in 1541 during which attempts to
reconcile Protestants and Catholics failed.
40
§
In 1541, he was convinced to return to Geneva, interpreting it as part of God’s will (hence, the
role of PROVIDENCE).
§
His aspirations to come back to Geneva coincided with the demise of the pro-Bernese faction,
the opponents of which called for his return
Ecclesiastical Ordinances (1541)
§ As Armstrong has written, Calvin ‘made it a condition of his return that a reformed Church
constitution be accepted by the city council’.
§
In 1541, Calvin published his Ecclesiastical Ordinances, which provided the blueprint for the
Church framework in Geneva.
§
Via a proper Church structure, the Word of God could be preached with utmost effectiveness
(religious instruction required the existence of a structure upon which the faithful could
depend).
Four Orders of the Church
§ The Ordinances introduced four Orders in the Church: pastors; teachers; elders; and deacons.
§
The duty of pastors was to preach, instruct, admonish and administer the sacraments
§
The twelve leading pastors would eventually form the Company of Pastors, which would
supervise the ministry within the city itself in addition to its surrounding parishes.
§
The role of teachers was obviously to instruct ministers and the laity particularly in theology –
their importance was enhanced by the foundation of the Genevan Academy (university) in 1559.
§
Deacons administered the poor and the sick, forming an integral part of the hospitals.
§
Elders were commissioners delegated by the Seigneury to the Consistory, and were granted the
role of general moralizers, authorized to administer fraternal discipline.
§
The Consistory became vital to the Calvinist enforcement of discipline within the city, though it
also had educational and advisory roles.
Government and Society (1541-1555)
§ During his time in Geneva, Calvin refined his understanding of the relationship between the
secular and ecclesiastical authorities.
§
Magistrates had made it very clear that Calvin should be a preacher and legal adviser, but not a
secular ruler of Geneva
§
Despite this, Calvin’s pre-eminence as a scholar and theologian (especially an interpreter of
Scripture) gave him considerable power and status in Geneva.
§
During these years, Calvin clarified his thought on the role of civil government, which he
considered to be essential for the Church to function properly.
41
§
He asserted that the civil authorities were ordained by God, though they were not meant to
administer the Church – Calvin wanted to maintain the distance between the two.
§
The power of excommunication was the foremost issue, for in other Protestant states, the
Church was not in charge of excommunication.
§
Yet Calvin’s theological authority was not unquestioned during the 1540s and 1550s.
§
Most strikingly, Jerome Bolsec questioned the doctrine of predestination and later Michel
Servetus was burnt at the stake (in Geneva) for holding anti-Trinitarian views.
§
Calvin was anxious that the Genevan Council would use these cases to renew older disputes, yet
this did not take place because the Council trusted his theological authority.
§
Calvin was also able to consolidate his position because of his loyal supporters within Geneva
(particularly his ministerial colleagues).
§
In addition to his theological prowess and his intimate command of Scriptures, Calvin also had a
profound knowledge of the law (he could argue his case with persuasion and substance).
§
One should neither forget nor underestimate the cumulative effect of Calvin’s preaching (he
preached as many as five times a fortnight and other pulpits were filled by talented, loyal
supporters).
§
The Council also began to appreciate the contribution of the consistory (which focused on
disciplinary and moral matters).
§
The ministers encouraged a new social order, which was vital in a city with so many refugees.
§
Although political opposition to Calvin existed, the 1555 election finally turned in his favour –
though a narrow victory, he exploited it ruthlessly.
§
In the 1550s, the ruling elite, as represented by Amy de Perrin and his supporters (the
Perrinists), had opposed the increasing influence of the French refugees, who were starting to
dominate Genevan politics.
§
In that election, the Perrinists were disenfranchised, expelled and replaced by a massive influx of
Calvin’s supporters (the great majority of whom were French).
§
By packing the electorate with his supporters, Calvin reached a position from which his authority
would never be challenged seriously again.
42
QUESTIONS on Section C: Calvin
‘EXPLAIN WHY’ QUESTIONS
C1
Why did Geneva become the centre for Calvinism in the 1540s?
(12 marks)
C2
Explain why religious radicalism became widespread in the years 1521 to 1525. (12 marks)
C3
Explain why the Anabaptists were suppressed in Münster in 1535.
(12 marks)
C4
Explain why John Calvin was expelled from Geneva in 1538.
(12 marks)
C5
Explain why Calvin was able to overcome his enemies in Geneva in the years 1553 to 1555.
(12 marks)
C6
Explain why there was opposition to John Calvin during his first ministry in Geneva
in the years 1536 to 1538?
(12 marks)
C7
Explain why the Genevan Academy was founded in 1559.
(12 marks)
ESSAY QUESTIONS
C8
How important was the role of the Consistory in explaining Calvin’s success in Geneva?
(24 marks)
C9
How important were Calvin’s religious ideas to the success of the Reformation in Geneva?
(24 marks)
C10 How far was the success of the Genevan Reformation to 1564 a result of Calvin’s actions
against his opponents?
(24 marks)
C11 How far was Geneva a theocratic state by 1564?
(24 marks)
C12 How successful was Calvinism in establishing itself in Europe by 1564?
(24 marks)
C13 How important were Calvin’s religious ideas to the success of the Reformation in
Geneva by 1564?
(24 marks)
C14 How important were Calvin’s ideas about organisation to the success of the Genevan
Reformation?
(24 marks)
43
D: Anabaptists and other Radical Movements
Anabaptists
§ Anabaptism was influential especially in the Swiss and south-west German lands.
§
Its major figures included Karlstadt, Thomas Müntzer and Konrad Grebel, the last of which
emerged as the leader of the Swiss Anabaptists.
§
Anabaptists took on the majority of the central Protestant teachings: in particular, the tearing
down of the Catholic sacramental system and the rejection of priestly authority; the emphasis on
the Bible and on the importance of the laity.
§
Yet Anabaptist views were distinctive for a number of reasons.
§
The marked emphasis that they placed on millenarianism (that the end of the world was nigh and
that humanity would soon be divided between the saved and the damned) set them apart.
§
Above all, they are most easily characterized by their rejection of infant baptism.
§
From their perspective, once baptism came to be understood as a profession of faith by adults
(and not a ritual by which even infants could receive forgiveness for sin), there was nothing left of
the Catholic idea that God had entrusted to the priesthood certain signs or actions that are
effective in the communication of his grace.
§
In their view, Luther had not gone far enough and was still too Catholic
§
They were taking Luther’s views to what they thought was their logical (and fuller) extension.
§
Some Anabaptists believed that even the Biblical text represented too great an emphasis on
externals
§
Without disregarding it, they believed that a purity of faith would lead to direct Divine
communication with individual believers via the Holy Spirit.
§
A further reason why Luther was not supportive of the Anabaptists was that some of them
(Müntzer included) were willing to take up arms against their oppressors.
§
The fear of civil disorder that such a movement induced was further accentuated when the
Anabaptists took over the city of Münster in the mid-1530s (law and order disappeared and
compulsory polygamy was introduced)
Ignatius Loyola and the Society of Jesus
Ignatius Loyola
§ Born 1491, noble background, entered military service in 1517 and had a striking conversion
experience following serious injury sustained by a cannonball in 1521.
§
Following a retreat at a Benedictine monastery, moved to Manresa where he began composing
a religious text known as ‘Spiritual Exercises’.
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§
He traveled to the Holy Land on pilgrimage and on his return decided to embark on his
education in Spain (Alcala and Salamanca) and later in France (Paris), and subsequently moved
to Italy where the Society of Jesus was founded.
§
Society of Jesus – Spirituality
§
Spiritual Exercises represented central part of Jesuit spirituality, a text which was not meant to
be read individually but was instead a guide/manual, which believers would be led through by a
spiritual director normally as a four week retreat.
§
The focal point was the life of Christ, upon which believers would base their personal renewal.
§
The Exercises contained considerable flexibility/adaptability, which would prove invaluable
where missions were concerned.
§
The spirituality of the Jesuits place them at the crossroads between the late medieval and early
modern periods, drawing considerable inspiration from late medieval spirituality (like the
‘Imitation of Christ’ and Ludolph of Saxony’s ‘Life of Christ’) while simultaneously developing
their own form of practical spirituality as manifest in the Exercises.
§
Hence, the method of following Christ was not merely found in spiritual contemplation but also
in apostolic action.
Society of Jesus – foundation, growth
§ The basis for the Society of Jesus was laid in 1534 where the first companions made a vow at
Montmartre (Paris) to travel to the Holy Land in order to defend and promote the Christian faith.
§
These companions came from a variety of countries, especially France, Portugal and Spain,
reflecting the international dimension of the Jesuits from the outset.
§
On arriving in Italy, eventually the Order was officially approved by Pope Paul III in 1540 and
included four vows, the last of which prescribed that Jesuits should take a vow to the Pope to
travel anywhere in the world to spread the Gospel.
§
Jesuits were not obliged to recite prayers in community, since they were an Order that was
characterized by their mobility/itinerancy (as the Jesuit Louis Richeome declared, Jesuits would
“reach heaven by travelling on earth”).
§
The Order was carefully structured via the rules of the Society, known as the Constitutions,
completed in the 1550s
§
the Society was divided into provinces - by 1553, there were six different provinces, a figure
which was doubled within three years.
§
The Order was highly structured in term of personnel, with Provincials in charge of each
province who were ordered to communicate regularly with the Jesuit headquarters in Rome.
§
In the early years, it was supervised (until his death in 1556) by Ignatius Loyola, who was the
Society’s first General.
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§
The dynamism and discipline of the Jesuits allowed them to grow extremely quickly - with 1000
members in 1553, there were 3500 by 1565, and 23000 by 1773.
Ministries – education, missions
Education
§ They had limited plans for education initially, and it was never the intention to create a teaching
order at the expense of other concerns or its mobility.
§
Initially, colleges were little more than hostels for Jesuits attending other educational
establishments, yet increasingly they were set up for the training of Jesuits and later schools and
universities were opened and/or taken over by Jesuits for the purpose of educating the laity.
§
Jesuits did not take salaries and became the most important teaching order in Europe. They
were eventually central to the Tridentine concern for establishing seminaries (training colleges
for priests), absolutely central to the reform of the Church.
§
Statistics: 7 Jesuits communities were linked to universities by 1544; in 1548 their first college
was established in Messina (Sicily) and one was founded in Rome in 1551; there were 35+
colleges by 1556 (19 in Italy), and 800 universities, seminaries and schools by 1773.
Missions
§ Given their itinerant nature, it was inevitable that missions would play a formidable part in the
history and life of the Order - Jesuits believed that their personal conversion was incomplete if
not linked to apostolic and missionary life.
§
They became excellent preachers, linguists (communicators with natives/locals), teachers (not
just in schools but also in basic Christian instruction), and performers (use of drama and music).
§
They were very innovative in the use of processions, confraternities, drama, social welfare, art
and architecture and made considerable use of noble patronage (especially King John III of
Portugal).
§
The most famous missionary was Francis Xavier [1506-1542], who spent much of his time in
India (Goa) and Japan (the Jesuits experienced considerable growth in Japan until the rise of
persecutions in the late 1590s, which culminated in their total exclusion from 1640 onwards).
§
The Jesuits were particularly successful in Europe, though they were less effective in England
and France – they were opposed by the Parlement of Paris and by the Sorbonne (University of
Paris) and even expelled from France from 1594-1603.
Jesuits in Germany
§ The Jesuits first arrived in Germany in the early 1540s, shortly after their foundation.
§
Most prominently of all was Peter Favre and especially Peter Canisius [1521-1597].
§
The Jesuits were very successful in Germany principally due to their effective courting of the
nobility, notably the Bavarian Wittelsbachs (rulers of Bavaria).
§
Duke Albert V of Bavaria oversaw Jesuit activities and took advantage of their enthusiasm and
dynamism to consolidate Catholicism in Bavaria and beyond.
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§
This was undertaken via preaching, the publication of numerous books (especially Canisius’
‘Catechism’) in addition to the establishment of numerous educational establishments.
§
With noble support, the Jesuits took over many of the leading universities, most notably Munich,
Dillingen and Ingolstadt - by 1600, the Jesuits controlled 40 colleges within the German-speaking
world.
§
Bavaria then became an important missionary centre for the spread of Catholicism elsewhere in
Germany.
§
Jesuit activity in Germany represents the clearest evidence for Catholic reform that was
undertaken with the deliberate intention of driving back/out Protestantism.
The Papacy and Reform
The Council of Trent
Why was there such a delay in the convocation of the Council of Trent?
Papacy
§ Constant fear of conciliarism (holding of councils traditionally provided an opportunity to
challenge papal authority)
§
Convening council was tantamount to acknowledging the failings of the Church.
§
The reform of the Church might challenge the prestige and abuses of the Pope and his
entourage (nepotism etc.).
Charles V
§ As the ruler of the greater part of Western Christendom (including Spain, Netherlands, German
lands, Austria, Southern Italy), Charles V would be vital to a successful organization of a Council.
§
Though firmly committed to the Catholic cause, Charles was primarily occupied by dynastic
ambitions (i.e. fighting the French Valois dynasty).
§
Moreover, he also had a different understanding of what councils could achieve – above all, he
wished to unite Christendom in order to present the Turks with a united front (he was utterly
dependent on Protestant and Catholic princes for money/troops).
Francis I
§ Despite being a committed Catholic, known as the ‘most Christian King’, he also pursued
dynastic interests to the extent that he made alliances with German Protestant princes and even
the Turks in order to weaken Charles V.
Timing and Location
§ The timing of the Council was totally dependent on the existence of peace between Francis I,
Charles V and the Pope.
§
Hence, the peace of Crépy (1544) between Charles V and Francis I provided a window of
opportunity, of which Paul III took full advantage.
47
§
The location was also controversial. Charles V wanted the council to be based in Germany, partly
because the German lands had been the most threatened by the spread of the Protestant
Reformation.
§
He even threatened to convene a German council, independent of Rome.
§
Given the Papacy’s fear of Councils, Paul III insisted on having a council within Italy.
§
For that reason, a compromise location was found in Trent, which was situated within Italy but
was still part of the Holy Roman Empire.
Structure and Agenda
§ 3 periods in total – 1545-1547 [8 sessions], 1551-1552 [6 sessions], 1562-1563 [11 sessions];
§
5 Popes in total – Paul III 1545-1549, Julius III 1550-1555, Marcellus II 1555 and Paul IV 15551559 [yet no sessions were held during these pontificates], Pius IV 1559-1565.
§
Agenda – discuss dogma/doctrine and the reform of abuses/hierarchy, and it was decided to
treat them together.
Doctrine
§ The treatment of doctrine at Trent provides the best proof for the view that the Catholic Church
pursued an anti-Protestant agenda - it represents the most convincing justification for the literal
use of the term ‘Counter-Reformation’.
§
The differences between Protestants and Catholics were outlined clearly and the beliefs of the
former were condemned accordingly.
§
Each decree was divided into two sections: the first included an analysis of Catholic teaching; the
second represented canons rejecting Protestant beliefs.
§
Each canon was followed by the phrase ‘anathema sit’, meaning ‘let him be condemned’.
§
Doctrines shared by Protestants and Catholics were not discussed.
§
The reactionary approach of the Papacy was reflected by the use and dominance of conservative
theologians (especially Dominicans and Jesuits).
§
The fact that the first period of the Council covered the greatest amount of doctrine illustrates
where the Papacy’s priorities lay.
§
Although the reform of abuses was discussed in this initial phase, it was certainly overshadowed
by theological concerns.
§
The Tridentine emphasis on theology illustrates how the Counter-Reformation based its attack
on a rejection of the fundamental Protestant beliefs, as well as on a total reaffirmation of Papal
power.
Authority in the Church:
§ Trent reaffirmed the Catholic view that the Tradition of the Church (e.g. doctrinal statements
formulated in Church Councils and the writings of the early Christian Church) was equally valid
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to the Bible, thereby rejecting the Protestant principle of Sola Scriptura (the Bible as the only
source of Christian authority).
§
The Vulgate (official Latin version of the Bible) was confirmed as the sole authoritative version of
the Bible, implying also opposition to vernacular translations of Scriptures
§
Finally, the Church asserted itself as the sole interpreter of the Bible, thereby reinforcing the
importance of priestly mediation between God and believers.
Salvation in the Church
§
Trent reasserted the view that original sin did not completely destroy human nature, so that
human beings were given a clean slate through baptism.
§
It then confirmed the necessity of good works, living a good life and earning merit in this life,
while emphasizing the centrality of confession and doing penance to remove sins.
§
This served to reinforce the Catholic understanding of priesthood as well as the Catholic
sacramental system.
§
Moreover, any sins that were not addressed on earth could be purified in purgatory - all of these
teachings were in direct contrast with the Protestant position.
The Sacraments
§ In contrast with the Protestant emphasis on two sacraments (Baptism and Holy Communion),
Trent reaffirmed the belief in 7 sacraments, thereby reinforcing the need for priestly mediation.
§
While the 1st period of the Council represented a simple defence of the sacraments, the 2nd
provided a more detailed justification.
§
In response to Protestant criticisms about clerical corruption, Trent carefully defined its attitude
towards the sacraments by declaring that the administration of the sacraments was undertaken
ex opere operato (irrespective of the qualities/merits of priests).
Eucharist
§ Trent firmly defended the belief in transubstantiation, the view that there was a complete
transformation from bread/wine to body/blood of Christ.
§
It stressed the sacrificial element of the Mass, particularly the central role played by the priest
without which the sacrifice would be impossible, which attracted considerable opposition from
Protestants
§
Moreover, the distinct identity of priests was reinforced by the continued insistence on celibacy
as well as the fact that communion in both kinds was reserved for priests only.
§
This was confirmed in the service by the fact that Trent rejected the vernacular liturgy (all
worship had to be in Latin).
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Reform of abuses/discipline
Focus on bishops
§ The roles of bishops were to be clearly defined and their importance was to be reinforced. They
were to represent the lynchpin of Catholic reform. It was intended that they should provide
strong and effective leadership at all levels.
How could bishops represent an instrument of reform? Personal example
§ They were expected to show integrity (‘act as shepherds within the community’). There was
insistence that they should be resident within their diocese (thereby challenging the corrupt
elements that had existed within the Church – absenteeism, pluralism, etc.)
Bishop – Duties
§ They were to preach and administer the sacraments themselves (and NOT delegate any of their
responsibilities).
§
They were to check that parishes were being run smoothly and effectively, especially via
conducting visitations at least once every two years (carefully monitoring, recording and
addressing any problems)
§
They were to establish seminaries (training colleges for priests) at least one per diocese and to
set up religious schools.
§
They were also expected to chair diocesan and provincial synods (church meetings) in order to
discuss and overcome and doctrinal and/or disciplinary problems within the Church
Carlo Borromeo [1538-1585], the Model Bishop
§ Well-educated (university of Pavia), only 1 year after the conclusion of the Council of Trent
(1564), Borromeo left Rome to reside in his diocese. By 1565, appointed Archbishop of Milan,
and shortly afterwards a Cardinal.
§
Held provincial synods every three years and regular diocesan synods. Established three
seminaries and supervised regular visitations
§
Above all, Borromeo was an effective administrator with a firm idea of authority. In 1610, he
was canonized as a saint.
How could priests represent an instrument of reform? Personal Example
§ Expected to show integrity (‘act as shepherds within the community’) and urged not to keep a
mistress and to avoid excessive drinking.
§
Priests – Duties: administering sacraments and preaching, providing religious instruction
(Catechism) of youth and laity, and maintaining close account of parish records (baptisms,
marriages and funerals), which would normally be checked during visitations by bishops.
What problems did the Council of Trent encounter?
§ Regional opposition: John Bossy argued that the Council of Trent established a too rigid, uniform
approach to reform (like the Monty Python foot), which failed to accommodate local
circumstances.
§
Some have noted that Trent was too Rome-centred, with tensions existing between the Pope
and territorial rulers.
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§
A major problem was that it took centuries rather than decades for Tridentine reform to be
implemented (in that sense, Borromeo was the exception rather than the norm).
§
While bishops and priests were the principal targets of reform, Trent did not allow any
interference with the running of the Curia/Vatican.
HOWEVER
§ Trent set in motion a properly coordinated reform movement on an episcopal and on a parochial
level, which was long overdue.
§
Trent also represented a coherent theological response to Protestant attacks, thereby forcing
Catholics into a more conservative mould.
§
Though at times questioned, Trent reinforced papal authority
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QUESTIONS on Section D: Anabaptists and other Radical Movements
‘EXPLAIN WHY’ QUESTIONS
D1
Explain why the popes were reluctant to summon a General Council of the Church before
1545.
(12 marks)
D2
Explain why the Catholic Church was weakened by Renaissance popes in the years c.1500 to
1527.
(12 marks)
D3
Explain why many new orders developed within the Catholic Church in the early sixteenth
century (before 1540).
(12 marks)
D4
Explain why the Society of Jesus was formally recognised by the Pope Paul III in 1540.
(12 marks)
D5
Explain why there was a rise in religious radicalism in Germany in the 1520s.
(12 marks)
ESSAY QUESTIONS
D6
How far was the Council of Trent successful in reforming the Catholic Church by 1564?
(24 marks)
D7
How successful was the Catholic response to the rise of Protestantism in the years c.1540 to
1564?
(24 marks)
D8
How important was the Papacy in reforming the Catholic Church in the years 1534 to 1564?
(24 marks)
D9
How important was the work of the Jesuits to the reform of the Catholic Church in the years
1540 to 1564?
(24 marks)
D10 How important was weak leadership to the failure of the Radical Reformation?
52
(24 marks)
Question 01/03/05 (12 mark Explain why Question)
‘Explain why…’
Level 1
1-2
Descriptive/generalised
Level 2
3-6
Descriptive or limited
(1-2 factors)
Little supporting
evidence
Level 3
7-9
Range of factors
(usually 3+)
Some supporting
evidence
Level 4
10-12
Range of factors
(3 adequate)
Precise supporting
evidence
Makes links
between
factors
Question 02/04/06 (24 mark Essay Question)
‘“Quote”
Explain why you agree or disagree with this view.’
Level 1
1-6
Level 2
7-11
Level 3
12-16
Level 4
17-21
Level 5
22-24
Limited detail
generalised
or a little
comments of
description
assertion
Some detail
some limited
or some
explicit links
description
or comments
Suitable
explicit links /
detail / lacks
lacks weight
depth
Good range
explicit
of detail
understanding
Precise detail
explicit
understanding
53
maybe some
balance
balanced
argument
well
balanced
argument
judgement
A Level Progress Performance Record Sheet
Question
Due in
Mark
Teacher Comment
54
Student Comment
Question
Due in
Mark
Teacher Comment
55
Student Comment