Download his 105 –archaeology of the nigerian region

UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI
Maiduguri, Nigeria
CENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING
ARTS
HIS 105:
ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
UNIT: 3
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
Published
UNIT: 3
2007©
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by
mimeograph or any other means without prior permission in writing from the
University of Maiduguri.
This text forms part of the learning package for the academic programme of the
Centre for Distance Learning, University of Maiduguri.
Further enquiries should be directed to the:
Coordinator
Centre for Distance Learning
University of Maiduguri
P. M. B. 1069
Maiduguri, Nigeria.
This text is being published by the authority of the Senate, University of
Maiduguri, Maiduguri – Nigeria.
ISBN:
978-8133-65-7
ii
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
UNIT: 3
PREFACE
This study unit has been prepared for learners so that they can do most of the
study on their own. The structure of the study unit is different from that of
conventional textbooks. The course writers have made efforts to make the study
material rich enough but learners need to do some extra reading for further
enrichment of the knowledge required.
The learners are expected to make best use of library facilities and where feasible,
use the Internet. References are provided to guide the selection of reading
materials required.
The University expresses its profound gratitude to our course writers and editors
for making this possible. Their efforts will no doubt help in improving access to
University education.
Professor J. D. Amin
Vice-Chancellor
iii
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
UNIT: 3
HOW TO STUDY THE UNIT
You are welcome to this study Unit. The unit is arranged to simplify your
study. In each topic of the unit, we have introduction, objectives, in-text,
summary and self-assessment exercise.
The study unit should take 6-8 hours to complete. Tutors will be available
at designated contact centers for tutorials. The center expects you to plan your
work well. Should you wish to read further you could supplement the study with
more information from the list of references and suggested readings available in
the study unit.
PRACTICE EXERCISES/TESTS
1. Self-Assessment Exercises (SAES)
This is provided at the end of each topic. The exercise can help you to
assess whether or not you have actually studied and understood the topic.
Solutions to the exercises are provided at the end of the study unit for you to
assess yourself.
2. Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA)
This is provided at the end of the study Unit. It is a form of examination
type questions for you to answer and send to the center. You are expected to work
on your own in responding to the assignments. The TMA forms part of your
continuous assessment (C.A.) scores, which will be marked and returned to you.
In addition, you will also write an end of Semester Examination, which will be
added to your TMA scores.
Finally, the center wishes you success as you go through the different units
of your study.
iv
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
UNIT: 3
INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE
For the students of archaeology to have a proper grasp of the
prehistory of the Nigerian region, an in-depth study will have to be
undertaking on the Stone Age culture, the metal age and the beginning of
agriculture i.e. the domestication of plants and animals. This led to the
beginning of urban centres – chapter one identified the various
periodozation in prehistory, chapter two highlights the direct and indirect
evidence plants and animals. Chapter three delineated the three schools of
thoughts as regard the origin of African iron working. Chapter four
portrays the urbanization as a consequence to some of the earlier
developments in prehistory. Chapter five to nine is a specific study of some
prominent prehistoric sites in Nigeria.
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
1
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
HIS 105:
UNIT: 3
ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
UNITS: 3
T A B L E O F C O N T E N TS
PAGES
PREFACE
-
-
-
-
-
-
HOW TO STUDY THE UNIT -
-
-
-
-
iv
-
-
1
INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE
-
iii
TOPIC:
1. THE PALAEOLITHIC PERIOD-
-
-
-
3
2. AGRICULTURAL BEGINNING
-
-
-
-
8
3. IRON AGE -
13
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
4. URBANISATION -
-
-
-
-
-
20
-
-
-
25
6. IGBO-UKWU CULTURE IN PRE-HISTORY
-
-
29
7. BENIN CULTURE IN PRE-HISTORY
-
-
-
33
8. IFE CULTURE IN PRE-HISTORY
-
-
-
37
-
-
-
40
5. NOK CULTURE IN PRE-HISTORY
-
9. ARCHAEOLOGY IN THE CHAD BASIN
SOLUTION TO EXERCISES
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
2
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
UNIT: 3
T O P I C 1:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
1.0
TOPIC:
THE PALAEOLITHIC PERIOD
-
-
-
3
1.1
INTRODUCTION
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
4
1.2
OBJECTIVES
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
4
1.3
IN-TEXT
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
4
1.3.1
THE PALAEOLITHIC PERIOD-
-
4
1.4
SUMMARY -
1.5
-
-
-
-
7
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
-
-
-
-
7
1.6
REFERENCES
-
-
-
-
-
-
7
1.7
SUGGESTED READING -
-
-
-
-
7
-
-
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
-
3
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
UNIT: 3
1.0 TOPIC: THE PALEOLITHIC PERIOD
1.1
INTRODUCTION
This is the study of selected sites within the Nigerian region where
adequate archaeological data are available to give experience in
interpretation of Archaeological site reports, spectacular sites worth
examining include Nok, Igbo-Ukwu, Benin, Ife and the Chad Basin. As a
preamble, an in-depth study of the various prehistoric epochs are
considered, such as the Paleolithic; Neolithic; Agricultural beginning; Iron
Age and Urbanisation.
1.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i.
Arrive at a harmonized or integrated picture of the
prehistory, proto-history and history of the Nigerian
Region through a study of the archaeological work
undertaken to date.
ii.
Outline the aims, methods and achievements
iii.
Throw into focus the main problems to which future
workers would address themselves
iv.
Discuss the questions of archaeology and prehistory in
the
educational
systems
(Museums
teaching
programmes etc).
v.
Discuss the study of urban sites and human settlements
with an orientation towards historical reconstruction
iv.
Deal with the problems of applying archaeological
method to historical questions.
1.3
IN-TEXT
1.3.1 THE PALEOLITHIC PERIOD
This is the period when man emerged about 2 ½ to 3 million years
ago and lasted through most of the Pleistocene ice age (8300 BC). The
oldest form of man had evolved by the early Pleistocene
(Australopithecus). The Palaeolithic period is divided into three phases
based on the development of man’s economy and the manufacture and use
of tools. The three periods are as follows:
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
4
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
-
UNIT: 3
Early Stone Age
Middle Stone Age
Late Stone Age
1.3.1.1 EARLY STONE AGE
Most tools during this period were made up of bones, wood and
stones. Bones and wood are easily perishable materials, while stone tools
can survive all the harshes of weather. The earliest stone tools consisted of
pebbles which had a crude chopping and cutting edges, known as the
oldowan type tools after Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania. Such tools are found
in most grasslands in Africa. Evidence of oldowan type tools has been
found in Bali on River Taraba.
The Early Stone Age is divided into three phases as follows:
- Oldowan
- Acheulean Industrial Tradition
- Sangoan
The Oldowan:
It is named after a type site of Olduvai gorge in
Tanzania. The characteristics tool of the oldowan is the
“pebble tool”, a hammer stone and a scraper. Homo
Habilis and Australopithecus were the makers of this
culture. The culture may have lasted from 2 million
years to 500,000.
The Acheulian: It is named after a type site in Northern France, St.
Acheul. The Characteristic tool is the handaxe, a cleaver
and round stone balls. A number of Acheulian sites
have been found in Nigeria around the Jos Plateau such
as Mai Idon Toro and Nok. The culture must have
started from 500,000 years ago with a terminal date of
55,000. Homo Erectus was the maker of this culture.
The Sangoan:
It is named after a type site of Sango Bay on Lake
Victoria. This culture has been questioned by Bassey
Wai Ogosu. Bassey Wai Ogosu doubts whether there
was a true Sangoan culture in the whole of West Africa.
The culture is characterised by a heavier and cruder
tools, typical is the pick. In Nigeria, the likely areas with
evidence of the Sangoan culture is the old gravels
around Jebba, Abuja, Keffi and Nassarawa areas to the
south of the Jos plateau, along the Sokoto River, and
Ibadan-Abeokuta Road. Homo Sapiens were probably
the makers of this culture. The culture spans from
55,000 and 40,000 years ago. The Sangoan industrial
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
5
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
UNIT: 3
complex adapts more to a wooded area than the open
savannah.
1.3.1.2 THE MIDDLE STONE AGE
This term evolved in Southern Africa where it was used to describe a
group of industrial complexes with a span 35,000 - 12,000 BC. The
industries here were located in wooded areas surrounding the equatorial
forests. The characteristics of the tool is the point (Lanceolate) were hafted
and used as spears. Other tools include core axes and chisels. The typesites in Nigeria include Afikpo in Eastern Nigeria, and Jos Plateau. The
maker of this culture was probably Homo sapien.
1.3.1.3 THE LATE STONE AGE
This period was remarkable for the production of tiny tools called
“microliths,” usually slotted into arrow shafts to form points and barbs.
Typical sites are Mejiro Cave, near old Oyo, Rock Shelter on the Jos
Plateau, Iwo Eleru near Akure, Ukpa Rock shelter near Afikpo. In the
North East region of Nigeria, the example of the Late Stone Age sites
include Kursakata, Daima, Mege and Ndufu. The Late Stone Age
population of the areas mentioned above were cattle keepers and growers
of sorghum (guinea corn). They had pottery and they sourced their stones
from areas afar for production of ground stone axes and grinding stones for
food production. They were engaged in the produclton of small fired clay
models of animals and sometimes human beings depicting prehistoric arts.
They buried their dead in crouched position closed to the settlement. This
civilisation has an antiquity of 3000 years.
1.4
SUMMARY
It highlighted the various phases of the Stone Age and the
makers of the various cultures with the span of their antiquity.
1.5
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
1.
1.6
Identify the various industrial complexes of the Palaeolithic
period.
REFERENCES
Balfour, H. (1934) Occurrence of Cleavers of Lower Palaeolithic in
Northern Nigeria. Man. 25
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
6
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
UNIT: 3
Clark, J. D. (1982) Cultures of the Middle Palaeolithic/middle Stone
Age. The Cambridge History of Africa Vol. I.
Jemkur, J. F. (188). The prehistory of Northern Nigeria Studies, in
Nigerian Culture I. Zaria. Gaskiya Press.
Ogosui-wai, B. W. (1973) was there a sangoan Industry in West
Africa. West African Journal of Archaeology
3:191-96.
Ozanne, P. (1964) Stone Axes. West African Archaeological
Newsletter 1.
1.7
SUGGESTED READING
Rosenfeld, A. (1972) The Microlithic Industries of Rop Rock Shelter.
West African Journal of Archaeology 2:17-28.
Shaw, T. (1978) Nigeria: its Archaeology and Early History,
London: Thames and Hudson.
Soper, R. (1965) The Stone Age in Northern Nigeria. Journal of the
Historical Society of Nigeria 3(2): 1975-94.
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
7
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
UNIT: 3
T O P I C 2:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
2.0
TOPIC:
THE AGRICULTURAL BEGINNINGS
-
8
2.1
INTRODUCTION
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
9
2.2
OBJECTIVES
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
9
2.3
IN-TEXT
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
9
2.3.1
THE AGRICULTURAL BEGINNINGS
-
9
2.3.2
ANIMAL SOURCES OF FOOD -
-
11
2.4
SUMMARY -
2.5
-
-
-
-
12
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
-
-
-
-
12
2.6
REFERENCES
-
-
-
-
-
-
12
2.7
SUGGESTED READING -
-
-
-
-
12
-
-
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
-
8
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
2.0
TOPIC: AGRICULTURAL BEGINNING
2.1
INTRODUCTION
UNIT: 3
This course examines the history of beginning of agriculture and the
evidence available both for plants and animals which manifests
themselves in archaeological record.
2.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i.
Identify the various evidence for both plants and animals.
ii.
Identify some of the African cereals which are indigenous
to Africa.
2.3
IN-TEXT:
AGRICULTURAL BEGINNING
2.3.1
Many theories and speculations abound for the beginning and
development of Agriculture in Africa. The lack of evidence in Africa about
agricultural origins compared with other parts of the world resulted into a
number of theoretical models. The concept of “Neolithic revolution” was
introduced by Gordon Childe in terms of simple diffusion by movement of
people and agricultural products. Some scholars are of the opinion that
agriculture evolved once at a specific location and diffused to other areas;
while some see agriculture evolving in different locations probably at the
same time or at different times. Whatever the views expressed by the
various school of thoughts, the change from dependence on hunting,
fishing and gathering wild fruits/plants to crop raising and cattle rearing is
a very significant revolution ever achieved by man in the last ten thousand
years.
Agricultural beginning radically changed man’s capacity in
controlling his environment. It made sedentary life possible, and also the
storage of food, the accumulation of wealth which led to the division of
labour and social stratification. In considering the beginning and
development of food production and domestication of animals, we have to
consider the types of evidence available.
The Evidence:
The different kinds of evidence both for food production
and the domestication of animals are as follows:
a. Direct archaeological evidence: are the remains of domesticated
plants and animals in context.
b. Indirect archaeological evidence: are all materials discovered in
archaeological context that suggests the presence of plants and
animals eg. rock paintings and terracotta representation.
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
9
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
UNIT: 3
c. Evidence provided by botanical, stocks breeding ethnographic and
linguistic studies.
2.3.1.1 DIRECT BOTANICAL EVIDENCE
Direct archaeological evidence for food of botanical origin includes
the finding in datable context of actual remains of seed, fruit, root or tree
crops, their pollen or impressions of them on pottery. These products are
sometimes by accident preserved as a result of aridity, water logging, or
they are preserved in human or animal coprolites. There is little direct
evidence for the early cultivation of crops in Africa. Egypt and the Sahara
recorded direct evidence for the cultivation of crops from 6000BC to 4000
of Pennisetum (pearl) millet, bulrush (millet) and Triticum (wheat). In
Nigeria, direct evidence of sorghum bicolor was obtained at Daima (N.E.
Nigeria) from 9/10 century A.D. The carbonised grains at Daima represent
the oldest guinea corn yet found in West Africa. Charred remains of
domesticated pennisetum grains was found in Kursakata.
2.3.1.2 INDIRECT BOTANICAL EVIDENCE
Indirect botanical evidence could be inferred from the presence of
certain technological traits such as pottery and ground stone axes. The
presence of grinding stones and quern fragments have been taken as
demonstrating the practice of agriculture in some parts of Africa. In
Nigeria, examples of indirect evidence of a teeth of the skeleton from Rop
Rock shelter is said to be of an agriculturalist. The Kotoko, living south of
Lake Chad, regard Pennisetum as their oldest kind of food grain. It is also
assumed that the first known iron-users in Sub-Saharan Africa, the Nok
people, were agriculturists because of the presence of two terracotta, which
represent fluted pumpkins.
Yam cultivation may be ancient in West Africa. It has been suggested
that the Sangoan Pick may have been a tool for grubbing up wild species,
from which practice natural vegetative reproduction localised around living
places, might have resulted. It is typical of yam to regenerate after the
removal of the tuber if too much damage is not done to the vine and roots.
Thus ancient hunter-gatherers would have accustomed to the idea of
returning to the same spot for a source of food. In support for early
domestication of yam. Coursey (1967), points to the prohibition in certain
areas of the use of iron tools for digging of yams in new yam festivals,
which strongly suggests that yam cultivation antedates the commencement
of iron age. Posnansky (1969) suggested that the West African Yam began
between 2500 and 1500BC.
Some of the African cereals (Crops) which are indigenous to Africa
are: Sorghum, Pearl Millet, finger millet, African rice and fonio (Hungry
rice).
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
10
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
UNIT: 3
2.3.2 ANIMAL SOURCES OF FOOD
Direct evidence of animal husbandry is often preserved in
Archaeological record in the form of bones of domesticated animals or wild
cattle.
2.3.2.1 DIRECT EVIDENCE
Gajiganna, a site in Borno proved to have evidence of flocks mainly
of cattle and goats Gajiganna is one of the earliest sites with domesticated
animals in West Africa, south of the Sahara. Excavation at the Rop rock
shelter in Northern Nigeria have yielded a single equid tooth dated to over
2000bp. At Kariya Wuro, a rock shelter near Bauchi four equid teeth were
found having the some age with that of Rop.
2.3.2.2 INDIRECT EVIDENCE
This is demonstrated in the form of rock arts (Paintings and
engravings) or in the form of terracotta, or undatable skeletons. Rock
paintings of cattle at Birnin Kudu depicted long and short horned
humpless cattle not dated.
In Borno, at Gajiganna, animal figurines mostly incomplete figures
represented cattle. The small clay figurines of Gajiganna represent the
oldest prehistoric art of Borno, with an antiquity of between 2700 and
3100bp.
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
11
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
2.4
UNIT: 3
SUMMARY
It defined the concept of Neolithic revolution and the achievement
man had made in the last ten thousand years. It portrayed the
various evidences for both plants and animals.
2.5
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
1.
2.6
What are the direct and indirect evidences of the beginning of
Agriculture in West Africa?
REFERENCES
Harlan, JH. R. de wet J. M. J. and Stemler, A. (1976) (eds) Origins of
African Plant Domestication
Morgan, W. B. (1962) The Forest and Agriculture in West Africa.
Journal of African History 3(2): 235-39.
Porteres, R. (1976) African Cereals. In Harlan et al. Origins of
African Plant Domestication. The Hague.
2.7
SUGGESTED READING
Porteres, R. and Barrare, J. (1981) Origins, Development and
Expansion of Agricultural Technique, In. J. K Zerbo (ed)
UNESCO General History of Africa. Vol. I Heinemann.
Posnansky, M. (1969) Yams and the Origins of West African
Agriculture, ODU 1: 101-7.
Davies, O. (1968) The Origins of Agriculture in West Africa. Current
Anthropology 9:479-82
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
12
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
UNIT: 3
T O P I C 3:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
3.0
TOPIC:
THE IRON AGE
13
3.1
INTRODUCTION-
-
14
3.2
OBJECTIVES
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
14
3.3
IN-TEXT
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
14
3.3.1
THE IRON AGE
-
-
-
-
-
14
3.3.2
EARLY METAL USING COMMUNITIES- 15
3.3.3
METHODS OF COPPER WORKING -
16
3.3.4
METHODS OF IRON WORKING
-
17
3.3.5
SOCIO-POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC
-
17
DECLINE OF IRON SMELTING IN AFRICA
18
-
SIGNIFICANCE OF METAL WORKING
3.3.6
3.4
SUMMARY -
3.5
-
-
-
-
18
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
-
-
-
-
18
3.6
REFERENCES
-
-
-
-
-
-
18
3.7
SUGGESTED READING -
-
-
-
-
19
-
-
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
-
13
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
3.0
TOPIC: THE IRON AGE
3.1
INTRODUCTION
UNIT: 3
This course introduces the student to one of the epochs in prehistory
which man had attained which led to successful agriculture and
urbanization.
3.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i.
The early metal using communities of West Africa.
ii.
Determine the significance of iron working.
3.3
IN-TEXT:
THE IRON AGE
3.3.1
The Stone Age is carefully, delineated from the iron age because the
appearance of iron in their assemblages of artefacts makes an obvious
change in technology. As the knowledge of iron smelting became more
widespread and iron cheaper, it had an effect in a greater capacity for bush
and forest clearing for agriculture.
Presently there are three schools of thought as regards the origin of
African iron working as follows:
1. The diffusionist
2. The indigenous
3. The cautious
This issue is debated by scholars like Andah (1979) and Phillipson
(1985:148-186). To a certain extent both entertained the idea of
independent development of African Iron working. They observed that
more rigorous work still needs to be done. For this reason, Andah recorded
that not enough is yet known about who? When? with whom iron working
began in West Africa? For one to assert positively that the knowledge of the
process was transmitted from outside, Phillipson (1985) on his part notes,
that the first point is that the knowledge of iron working can no longer be
assumed to have been brought to West Africa from the North.
Today because of the providence of TL dating more has been known
about the origins of iron working in most parts of Africa.
3.3.2 EARLY METAL USING COMMUNITIES
Excavation of Rop Rock shelter on the Jos Plateau indicates that
there was a continuity of occupation from Late Stone Age to early Iron Age.
Daima is the only site where there is a clearly established continuity of
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
14
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
UNIT: 3
occupation from Late Stone Age to Early Iron Age. The first appearance of
Iron at Daima is now placed between 5th or 6th Centuries AD. During this
period the use of stone and bone tools seemed to have died out. The Iron
using communities were agriculturalists as evidenced by the presence of
carbonized sorghum.
Making of clay figurines of cows and the
construction of a near permanent habitation of huts of mud was their
preoccupation.
They also used objects of adornment like bronze
ornaments, stone lip plugs, and beads.
One of the Earliest Iron Age culture yet known in West Africa is that
of the Nok valley located to the west of Jos Plateau. It extended as far
south as Katsina Ala, Ankiring and Kagara. It was characterised by
terracotta figurines mostly heads of human beings - the classic example
being the Jema’a head. Other Nok artefacts include iron axe blades, tin
beads, pieces of iron smelting furnaces, iron slag and tuyeres.
There were also representations in terracotta of animals like
elephants, monkeys and snake heads, some of which have ornamented the
rims of pottery.
By the latter part of the 1st millennium B.C., there were settled
agricultural communes at Samun Dukiya, in Central Nigeria, smelting their
iron and producing works of art of terracotta. Materials recovered from
this site include grinding stone, fragments of iron, stone bead and
figurines.
Taruga is another Nok culture settlement site southeast of Abuja.
The settlement possessed several smelting furnace and associated with it
were iron slag, tuyeres charcoal, terracotta figurine fragments, a number of
iron objects. A radio carbon for the site yielded 4th/5th centuries B.C - the
oldest date for iron smelting so far known in West Africa.
Rescue excavation has revealed the existence of iron using
communities or iron using communities at least before the end of the 1st
millennium BC in the Kainji area (e.g. Kagoge, Baha, Barichi, Rs 63/32
near Yelwa). The people herded domestic animals and made glass and
stone beads, pottery vessels and clay figurines. They also made great use of
iron objects like knives, axes, fish hooks, spears and arrows for farming,
fishing and hunting.
Copper working or bronze and brass casting is distributed in ancient
times over a wide area of West Africa. The Igbo-Ukwu bronzes dating
between 9th and 11th century AD are stylistically different from those of Ife
and Benin. The Igbo Ukwu bronzes are a large collection of objects
consisting of regalia of an important personality and objects from a shrine.
The objects were manufactured using two techniques - cire Perdue
technique (lost wax method) and by smithing. Spectrographic analysis
indicates that the objects produced by casting were made from leaded
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
15
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
UNIT: 3
bronze with varying amount of tin and lead. The objects produced by
smithing were made of pure copper.
Ife objects were made of copper alloyed with zinc with relatively high
quantity of lead. Few objects were made of copper. The Ife brasses have
been dated to around the 12th to 14th century A.D.
Benin Possessed a large number of objects numbering over 2000
mostly of brass dated to about 13th century AD.
Few bronze objects were found in the Middle Niger villages of Jebba,
Tada and Giragi. The objects are of mixed artistic styles.
3.3.3 METHODS OF COPPER WORKING
Most West African bronze and brass objects were manufactured by
casting (the pouring of molten metals into moulds). One method of casting
is the open mould or bivalve. A bivalve consists of two halves of a stone,
clay or metal mould pegged together.
The space between the two halves of the mould possesses the shape of the
object being cast. After the metal has cooled, the mould is opened.
Another technique of casting is the cire Perdue or lost wax. In this case a
model of the object required is made in wax. The model is covered with
clay and the whole is then heated to allow the wax to melt and run off.
This leaves a space in to which molten metal is poured. After it has
cooled the outside clay is knocked off, the inner core may be removed and
remaining is a metal version of the original wax model. Copper can also be
worked by smithing and chasing, unalloyed copper can easily be shaped by
hammering, bending, twisting and annealing either hot or cold.
3.3.4 METHODS OF IRON WORKING
In prehistoric times, the production of iron was done using the
furnace. Iron was produced in many parts of West Africa, with the
smelters using different types of furnaces. Shaft furnaces in the Taruga
areas, the Dome furnace in the Idoma areas, the pit or bowl furnace in
Lejja, near Nsukka. In these furnaces iron is in contact or mixed with
charcoal. The charcoal which is carbon burns and combines with oxygen
from the air to form the gas carbon monoxide. This hot gas passes up
through the furnace and reacts with the iron oxide by removing or reducing
deposited iron. The reduction of iron oxide to a spongy mass called bloom
takes place at a temperature of 700c. This iron bloom consists of mass of
iron particles and slag. The smith later consolidates this mass of iron
particles by heating and hammering it together.
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
16
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
UNIT: 3
3.3.4.1 SMITHING
Smithing in West Africa is characterised by the following a forge, a
fire point, an anvil, bellows and a mud wall constructed in front of the fire
point and behind the tuyere. Fire making is important in the whole
process. The effectiveness of forging will depend solely on the ability of the
blacksmith to ensure adequate supply of heat. The controlling factor in
fire making is the bellow. The anvil acts as a support upon which the redhot iron is fashioned to the desired shape. Black smiths usually make use
of two types of hammers; the sledge and flattening hammers. The sledge
hammer is used to hammer the red hot iron to the desired shape and
thickness, while the flattening hammers give smooth surface finish to the
object produced. Forging of iron objects appear uniform among different
groups of blacksmiths in West Africa.
3.3.5 SOCIO-POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE OF METAL WORKING
Metal objects had religious and ritual significance in West African
societies. For example iron tools were used in the burial of chiefs in some
areas. In Yorubaland there are temples or shrines for Ogun in the palaces
of obas. The Ogun Ladi Shrine is still preserved at the Afin (palace) of the
Oni of Ife. In Benin monumental heads and free standing figures were cast
to take their place in shrines to royal ancestors. Some bronzes and iron
objects fulfilled artistic and decorative purposes. Metal implements have
also served political purposes. Implements such as swords, spears and
matchets have been used by rulers of early West Africa states and kingdom
to prosecute wars.
3.3.6 DECLINE OF IRON SMELTING IN AFRICA
The earliest explanation for the decline of African iron smelting
centred around trade models whereby imported European metal goods
were seen as superior and as such caused the decline of African iron
working. Some scholars attributed the demise of the industry more to
deforestation effects. The industry made huge demands on hardwoods,
very difficult to regenerate.
In conclusion, it may be observed that the use of iron implement was
basically an improvement on the age long use of wood, stone and bone
implements. Iron implements were much stronger and more effective.
The use of iron implements led to the improvements in the methods and
techniques of farming, hunting and fishing.
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
17
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
UNIT: 3
3.4
SUMMARY
It potrays the importance of iron, how it evolved and the earlier
societies where it made its impact.
3.5
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
1.
3.6
What is the contrast between smelting and smithing?
REFERENCES
Ankell, A. J. (1953) Iron in Africa. South Africa Archaeological
Bulletin 8: 52-57
Andah, B. W. (1979) Iron Age Beginnings in West Africa: Reflections
and Suggestion, West African Journal of Archaeology Vol.9
Davies O. 1966 Comment on “The Iron Age in Sub-Saharan Africa”
Current Anthropology 7:470-1.
_________ (1967) West Africa Before the Europeans. London
Methuen.
Dixey, (1920) Primitive Iron Ore smelting Methods in West Africa.
Mining Magazine 32:213-16.
Kense, F. J. (1983) Traditional African Iron working, African
occasional Papers No.1 University of Calgary.
3.7
SUGGESTED READING
Oliver, R. and Fagan, The Appearance of Iron and its use in
Protohistoric Africa. London.
Sassoon, H. (1963) Early Sources of Iron in Africa, South African
Archaeological Bulletin. 3:210-24.
Shinnie, P. L. (1971) The African Iron Age. Oxford: Clarendon.
Sulton, J. E. G. (1976) Iron working around Zaria, Zaria Archaeology
paper. Viii.
Triger, R. (1969) The Myth of Meroe and the African Iron Age.
African Historical Studies.
Tylecote, R. F. (1975) The Origin of Iron smelting in Africa West
African Journal of Archaeology 5.
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
18
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
UNIT: 3
Williams, D. (1969) African Iron and the Classical World.
Phillipson D. W. (1985) African Archaeology Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
19
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
UNIT: 3
T O P I C 4:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
4.0
TOPIC:
4.1
INTRODUCTION
4.2
OBJECTIVES
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
21
4.3
IN-TEXT
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
21
4.3.1
URBANIZATION -
-
-
-
21
4.3.2
THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE
4.4
SUMMARY -
4.5
-
URBANIZATION-
20
-
21
-
-
23
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
-
-
-
-
23
4.6
REFERENCES
-
-
-
-
-
-
24
4.7
SUGGESTED READING -
-
-
-
-
24
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
-
22
-
-
-
-
20
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
UNIT: 3
4.0
TOPIC: URBANIZATION
4.1
INTRODUCTION
This topic outlines the various definitions of urbanization,
specifically identifying traits which made a place as urbanized.
4.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i.
Identify the various traits of urbanization.
ii.
Some of the archaeological evidence of urban sites.
4.3
IN-TEXT:
URBANIZATION
4.3.1
There has been a long debate among scholars as to what constitutes
urbanisation. When does one label a settlement as urban? Why was only a
particular settlement among many become urbanised? What is the
distinction between a city and town? These are some of the questions
which puzzled scholars for many years. The most popular definition in the
first half of this century was that of Louis Wirth (1938) who defined a city
as a relatively dense and permanent settlement of socially heterogeneous
individuals. The British archaeologist, V. Gordon childe in his paper “
Urban Revolution” (1950) spelt out ten criteria which he used not only to
define urban but also civilisation as a whole. He claimed that these criteria
were deducible from archaeological record and that it was when all these
were met that one could consider a settlement as truly urban. The traits
include density of population, full time specialisation, surplus food,
monumental architecture, political authority, writing, cylindrical and
mathematical sciences, art, raw materials and regular foreign trade. It is
significant that most of these criteria were based on Childe’s experience of
the near east.
Unfortunately, until fairly recent scholars dealing with urban
problems could not rid themselves of the Euro-American situation, largely
from the results of industrialisation, which was seen by many as the only
cause of urban development. Many carried this narrow view point to the
extent that they concluded that Africa had no urban tradition. Recent
archaeological, historical, and sociological evidences are clearly showing
that Africa, like any other continent, had early urban centres which did not
originate from industrialisation
One distinctive feature of the conceptualisation of towns and cities as
units of settlement which perform specialised functions of an economic
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
21
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
UNIT: 3
nature in relation to a broader hinterland is the assumption that urban
settlements were made possible with the emergence of farming and metal
working or farming and trade. Connah (1987) argues that the West Africa
environment as a whole and in particular the savannah provided condition
conducive to the development of a complex network of trade. He thinks it
quite likely that such trading activity was almost as old as West African
food production and may date back to about 3000 years ago.
Mabogunje on the other hand, defined urbanisation simply as the
process whereby human beings congregate in relatively large number at
one particular spot of the earth surface. He rejected the ethnocentric
notions that the presence of writing or the absence of agricultural workers
can be used to distinguished between those communities that are
urbanised and those that are not. By his definition we can see the origins
of urbanisation in the Lake Chad area in the 12th century A.D. and some by
the late 15th century. There were urban centres west of the lake. These
included Birnin Gazargamu, Kazarma, Mintur, Yedi, Kule and Marte.
4.3.2 THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE
For many years it has been assumed that much of the impetus for the
development of complex West African societies came from outside
stimulation of the indigenous economy in the Lake Chad area. About the
8th century A.D Trans-North Africans initiated the trans-Saharan trade for
gold and slaves from Sub-Saharan regions. During the past decade
excavation and radiocarbon dating have revealed evidence of complex
social stratification, long distance trade and even urbanisation in West
Africa by the middle of the 1st millennium A.D.
Kanem-Bornu had its foundation in the first millennium A.D Around
12th century AD. In the course of time the empire expanded and by about
14th century A.D. it was weakened due mainly to dynastic problems and
civil wars which led the removal of the capital from Njimi to Birnin
Gazargamo. The most famous early urban centre in present North Eastern
part of Nigeria was Birnin Gazargamo founded in 1470 AD and abandoned
by 1803 AD after its destruction by the Jihadist.
The firki settlement site of Daima contains evidence of occupation
which spans from the Late Stone Age to Iron Age. This evidence therefore
suggests that the area was occupied for almost 1,700 years.
Kano has one of the largest concentration of iron smelting sites in
Africa, associated with a wealth of walled settlements which represent
different stages of urban development. One of the oldest known blacksmith
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
22
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
UNIT: 3
ward are of Kutumbawa origin whose ancestors were of the same groups
with the Habe rulers of Kano before the Jihad. There were also a group of
blacksmiths around Dala Hill where the first blacksmith settled.
Zaria an ancient city, is located among series of inselberg mostly
favourable as a fertile agricultural land and it served some defensive
advantages. Turuku was the seat of the ancient state of Zazzau.
Ancient Ife represents the first order of political centralisation over
the area of Yorubaland dated between AD 900 and 1500. Ife was an
excellent site for a major commercial and agricultural centre.
We can conclude from archaeological and historical data that the
beginning of urbanisation and state formation cannot be attributed to a
single factor but to various factors or combinations of factors such as
geographical, economic, political social and military factors.
4.4
SUMMARY
The topic portrayed some of the early urban sites in West Africa.
4.5
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
1.
2.
Define Urbanization
Identify three traits which V. Gordon childe used in defining
urbanism and civilization
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
23
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
4.6
UNIT: 3
REFERENCE
Cannah, G. (1987) African Civilization, Pre-Colonial Cities
And States In Tropical Africa: An Archaeological Perspective.
Cambridge University Press.
Childe, V.G. (1936) Man Makes Himself. London: C:A.
Watts.
Childe, V.G. (1942) What happened in History. London:
Penguin Books.
4.7
SUGGESTED READING
Bassey W. Andah (1995) The Epistemology of West
African Settlements. Special issue of West African Journal
of Archaeology Vol. 25 No. 1.
Chang, K.C. (1968) Settlement Archaeology. Palo Alto Calif,
National Press Books.
Clark, D. (1982) Urban Geography. Baltimore, John
Hopkins University Press.
Mabogunje, A.L. (1968) Urbanization in Nigeria. University
of London Press, London.
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
24
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
UNIT: 3
T O P I C 5:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
5.0
TOPIC:
NOK CULTURE IN PREHISTORY-
25
5.1
INTRODUCTION
5.2
OBJECTIVES
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
26
5.3
IN-TEXT
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
26
5.3.1
NOK CULTURE IN PREHISTORY-
-
26
5.3.2
SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION
-
-
5.3.3
DESCRIPTION OF THE NOK FIGURINES- 27
5.3.4
FUNCTION OF THE TERRACOTTA -
5.3.5
RELATIONSHIP OF NOK ARTS AND OTHER
-
CULTURES -
-
26
27
-
-
-
-
28
-
-
-
-
28
5.4
SUMMARY -
5.5
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
-
-
-
-
28
5.6
REFERENCES
-
-
-
-
-
-
28
5.7
SUGGESTED READING -
-
-
-
-
28
-
-
26
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
25
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
5.0
TOPIC: NOK CULTURE IN PREHISTORY
5.1
INTRODUCTION
UNIT: 3
This is the study of a specific site in Northern Nigeria where terra
cotta-figurines were revealed as a result of tin mining operations. It
is with the prevalence of such finds that the culture is named “Nok
Culture”.
5.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic you should be able to:
i.
Understand what is meant by Nok Culture.
ii.
It’s Characteristics.
iii.
It’s antiquity.
iv.
Its place in Nigerian History.
5.3
IN-TEXT:
5.3.1 NOK CULTURE IN PREHISTORY
The Nok culture was discovered in 1928 as a result of tin mining
operation. The finds from the site revealed an early iron age population at
a village called Nok where they were first found. The remains consist of
terracotta figurines. The first terracotta figurine discovered was that of the
head of a monkey which was deposited at the mines’ Museum in Jos by Col.
J. D. Young. That discovery remained unique until 1943 when another
terracotta head was discovered in Jema’a at Tsauni. Mr. Bernard Fagg, who
was appointed Government Archaeologist, inspected the tin mining areas
and a number of figurines and other archaeological objects were rescued
and this formed the basis of the Jos Museum. Fagg made his first
publication on the terracotta in 1945 where he categorised them into “The
Nok series” and “the Jema’a series”. It was observed that the figurines were
made of clay mixed with small grains of quartz and silica derived from the
surrounding hills and the Jos plateau. From 1947 to 1951 several
discoveries of the terracotta figurines were made at Nok proper, Wamba
and Tsauni.
5.3.2 SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION
The terracotta figurines were found greatly concentrated around Nok
and Jema’a. The distribution radiated to all directions. It reached Katsina
Ala in the South East including Ankiring, Jema’a, Tare and Wamba. In the
South is Udegi is directly south, while in the South-West, are Bwari, Kawu,
Samban, Shere Koro and Taruga. In the West and North-West are
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
26
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
UNIT: 3
Kuchamfa, Kutofo and Kagara, while Kachia is on the Northernmost point
and Amban and Maitumbi are in the East.
5.3.3 DESCRIPTION OF THE NOK FIGURINES
The figurines were all modelled in clay. The Nok figurines are
hollow and coil-built and reworked from the outside. The fabric consists of
clay with grain of mica, quartz or granite. The height of the Nok terracotta
varies from 10cm to 120cm. The majority of the terracotta represent
human heads and figures; and several representations of parts of animals
such as elephant head, monkey head, and several snakes.
Other finds from the Nok culture include polished stone axes and
adzes, probably meant for wood carving before the introduction of iron to
the area. Grindstones were common suggestive of the use of vegetable
food. Tin beads were found in the deposits of the Nok valley. Quartz beads
and domestic pottery were also found in the deposits of the Nok Valley.
5.3.4 FUNCTIONS OF THE TERRACOTTA
At the moment scholars are not very sure about the functions of the
terracottas. Since we do not have direct association with the prehistoric
populations who made them, we can only speculate about their functions.
It must be noted that their functions may differ from place to place.
It is possible that the figurines could have been used as thatch finials
of round huts, those having circulars bases like an inverted pot would have
been well suited for this purpose. This practice is still current with the
Gbagyi and Ham ethnic groups within the Nok culture area. Investigation
among the above ethnic groups indicate that they are used as thatch finials
to indicate huts which are shrines to which women and uninitiated young
men do not go close to. In some dwelling huts they are used for
decorations on newly thatched huts.
The association of terracottas with iron smelting furnaces at Taruga
would suggest a magico-religious link which certainly accompanies the
technical procedure for a successful smelt. Iron smelting is hazardous job,
and the terracotta could have served as a protection. The terracottas could
also have been used as grave goods or personal offerings for the dead. This
practice was common among the Dakarkari and Mumuye groups until
recently.
5.3.5 RELATIONSHIP OF NOK ARTS AND OTHER CULTURES.
Most Archaeologists and Art historians are of the view that the Nok
art may be ancestral to some of the former art traditions found in Central
Nigeria. Many of the terracottas rest on upturned pots, a form which is still
found in Thatch finials among the Jaba and other ethnic groups within the
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
27
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
UNIT: 3
Nok culture area today. The Nok terracotta and that of Ife are similar in
that they were often adorned with elaborate beadwork; and what is most
importantly about them that they are the only two ancient styles of
terracotta sculpture known to date in Africa ever to attempt to represent
human beings approaching life size.
5.4
SUMMARY
The chapter portrays the discovery of the Nok Culture and how they
were delineated in the two series. It also examines its relationship
with other cultures within the region.
5.5
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1. When was Nok culture discovered?
2. What were the characteristics trait of the Nok culture?
5.6
REFERENCES
J. F. Jemkur, (1992) Aspects of the Nok Culture A.B.U. Press Ltd.
Zaria.
Fagg, A. (1970) Aspects of the Nok Culture West African
Archaeological Newsletter 12:80-81
5.7
SUGGESTED READING
Fagg, B. E. B. (1959) The Nok Culture in Prehistory, Journal of the
Historical Society of Nigeria 4:288-93.
________ (1969) Recent Work in West Africa, A new light on the
Nok Culture. World Archaeology 1:41-49.
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
28
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
UNIT: 3
T O P I C 6:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
6.0
TOPIC: IGBO-UKWU IN PRE-HISTORY-
29
6.1
INTRODUCTION
30
6.2
OBJECTIVES
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
30
6.3
IN-TEXT
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
30
6.3.1
IGBO-UKWU IN PREHISTORY
-
-
30
6.3.2
BRONZED -
-
-
-
-
30
6.3.3
THE BURIAL CHAMBER
-
-
-
31
6.3.4
ANTIQUITY OF IGBO FINDS -
-
32
6.4
SUMMARY -
6.5
-
-
-
-
-
32
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
-
-
-
-
32
6.6
REFERENCES
-
-
-
-
-
-
32
6.7
SUGGESTED READING -
-
-
-
-
32
-
-
-
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
-
29
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
6.0
TOPIC: IGBO-UKWU IN PREHISTORY
6.1
INTRODUCTION
UNIT: 3
A specific accidental site discovered in South Eastern Nigeria was
igbe Ukwu, revealed by someone trying to dig a cisten in his
compound. The igbo – Ukwu finds consist of several materials in
association which act like a preservative.
6.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i.
Know source of this accidental discoveries in archeology.
ii.
Know that most sites have been discovered by laymen.
iii.
How materials are preserved.
6.3
IN-TEXT:
6.3.1
IGBO-UKWU IN PREHISTORY
In 1939 a man called Isaiah was digging a cistern in his compound
on the outskirts of Igbo-Ukwu, 125 miles South East of Onitsha, when he
struck on valuable archaeological objects mostly made up of bronzes. This
is also an archaeological discovery made by a layman, a non-archaeologists.
The most interesting thing about the bronze was the nature of their
style and decoration which was distinct from the bronze of Benin and Ife.
6.3.2 EXCAVATION
Between 1959 and 1966 Thurstan Shaw was invited to excavate the
Igbo-Ukwu site, assisted by Liman Ciroma. The first site was Igbo Isaiah’
situated within the compound of Isaiah. In this compound, as a result of
the excavation an iron blade highly decorated pot set on its own open work
stand which was later recognised as the characteristics ancient Igbo Ukwu
ware were later copied and repeated in a number of bronzes.
The second site is christened ‘Igbo Richard’ a neighbour and relative
of Isaiah who also reported of strange things in his compound.
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
30
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
UNIT: 3
6.3.3 BRONZES
The contents from the excavation consisted of highly decorated
bronzes such as large bowls, bronze shells, ornamental bosses, large
pendant ornaments, three staff heads, spiral snake ornaments, scabbard
support and other miscellaneous objects. A number of highly ornamented
complete pots, characterised by deep channelling, were found together
with a large number of beads, mostly of coloured glass, but some of
carnelian. The nature of the bronzes was strongly suggestive of sacred
vessels used for some ceremonial or ritual purpose and of ornaments and
regalia for some important persons.
6.3.4 THE BURIAL CHAMBER
As a result of the excavation at Igbo-Ukwu, roughly about one meter,
a number of pots were found on a pedestal, with their characteristic of deep
grooving, decorated with snakes and some are of skeuomorphic of basket
work. This irregularly pile of pots probably represented a shrine associated
with offerings made to the spirit of the dignitary buried in the gives burial
chamber. A peculiar feature of this shrine was that among the pots and
broken pots-herds were a larger number of pieces of pottery which had
been rubbed down to a special shape. There were some 1500 of these little
pottery pegs in the shrine perhaps they represented votive offerings of
some kind.
Royalty was depicted in some of the contents of the excavation.
Three ivory tusks, possibly carved as horns in association with copper
bosses, close to a human skull surrounded with beads was obtained. The
skull was also associated with a decorated pectoral plate, a crown with
several ornaments which concussively was a burial chamber of someone of
great social importance. The chamber was lined up with traces of matting
and textiles in contact with some of the copper objects. By noticing
carefully the positions of the bones and all the other objects it was possible
to conclude that the corpse had been buried in sitting positions upon a
stool, the arms supported by the copper brackets and fan-holder and a fly
switch set in its hands, richly dressed in beads surmounted by a crown and
a pectoral plate on the chest. Close by were the remains of at least five
individuals perhaps slaves buried to accompany their lord in the next
world.
6.3.5 ANTIQUITY OF IGBO-UKWU FINDS
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
31
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
UNIT: 3
At one time it was said that the Igbo-Ukwa finds could not be very
old because of the presence of textiles. But this is not necessarily true
because textile in close association with copper objects inhibits termite and
bacterial activity, which have acted as a preservative.
Some of the wood from the stool decoreated with copper bosses from
the burial chamber in Igbo Richard was used for radio carbon dating and
yielded a date of AD 850 + 120. Charcoal from Igbo Jonah yielded a date
of AD 875 + 130. This mean the Igbo Ukwu finds were dated to around 9th
century AD.
6.4
SUMMARY
The Igbo-Ukwu fonds have posed several questions, some remained
unanswered. There were several combinations of materials, some
modes in nature, albeit gave a date of 9th AD.
6.5
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
1.
6.6
Was Igbo-Ukwu discovered through systematic means?
Discuss this in the Light of its discovery.
REFERENCES
Thurstan Shaw, (1977) Unearthing Igbo Ukwu, Oxford University,
Ibadan.
6.7
SUGGESTED READING
__________________ (1970) A Account of Archaeological
Discoveries in Eastern Nigeria. London 2Vols.
Lawal, B. (1973) Dating Problems at Igbo Ukwu, Journal of African
History, 14:1-8
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
32
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
UNIT: 3
T O P I C 7:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
7.0
TOPIC: BENIN IN PREHISTORY-
33
7.1
INTRODUCTION
34
7.2
OBJECTIVES
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
34
7.3
IN-TEXT
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
34
7.3.1
BENIN IN PREHISTORY
--
-
-
34
7.3.2
THE CIRE PERDUE TECHNOLOGY -
35
7.3.3
THE BENIN CITY WALL
-
7.3.4
IFE CLARKS QUARTERS EXCAVATION- 36
7.4
SUMMARY -
7.5
-
-
35
-
-
36
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
-
-
-
-
36
7.6
REFERENCES
-
-
-
-
-
-
36
7.7
SUGGESTED READING -
-
-
-
-
36
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
-
-
-
-
-
-
33
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
7.0
TOPIC: BENIN IN PREHISTORY
7.1
INTRODUCTION
UNIT: 3
This chapter revealed the various sources for Benin History. It
potrays the technique of cire pesdue technique of smelting metals.
7.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i.
Know the Ife-Benin relationship.
ii.
Know the smelting technique.
iii.
The importance of the Benin city wall.
7.3
IN-TEXT:
BENIN IN PREHISTORY
7.3.1
The sources for the history of Benin is made up of travellers records,
oral tradition, art history and archaeology. Little is known about the
earliest history of Benin. Some historians indicate that its beginnings date
from about 11th century AD. Some historians also ascribe development
within Benin to be exotic. There are suggestions that the Bini absorbed
some Sudanic elements. There are traditions of doubtful antiquity, which
say that they came originally from Egypt via Sudan and Ife and arrived
Benin and claimed that it had already been inhabited by people who came
from the Sudan.
Historically, Benin is important because its development centred
around a major urban unit ruled by a semi-divine king. It had an iron
working technology and cire Perdue casting tradition second to none.
From travellers’ records they had bronzes and horses used as status
symbols. Benin architecture was also remarkable. Some scholars indicated
that it had influence from the North.
In an attempt to comprehend the prehistory of Benin the following
issues should be examined:
1. Ife - Benin Relationship
2. The Cire Perdue Technology
3. The Benin City wall
4. The Clarks Quarters Excavation
As a result of British punitive expedition against Benin in 1897,
numerous art works were looted and sold off in London. European
scholars and artists were impressed by the skilled artistic excellence and
attributed the skilled craftsmanship to the Portuguese who traded along
the west cost of Africa between the 15th and early 17thcentury AD. Later
writers have rejected this view and emphasised the indigenous origin of the
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
34
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
UNIT: 3
art works. Scholars have now discovered that both the Oranmiyan dynasty
and the art of cire Perdue casting have been said to have come to Benin
from Ife. The evidence for this relationship consists of oral tradition
recorded in Benin in modern times. It is also said that the traditions of
both Ife and Benin record that the head of each Oba of Benin was sent to
Ife for burial. The place where the burial took place is identified with Orun
Oba Ado RC dated to the 9th or 10th century AD.
7.3.2 THE CIRE PERDUE TECHNOLOGY
Cire Perdue casting technology was extensively used in Benin.
Excavation at Benin reveal items made up of leaded brass which is more
suitable for casting. Its antiquity can be as late as 15th century for details on
process of Cire Perdue casting refer to Igbo-Ukwu.
7.3.3 BENIN CITY WALL
Many cities and towns in Nigeria were at one time in the past
enclosed by walls which reflect a great deal of the town’s past character,
changing fortunes and military outlook. In most of the walls ditches were
excavated to prevent enemies crossing over into the centre of the town.
There is an earthen rampart. The standing walls belong to the North while
dump ramparts are obtained in the south. Thus Kano, Zaria, Bida and
Bauchi have built walls whereas Ife, Owu and Benin City have “dump
ramparts.” The basic reason for the difference is likely climatically. There
is plenty of rainfall in and around Benin City while Kano, Bida and Bauchi
are in the Savannah with relatively little rainfall. Free standing mud walls
in any form do not survive long in the south. At Birnin Gazargamu there is
a dump ramparts probably because the loose sand of that site offered
insufficient materials for the construction of such a large enclosure in mud
brick. The Benin city walls have been known since 1500.
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
35
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
UNIT: 3
7.3.4 IFE CLARKS QUARTERS EXCAVATION
Excavation conducted in this site revealed a stratified sequence of 11
feet deep. The antiquity of the site is 13th century AD. At a shaft excused
skeletons of 41 individuals through anatomical examination were mainly
female of an age between 15 and 35 years. With them were bronze
bracelets, fragments of clothing and few beads.
7.4
SUMMARY
Archaeological areas mapped in Benin were excavated and dated.
7.5
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
1.
7.6
What are the sources for Benin history?
REFERENCES
Balfour, H. (1903) “Thunder Bolts” Celts from Benin Man 103.
7.7
SUGGESTED READING
Connah, G.(1963) Archaeological Research in Benin City 1966-1964.
Journal of Historical Society of Nigeria. Vol. 2 No.4 pp.465-477
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
36
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
UNIT: 3
T O P I C 8:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
8.0
TOPIC: IFE IN PREHISTORY
-
37
8.1
INTRODUCTION
-
38
8.2
OBJECTIVES
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
38
8.3
IN-TEXT
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
38
8.3.1
IFE IN PREHISTORY
-
-
-
-
38
-
-
-
39
8.4
SUMMARY -
-
8.5
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
-
-
-
-
39
8.6
REFERENCES
-
-
-
-
-
-
39
8.7
SUGGESTED READING -
-
-
-
-
39
-
-
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
-
37
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
8.0
TOPIC: IFE IN PREHISTORY
8.1
INTRODUCTION
UNIT: 3
Ife, traditionally is behaved by the Yoruba as the centre of the world,
and the world was created there. It served as the religious centre of
the Yoruba. Cire Perdue technology also formed part of the
traditional technology obtained in that site.
8.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i.
Identify the traits that have Ife and Benin.
ii.
Know that Ife serves as the traditional base of all Yorubas.
8.3
IN-TEXT:
8.3.1
IFE IN PREHISTORY
Yoruba traditions claim that Ife is the centre of the world and it was
at Ife that the world was created. Since earliest times Ife has been the
religious centre of the Yoruba and centre of origin of the Yoruba people.
Due to some religious affiliations some Yoruba historians still doubt about
Ife been the centre of origin . Some ascribed their origin to Arabia
(Johnson).
Ife first attracted the attention of modern scholars in 1910 to1911
when the German Ethnographer, Leo Frobenius, discovered ancient
artistic tradition in Terracotta and bronze which included life-size
representations of human heads. He collected in Ife both by purchase and
crude excavation. He thought that he had found traces of a Greek colony
on the West African coast in the 13th century B.C. His discoveries were to
trigger off years of speculation as to the cultural context of Ife art. Since
1956 archaeologists have been engaged in research in Ife. This has resulted
not only in the collection of more objects but it was shown that Ife art was a
genuine cultural expression of the early Yoruba people unassisted by
outsiders.
Cire Perdue was the method employed in the production of Ife arts.
An important feature revealed through excavation was the potsherd
pavements either laid or edge on.
Similarly, Daima in Borno has similar architectural features. Some of
the potshards have impressive decorations. The pavements are dated to
11th or 12th century AD.
One curious feature of the archaeology of Ife is the degree to which
archaeological materials has been found closely associated with shrines. It
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
38
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
UNIT: 3
is suspected that some of these objects may indeed have remained in these
shrines from time immemorial.
Around Ife are the remains of town walls in the form of earthen
banks and ditches which are concentric defensive system.
It has been suggested that the Ife heads were actual portraits of
rulers of Ife and members of their families, based on ethnographic
evidence drawn from Owo (Willet 1967).
The style used in the production of Ife art was argued among
scholars that it was derived from Nok art. It has been claimed that at least
from the point of view of cire Perdue casting techniques, it was Ife that
taught Benin to produce its master pieces.
8.4
SUMMARY
Ife is the centre of world according to the Yorubas; thus the centre of
tradition and religion.
8.5
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1. Was there any relationship between Ife and Benin in
prehistory?
2. What was the general conception of the Yoruba as regard Ife
history?
8.6
REFERENCES
Willet, F. (1967) Ife in the history of West African Sculpture, London
__________ (1971) African Art: an Introduction New York:
Frederick Praeger.
8.7
SUGGESTED READING
Tompson, L. and Ferguson (eds) Africa in Classical Antiquity,
Ibadan.
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
39
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
UNIT: 3
T O P I C 9:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
9.0
TOPIC: ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE CHAD BASIN-
40
9.1
INTRODUCTION
41
9.2
OBJECTIVES
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
41
9.3
IN-TEXT
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
41
9.3.1
ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE CHAD BASIN-
9.4
SUMMARY -
9.5
-
-
-
-
-
43
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
-
-
-
-
43
9.6
REFERENCES
-
-
-
-
-
-
43
9.7
SUGGESTED READING -
-
-
-
-
43
-
-
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
-
41
40
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
9.0
TOPIC: ARCHEOLOGY OF THE CHAD BASIN
9.1
INTRODUCTION
UNIT: 3
Significant archaeological breau through have been made in the chad
basin, since the Daima excavation by Graham Connah in 1965-66.
the Daima excavation with an antiquity of 3000 years has now being
surpassed by a more aged find the Dufuna Canoa dating 8,500 years
and the date of a pottery on a sand pit at Konduga dating over 6000
years, as one of the oldest settlement in West Africa.
9.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i.
Have an idea of the general prehistory of the Chad basin.
ii.
Identify spectacular finds with a much higher antiquity.
9.3
IN-TEXT:
9.3.1 ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE CHAD BASIN
The Chad Basin with its huge landmass, served as a “crossroad” in
the centre of Africa with focal points of savannah routes from east and west
together with the Chari Logone route reaching deep into the Equatorial and
Trans-Saharan routes from the North” (Connah 1975). A number of
dynasties and empires thrived in this region. They maintained close links,
which served political, social and economic purposes. The unearthing of
this vast landmass with the archaeological spade has yielded important
fossilized materials that have assisted in the reconstruction of the history of
the region. Lake Chad is a surviving remnant of a much larger lake, which
at various times in the past occupied a far greater portion of the internal
drainage basin known as the Chad basin. The Chad basin extends from the
Tibesti mountains in the North to the Mandara Mountains in the South,
from Air in the West to the Ennedi in the East.
Pioneering Archaeological Work began in the Chad basin in 1857 by
the German explorer, a German named Dr. Herinrich Barth, who recorded
the various mounds at Ndufu. He reported of massive “Sao pots”, described
by R. Cohen as a “spurious tribal group”. A detailed archaeological
observation was conducted in the Chad region by Boyd Alexander in 1909
when he described the giant Sao pots at Ngala. In 1921, A. J. Latham, then
a British District Officer at Dikwa, reported of the various mounds in the
vicinity of Dikwa. The archaeological importance of the Chad basin was
brought to limelight in 1957 when A. Rosman and R. Cohen Excavated at
Birnin Ngazargamo. The work was never published but the materials were
deposited at the Jos Museum. In 1959 A. D. H. Bivar and P. L. Shinnie
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
41
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
UNIT: 3
conducted an archaeological survey which resulted in the publication of
“Old Kanuri Capitals” (JAH 62).
The most exhaustive archaeological work so far conducted in the
Chad basin which today remains a monumental reference work, is that of
Graham Connah at Daima between 1961 and 1965. The Daima materials
have an antiquity of 3000 years which resulted in the publication of Three
thousand years in Africa: Man and his environment in the Lake Chad
region of Nigeria.
Under the Joint Research Project of the University of Frankfurt and
the University of Maiduguri SFB 268, a number of sites were surveyed,
identified, excavated and dated. This project, which commenced in 1990
was spearheaded by Prof. Dr. Peter Breunig of the University of Frankfurt
and Abubakar Garba of the University of Maiduguri and monitored by
Musa O. Hambolu of the National Commission of Monuments and
Museums. One of the sites excavated include Gajiganna. Gajiganna was
identified in 1990. As a result of reconnaissance survey two remarkable
mounds were identified; and the finds include numerous stone artefacts
such as ground stone axes, grinding stones, axes, pounders and bifacial
arrow heads made of basalt as well as figurines. The most significant
aspect of this sites is that it depicts one of the earliest site with domestic
animas in West Africa South of the Sahara, dating to 2,500 years. The
small clay figurines from the site represent the earliest art in Borno. Some
depict animals such as cattle and anthropomorphic objects.
The Bama Ridge is an old shoreline of the Paleo Lake Chad. At a
sandpit on top of the ridge close to Konduga, a settlement site was dated to
over 6000 years.
The Dufuna canoe discovered in 1987, is so far the oldest canoe in
Africa and the third oldest in the world, with an antiquity of over 8000
years.
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
42
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
9.4
UNIT: 3
SUMMARY
That the 3000 years barrier has expanded by the discovery at
Konduga and Dufuna.
9.5
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
1.
9.6
Identify two archeological sites best known to you in the Chad
basin establishing their general characteristics
REFERENCE
Cannah, G. (1987) African Civilization, Pre-Colonial Cities
And States In Tropical Africa: An Archaeological Perspective.
Cambridge University Press.
Childe, V.G. (1936) Man Makes Himself. London: C:A.
Watts.
Childe, V.G. (1942) What happened in History. London:
Penguin Books.
9.7
SUGGESTED READING
Bassey W. Andah (1995) The Epistemology of West
African Settlements. Special issue of West African Journal
of Archaeology Vol. 25 No. 1.
Chang, K.C. (1968) Settlement Archaeology. Palo Alto Calif,
National Press Books.
Clark, D. (1982) Urban Geography. Baltimore, John
Hopkins University Press.
Mabogunje, A.L. (1968) Urbanization in Nigeria. University
of London Press, London.
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
43
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
UNIT: 3
SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES
TOPIC 1:
1.
Identify the various
Paleolithic period.
industrial
complexes
of
the
Answer – They are early stone age, middle stone age and
late stone age.
TOPIC 2:
1.
What are the direct and indirect evidences of the
beginning of Agriculture in West Africa?
Answer – The direct evidence are the remains of
domesticated plants and animal in context. The indirect
evidence are all materials discovered in archaeological
context that suggests the presence of plants and animals
e.g. rock paintings and terracotta representation.
TOPIC 3:
1.
What is the contrast between smelting and smithing?
Answer – Smelting is an archaic way of melting icon ores while
smiting is the modern way of smelting using bellows.
TOPIC 4:
1.
2.
Define urbanization
Answer – Urbanization simply is a process whereby
human beings congregate in relatively large number at
one particular spot of the earth surface.
Identify three traits which V. Gordon childe used in
defining urbanism and civilization.
Answer – The three traits include density of population
surplus food and political authority.
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
44
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
TOPIC 5:
1.
UNIT: 3
When was wok culture discovered?
Answer – In 1928
2.
What were the characteristic traits of the wok culture?
Answer – They were modeled in clay with hollow and
coil – built reworked from the outside. The fabric consists
of day with grain of mica, quartz or granite. The
terracotta represents human heads and figures and some
parts of animals and reptiles.
TOPIC 6:
1.
Was Igbo – Ukwu discovered through systematic means?
Discuss this in the light of its discovery.
Answer – Ibgo – Ukwu was discovered accidentally when
Isaiah was digging a cistern in his compound.
TOPIC 7:
1.
What are the sources for Benin history?
Answer – The sources are made up of travelers records,
oral tradition, art history and archaeology.
TOPIC 8:
1.
Was there any relationship between Ife and Benin in
prehistory?
Answer – The relationship is in the technology of cire
perdue, that it was Ife that taught Benin to produce its
master pieces.
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
45
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
2.
UNIT: 3
What was the general conception of the Yoruba as regard
Ife history?
Answer – Ife is regarded as the centre of the world and it
was at Ife that the wall was created.
TOPIC 9:
1.
Identify two archaeological sites best known to you in the
Chad Basin establishing their general characteristics.
Answer – Gajiganna produced several artifacts such as
ground stone axes, grinding stones, axes, pounders,
bifacial arrow heads, while Dufuna produces a single
artifact, the canoe dating over 8000 years.
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
46
HIS 105 –ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NIGERIAN REGION
UNIT: 3
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS
INSTRUCTION:
ANSWER FOUR QUESTIONS ONLY
1.
Comment on the evidence of early agriculture in Nigeria
2.
Outline the history and development of metallurgy in Nigeria.
3.
What are the problems and prospects of archaeological research
in the Chad region of North-East Nigeria.
4.
Evaluate the state of Archaeological excavation at any site known
to you.
5.
Write on two of the following:a. Igbo-Ukwu
b. Iwo-Eleru
c. Nok Culture
6.
Evaluate the evidence for the existence of stone age populations
in the Nigerian region.
7.
Discuss the significance of Daima to the study of the prehistory of
the Chad Basin.
8.
“The Discoveries at Igbo-Ukwu have raised more problems than
they have solved.” Discuss this statement with reference to the
history and archaeology of the region of study.
9.
Outline the history and development of Archaeology in Nigeria.
10.
Argue for or against the domestication of Plants and animal
husbandry in Nigeria.
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
47