Download African mountainous countries and their mountains : The Republic of

African mountainous countries and their
mountains : The Republic of Cameroon
SJ Taylor, AfroMont programme co-ordinator
4/8/2015
AfroMont, Centre for Environment Studies, University of Pretoria, Hatfield, South Africa
African mountainous countries and
their mountains:
The Republic of Cameroon
Contents
1.0 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 2
2.0 Social issues in the Cameroon........................................................................................................... 2
2.1 Socio-economic and political context ........................................................................................... 2
2.2 Demographics ............................................................................................................................... 5
2.3 Urbanisation trends and possible drivers ..................................................................................... 5
2.4 Geographical and biome information ........................................................................................... 7
2.4.1 Annual rainfall ........................................................................................................................ 8
2.4.2 Vegetation types and biomes ................................................................................................ 8
2.4.3 Cameroonian forests.............................................................................................................. 8
2.5 The Cameroon Highlands Global Ecoregion ................................................................................. 9
2.6 Ecosystems providing services .................................................................................................... 10
2.7 Natural resource depletion, disasters, land degradation and water issues ............................... 11
2.8 Climate change projections, vulnerable sectors and impacts .................................................... 12
2.8.1 Climate change projections and impacts ............................................................................. 13
2.8.2 Sustainable development challenges .................................................................................. 16
2.9 Profile of mountains in the Cameroon ....................................................................................... 17
2.9.1 Geological map of Cameroon .............................................................................................. 18
2.9.2 Inland mountain regions ...................................................................................................... 19
2.9.3 The Cameroon line ............................................................................................................... 19
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2.9.4 Other geophysical issues ...................................................................................................... 20
3.0 Protected areas ............................................................................................................................... 20
3.1 Protected areas, forests and mountains..................................................................................... 20
3.1.1 Mount Cameroon National Park .......................................................................................... 21
3.1.2 The Campo-Ma'an area in Cameroon ................................................................................. 21
3.2 Legal framework for management of forests, catchments and mountains ............................... 22
4.0 Summary ......................................................................................................................................... 24
5.0 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................... 27
6.0 References ...................................................................................................................................... 28
1.0 Introduction
In order to understand global change and how it affects both ecosystems and people living in
Africa’s mountains, something of the challenges facing these countries needs to be known.
Most African countries are facing tremendous development challenges, yet many others like
Cameroon, Ethiopia and Kenya are progressing to a stage of being ‘middle income’ countries,
rather than fragile states, and beginning to deal with poverty and creating human well-being
without damaging the natural world. One of the key areas of such preventative effort must
be Africa’s mountains, their biodiversity, their catchments, forests and people – and this is
important because mountains benefit people in many different and valuable ways, the most
obvious being by acting as water catchments and releasing water downstream throughout
the year. This report scans social, economic and environmental issues in Cameroon, with a
focus on Cameroon’s biodiversity and mountains.
2.0 Social issues in the Cameroon
2.1 Socio-economic and political context
Cameroon is a coastal nation on the west coast of Africa, with Nigeria as a neighbour to the west,
Chad to the northeast, is bordered by the Central African Republic to the east and Equatorial Guinea,
Gabon and the Republic of the Congo to the south. Cameroon's coastline lies on the Bight of Bonny,
part of the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean.
Cameroon gained its independence through a two stage process in 1960 and 1961 to become the
Federal Republic of Cameroon. In 1984 the country was renamed the Republic of Cameroon, and has
been under the Presidency of Paul Biya and his Cameroon People’s Democratic Movement Party
since 1982. The country is relatively stable, although faces some political troubles. A constitutional
2
change in 2008 has allowed the President to run for a third term in the 2011 Presidential elections,
and there are ongoing problems with the validity of the
electoral system (IISD, 2004).
The largest cities are Yaoundé (2.2 million, 2014),
Douala (1 million, 2014) and Garoua (435 547, 2014)
(World Population Review, Cameroon, 2014).
The human population of Cameroon is estimated to be
about 14 million, with an average density of 22–25
people/km², and with an annual growth-rate of 2.9%.
More than three-quarters of the population are,
however, concentrated in less than a fifth of the territory
and, apart from urban areas, there are three regions with high population densities. These are the
western highlands, including the Bamiléké plateau, where densities reach between 50 and 200
persons/km², western parts of the southern plateau (the area around Yaoundé, Sangmélima and
Bafia) with densities ofbetween 25 and 100 persons/km², and the extreme north (Mount Mandara,
the Diamaré plain and Makari, near Lake Chad) with up to 250
persons/km² (Fotso et al, n.d.).
The Cameroon is divided into 10 semi-autonomous regions (see
map), each under the administration of an elected Regional
Council. The three northernmost regions are the Far
North (Extrême Nord), North (Nord), and Adamawa (Adamaoua).
Directly south of them are the Centre (Centre) and East (Est).
The South Province (Sud) lies on the Gulf of Guinea and the
southern border. Cameroon's western region is split into four
smaller regions: the Littoral (Littoral) and Southwest (Sud-Ouest)
regions are on the coast and the Northwest (Nord-Ouest)
and West (Ouest) regions are in the western grasslands. The ten
regions are subdivided into 58 divisions (French départements).
The land surface area (land and lakes) of Cameroon is 475 440 km2 (CIA
Figure 1: Map of the 10 regions in
Cameroon
Cameroon, 2014).
Cameroon has a Low Human Development status and was positioned 152nd out of the 169 ranked
countries on the UNDP HDI rankings of 2013, with a score of 0.504 (HNDP, 2013). The Fragile State
Index score for Cameroon is 93.1 which puts the country in the ‘Alert’ category of risk (FSI Cameroon,
2014). The Fragile States Index (FSI) is an annual ranking of nations based on their levels of stability
and the pressures they face (Fund for Peace, 2014). Over a five-year period, Cameroon experienced a
significant worsening in its Factionalized Elites, Demographic Pressures and Public Services
indicators, while the Human Flight and Uneven Economic Development scores improved.
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Cameroon is classified as a lower middle income country as reflected in its GDP per capita of
US$1 226 (ALM Cameroon, 2009).
Cameroon is an oil-producing country, but the
national economy relies heavily on exports of timber
and cash-crops such as cocoa, coffee, rubber, palm oil,
cotton and bananas, for foreign exchange. Cronyism
and corruption are endemic and revenues from oil,
gas and mining are not openly reported. In 1978 oil
production replaced agriculture as the cornerstone of
growth for the formal economy. The country’s heavy
dependence
on
oil
revenues
could,
however,
undermine sustainable growth in the future if
alternative economic activities are not sought and the
country suffers from ‘Dutch Disease’, a common affliction of oil- and gas-rich countries (NorringtonDavies, 2011). Cameroon is currently sub-Saharan Africa’s tenth-largest crude oil producer and
although oil is a relatively small share of overall economic activity, it plays an important role in
exports and government revenues. Cameroon is also a mature oil producer and production peaked in
1987. Specialists understand that there are still significant prospects for new oil fields both off- and
onshore.
Similar to most African countries, agriculture is a very important component of the Cameroon
economy and engages the majority portion of labour force (70%).
Agriculture contributes
approximately 20% to the national GDP. The next most important sector is the industrial sector
(including oil) which provides for almost 29.7% of the GDP while providing employment for another
13% of the working population. The services sector provides work for a large (17%) section of the
population. With the diversification of the economy, service sector is also gradually emerging in the
nation. As per 2009 statistics, the service sector employs almost 17% of the total working population
and contributes above 50% to the annual GDP figures (Economywatch, 2010).
The country’s tropical forests cover almost 40 % of the country and provide an estimated eight
million rural people with important traditional products including food, medicines, fuel and
construction material (Norrington-Davies, 2011), while formal forestry operations in Cameroon
employ between 45 000 and 70 000 people and account for more than 10 % of the country’s GDP
(Alemagi, 2011).
Till the 1990s, Cameroon had a closed economy with strict regulations against private and foreign
investors. During early 1990s, IMF and World Bank provided financial assistance to the country. This
led to a series of economic reforms that brought Cameroon’s economy in sync with the global
standards. These reforms strategically focused on increasing agricultural productivity, stimulating
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business investment and restructuring the banking sector (Economywatch, 2010). Protection of
property rights is weak, and the judicial system is slow, inefficient, and vulnerable to political
interference. Intellectual property rights are routinely violated (IEF, 2015).
The economy is dependent on commodity exports and subject to red tape and regulatory
constraints, and, for example, it is very difficult to start a business. Economic growth was seriously
affected by the post-2008 global economic slowdown. Also, on the political front, President Paul Biya
has been in power since 1982, and his government is considered bloated and unwieldy. In terms of
national security, Cameroonian security forces are at war with Nigerian Islamist terrorist group Boko
Haram, which has attacked and infiltrated villages along the 1 800-km Cameroon-Nigerian border.
Cameroon currently hosts approximately 35 000 refugees from the Central African Republic (IEF,
2015).
2.2 Demographics
According to the 2010 revision of the World Population Prospects, the total population of Cameroon
was 19.5 million in 2010, compared to 4.5 million in 1950, and is now 22.8 million (2014). The
proportion of the population below the age of 15 in 2010 was 40.6 %, with 56% of the population
between 15 and 65 years of age, and 3.5% of the population 65 years or older. As in other
developing countries, there is a large proportion of young people.
2.3 Urbanisation trends and possible drivers
The capital city of Cameroon, Yaoundé, is currently experiencing very rapid urbanization and
unplanned expansion. The first population census in 1926 estimated that Yaoundé had 100,000
inhabitants. Since then, and with an estimated annual growth rate of 4.5% since 1980, Yaoundé’s
population has grown from 812 000 inhabitants in 1987, to 1.5 million inhabitants in 2000 and to
about 2.1 million inhabitants in 2007. However, this population growth has not been formally
monitored by the city planners and decision-makers and as a result, local authorities have failed to
provide new neighbourhoods with adequate utilities, services, and infrastructure. City-dwellers are
facing great difficulties, such as getting access to safe water-supply systems (Yongsi, 2010).
See Table below highlighting selected demographic trends for Cameroon.
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Selected demographic and urbanisation trends (Cameroon)
Total population (2014)*
22.8 million
Annual population growth rate (2010 - 2015),
national, rural and urban**
National 3.3 %
Urban 3.6 % (2010)
Rural 0.2 % (2010)
Projected population by 2050 and 2100 (World
#
Population Report, 2014)
49 million (2050) and 81.9 million (2100)
(medium variant figures)
% of population urban (2010 – 2015)**
52.66 %
Annual urbanisation rate (2010-15 est.)****
3.23%
Access to improved water sources**
74.4 %
Population/ha arable land***
0.29
*http://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/cameroon-population/
**http://www.tradingeconomics.com/cameroon/urban-population-percent-of-total-wb-data.html
***http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.ARBL.HA.PC/countries
****http://www.indexmundi.com/cameroon/urbanization.html
#World Population Report, 2014, http://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/cameroon-population/
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2.4 Geographical and biome information
The geography of Cameroon is highly diverse and its various topographic features superimpose
climatic variations on a north‐south gradient. Natural features include beaches, deserts, mountains,
rainforests and savanna. The low‐lying coastal plain rises rapidly to the inland regions of high
plateaus and mountain ranges. The Cameroon mountain range stretches along the country’s
northern border with Nigeria, with peaks in excess of 3000m and is part of a geological feature
known as the Cameroon volcanic line. The Cameroon line is a 1600 km chain of volcanoes and
includes islands in the Gulf of Guinea and mountains that extend along the border region of eastern
Nigeria and western Cameroon (see map below).
Cameroon is divided into five major
geographic
zones
distinguished
by
dominant physical, climatic, and vegetative
features. The coastal plain extends 15 to
150 kilometres inland from the Gulf of
Guinea and has an average elevation of 90
metres above sea level (masl). Exceedingly
hot and humid with a short dry season, this
belt is densely forested and wet and is part
of the Cross-Sanaga-Bioko coastal forests.
The South Cameroon Plateau rises from the
coastal plain to an average elevation of 650
masl. Equatorial rainforest dominates this
region, although its alternation between
wet and dry seasons makes it is less humid
than the coast (McSweeney et al, n.d.).
Cameroon is divided between 4 biomes: the
Sahel biome in the extreme north of the
Figure 2: Cameroon line - islands and mountains. Source
country; the remaining northern parts of
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ngaoundere_Plateau
the country fall within the Sudan-Guinea
Savanna biome; all lowland forests form part of the Guinea-Congo Forests biome; and Mount
Cameroon and the western highlands form part of the Afro-tropical Highlands biome.
An irregular chain of mountains, hills, and plateaus known as the Cameroon range (part of the
Cameroon line) extends from Mount Cameroon on the coast almost to Lake Chad at Cameroon's
northern border at 13°05'N. Cameroon's highest point is Mt Fako, part of Mt. Cameroon, with an
altitude of 4095 metres above sea level (masl).
The southern plateau rises northward to the grassy, rugged Adamawa Plateau. This feature stretches
from the western mountain area and forms a barrier between the country's north and south. Its
average elevation is 1 100 metres and its average temperature ranges from 22 °C to 25 °C with high
rainfall between April and October peaking in July and August. The northern lowland region extends
from the edge of the Adamawa to Lake Chad with an average elevation of 300 to 350 metres. Its
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characteristic vegetation is savanna scrub and grass. This is an arid region with sparse rainfall and
high median temperatures.
Cameroon has four patterns of drainage. In the south, the principal rivers are the Ntem, Nyong,
Sanaga, and Wouri. These flow south-westward or westward directly into the Gulf of Guinea. The Dja
and Kadéï drain south-eastward into the Congo River. In northern Cameroon, the Bénoué River runs
north and west and empties into the Niger. The Logone flows northwards. The semi-arid north of
Cameroon (north of 6˚N) is the hottest and driest part of the country, experiencing average
temperatures between 25-27˚C in the cooler seasons (SON, DJF) and 27-30˚C in the warmer seasons
(MAM, JJA). Temperatures in the southern regions are largely dependent on altitude ranging 2025˚C, and varying little with season (McSweeney et al, n.d.).
2.4.1 Annual rainfall
Annual rainfall is highest in the coastal and mountainous regions of Cameroon. The main wet season
lasts between May and November for most of the country, when the West African Monsoon winds
blow from the south-west, bringing moist air from the ocean. The wettest regions receive more than
400mm per month of rainfall, but the semi-arid northern regions of Cameroon receive less than
100mm per month. The southern plateau region has two shorter rainy seasons, occurring in May to
June and October to November (McSweeney et al, n.d.).
2.4.2 Vegetation types and biomes
The country has exceptionally high biological diversity and high levels of endemism. Cameroon
encompasses an intricate mosaic of diverse habitats which harbour an extremely rich flora and
fauna. Over 9 000 species of plants have been recorded, of which 160 may be endemic (Fotso et al,
n.d.). Plant and mammal endemism is highest in the moist evergreen forest belt along the coast and
decreases as biomes become drier. The geographical distribution of many endemic forest species is
very narrow compared with that of the drier biomes. The majority of endemic taxa are concentrated
around Mount Cameroon and the other highland areas. At least 320 species of mammal occur (of
which 16 are endemic) more than 250 species of reptile (20 or more endemic) and about 200 species
of amphibian (with, including neighbouring eastern Nigeria, more than 60 endemic). Cameroon is
part of the programme for the preservation of the Congo Basin ecosystems.
More details on the biomes and vegetation types in Cameroon can be found on the BirdLife profile
on Cameroon (Fotso et al., n.d.).
2.4.3 Cameroonian forests
The Republic of Cameroon extends from Lake Chad in central Africa south through Sahel and the
Sudan savanna into semi-deciduous forests, and then into a dense, humid evergreen forest zone.
The orogenic structure and ancient uplifting of the basement geological complex into crystalline
mountains and the overlaying of these by basalt and the creation of volcanic mountains, has
resulted in distinct vegetation communities, with sub-montane forest and subalpine grassland on
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the highest peaks. Bands of distinctive vegetation run roughly parallel to the southern edge of the
Sahara.
Most of Cameroon’s forests are situated in the southern part of the country and this is where much
of Cameroon’s deforestation is occurring. Southwest Cameroon is a biodiversity hotspot and has
been delineated by the World Wildlife Fund as the Cameroon Highlands Global Ecoregion .
2.5 The Cameroon Highlands Global Ecoregion
The Cameroon Highlands has been designated as a Global Ecoregion with the Ecoregion
encompassing the mountains and highland areas of the border region between Nigeria and
Cameroon. This region lies within a narrow rectangle 180 km by 625 km, oriented southwest to
northeast and originating about 50 km inland of Mount Cameroon which is a coastal, volcanic
mountain linked to the ‘Cameroon volcanic line’, a line of volcanic activity originating in an offshore
fault. The Cameroon Highlands Global Ecoregion
covers the Rumpi Hills, the Bakossi Mountains,
Mount Nlonako, Mount Kupe and Mount
Manengouba (WWF Cameroon, n.d.). Seen as
biologically ‘priceless’, this is one of the least
well-protected ecoregions in Africa, and
although declared as a Global Ecoregion, no
part of this ecoregion is under formal protected
status in Cameroon. Local traditional rulers still
exert considerable authority over land use, but
under the pressures of today, this is not
necessarily enough to secure the species of the
region. The main section of the Bakossi Mountains (550 km²) has been proposed as ‘Protection
Forest’, banning all logging. Mount Kupe has been proposed as a ‘Strict Nature Reserve’, while the
forest at Mount Oku has some form of protection and the boundaries are well demarcated (WWF
Cameroon, n.d.).
Mt Cameroon is an active volcano that sits near the coast and rises from this mountain range, but is
considered a separate ecoregion from the older, non-volcanic Cameroonian Highlands Forests. At 3
011 m, Mount Oku is the highest peak in this ecoregion. The remainder of peaks are between 8002600 m in elevation. Forest loss caused by unsustainable exploitation of firewood, overgrazing, fire
damage and agricultural encroachment is the main threat to this ecoregion. Hunting also threatens
the remaining larger mammals (WWF Cameroon, n.d.).
World Resource Institute (WRI) atlas projects like the Cameroon Forest Atlas and the collaborative
process involved to develop the Atlas, provide a wealth of important information to Cameroon
decision makers responsible for forest (and mountain) governance (Mertens et al., 2011). Built on a
geographic information system (GIS) platform, the atlas provides unbiased and up-to-date
information on the Cameroonian forest sector. One of its main objectives is to strengthen forest
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management and land use planning by bringing all major land use categories onto the same
standardized platform (Mertens et al. 2011).
33 Important Bird Areas (IBAs) have been identified in Cameroon covering 42,056 km2 or 8.8% of
the surface area of the country (Parts of two Endemic Bird Areas occur in Cameroon: The Cameroon
and Gabon lowlands Endemic Bird Areas (EBA), with 14 IBAs in which five of the six relevant
restricted range species in Cameroon occur. The Cameroon Mountains EBA encompasses 16 IBAs,
containing all 27 restricted range species that are found nationally. The following IBAs are in the far
north and are largely in the Sahel biome: Kalamaloué National Park, Logone flood-plain, Waza
National Park and Lake Maga (Fotso et al, n.d.).
The following IBAs are in the north and largely in
the Sudan-Guinea Savanna biome: Mayo-Louti
Forest Reserve; Gashiga-Demsa, Bénoué National
Park, Faro National Park, Tchabal Mbabo and
Ngaoundaba Ranch. The next set of IBAs form a
large group mostly in the south-west of the
country: Njinsing-Tabenken, Mount Oku, Mbi
Crater Faunal Reserve - Mbingo Forest, Mount
Mbam, Mbam Djerem National Park, BaliNgemba Forest Reserve, Banyang Mbo Wildlife
Sanctuary, Santchou Faunal Reserve, Korup National
Park, Mont Bana, Mont Manengouba, Bakossi Mountains, Mont Nlonako, Mount Rata and Rumpi
Hills Forest Reserve, Mount Kupé, Yabassi and Mount Cameroon and Mokoko-Onge. These form part
of both the Guinea-Congo Forests biome and the Afro-tropical Highlands biome. The remaining IBAs
are in the southern part of the country: Mbam-Minkom Kala, Dja Faunal Reserve, Boumba-Bek,
Campo Ma'an complex, Nki; and Lobéké National Park (Fotso et al, n.d.).
2.6 Ecosystems providing services
Some examples of important Cameroonian ecosystem services are shown below.
The country’s tropical forests cover almost 40 % of
the country and provide an estimated eight million
rural people with important traditional products
including food, medicines, fuel and construction
material (Norrington-Davies, 2011), while formal
forestry operations in Cameroon employ between
45 000 and 70 000 people and account for more
than 10 % of the country’s GDP (Alemagi, 2011). As
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an example of the unsustainable exploitation of accessible mountain forests, Mt Cameroon used to
have extensive forests at its base, which were logged just before and after Independence (1960).
Money flowed into the pockets of villagers who lived around the base of the mountain, but much of
the profits were channelled into the pockets of political elites and others in the capital city of
Yaoundé, and away from local entrepreneurs and even local elites. Now, the industrial logging
companies are no longer interested in the remaining forests around Mt Cameroon because all the
important timber has gone, yet villagers still exploit what is left, harvesting wood for local furniture
and building materials (Anong, 2006).
Also, on the coastal estuaries and flats, fishing is one of
the most important informal activities, with thousands
of people in unregistered, artisanal fisheries. As well as
this, a ‘thriving’ formal fishing and prawn industry
provides incomes for many thousands of people.
Fisheries
catches
have
been
declining,
and
management is urgently needed to grow a sustainable
industry. In Cameroon, the coast and sea are afflicted
by serious ecological problems (UNESCO, 1998).
Successful marketing of West African shrimp requires a
particularly high level of zoological and technical knowhow, intensive environmental protection and socio-economic management skills (SWAC, 2006).
2.7 Natural resource depletion, disasters, land degradation and water
issues
Natural resource depletion and land degradation - Currently, the major drivers of deforestation in
Cameroon are conversion of forests to agriculture and indirect general land use mismanagement,
with 85% of deforestation in Cameroon due to small-scale farmers using extensive slash-and-burn
techniques. However, extensive plantation agriculture, particularly cocoa and coffee, plays a vital role
in Cameroon’s economy. In the near future, increasing global demand for these cash crops may
accelerate deforestation in Cameroon. Unsustainable logging is also a cause of forest degradation
and deforestation (Conservation International n.d.).
Deforestation - Most of Cameroon’s forests are situated in the southern part of the country and
much of Cameroon’s deforestation is occurring in the southwest, a biodiversity hotspot. Causes of
deforestation in Cameroon are diverse, complex and have changed over time. Currently, the major
drivers of deforestation in Cameroon are conversion to agricultural expansion and indirect general
land use mismanagement. It is estimated that 85% of deforestation in Cameroon is due to smallscale farmers using extensive slash-and burn techniques.11 Plantation agriculture, particularly cocoa
11
and coffee, which covers extensive areas especially in the southern part of the country, plays a vital
role in Cameroon’s economy. In the near future, increasing global demand for these cash crops may
accelerate deforestation in Cameroon. Unsustainable logging is also a cause of forest degradation
and deforestation. Due to weak logistical and human enforcement capacity and land
mismanagement, significant and widespread irregularities are encountered in existing logging
concessions and in the regulation enforcement system (Conservation International, n.d.).
Disasters – Cameroon is vulnerable to disasters due to the many factors that negatively affect the
capacity of its people to secure and protect their livelihoods. Major predisposing factors include a
fragile and degrading environment, high levels of poverty and factors associated with this (Gaston et
al, 2012). In the case of landslides, natural triggering mechanisms such as heavy rainfall, earthquake
or volcanic eruption (as in, Mt Cameroon, which is
still
active)
anthropogenic
cannot
factors
be
prevented,
(e.g.
but
urbanisation,
deforestation, domestic sewage seeps) can be
addressed by a well-structured disaster risk
response system. Construction on slopes that
exceed a critical perching angle can result in
landslides that cause loss of life and property.
Landslides could be prevented by drainage
control, grading and slope supports. Delimitation of
landslide-prone (hazardous) areas would need detailed geological studies (e.g. in Limbe and
Bamenda). Over 50% of the disasters in the country are linked to the existence of a geological feature
called the Cameroon Volcanic Line (CVL) (Gaston et al, 2012).
Water issues – Cameroon cities like Yaoundé are experiencing huge and rapid population growth,
and access to good quality water through taps has become a luxury. Because of poor financial
structures, city councils and the government cannot afford to expand the urban water supply
networks. It is obvious that oil revenues are not being translated into water infrastructure to help
the nation develop.
As an example of current complexities, the Kumbo (town in the north) water supply system initiated
in the late 1960’s to supply irrigation water to the town of Kumbo was completed in 1972 has a
complex ownership claim, which was resolve in recent times by a decentralized approach. Catchment
management was one of the key issues in securing this water resource (Kumbo n.d.).
2.8 Climate change projections, vulnerable sectors and impacts
Cameroon is not categorized as a least developing country, and as such will not be preparing a
National Adaptation Programme of Action for the UNFCCC. Current adaptation activities are
concentrated on a number of diverse sectors, including policy formation, forests, energy,
mangroves, watershed management and climate scenarios. Agriculture, health and (to a somewhat
12
lesser extent) the country’s coastal zone are largely confined to proposed adaptation strategies,
rather than implemented activities and this needs to change (ALM Cameroon, 2009). Mountains are
not mentioned explicitly, although perhaps are intended through attention to forests and watershed
management.
Average temperatures in Cameroon have been increasing since 1930 with a net increase between
1930 and 1995 of 0.95°C. Average rainfall has also decreased by over 2 % per decade since 1960,
although the dense rainforest region continues to include some of the wettest places on earth.
These changes have been linked to extreme weather conditions across the country. The more
northern Sudano-Sahelian aspects of Cameroon are experiencing increased drought and desert
advancement, whilst the southwest coastal and rainforest regions have experienced increased
periods of prolonged rainfall that have led to flooding. Cameroon is a country of extreme contrasts
and climate change is expected to make these differences more pronounced. Because millions of
people are dependent upon the land for their livelihoods and food security, Cameroon is highly
vulnerable to the impacts of climate change (Norrington-Davies, 2011). The poor political system
will undoubtedly complicate climate change preparations, as well as the transition to a system of
sustainable development.
2.8.1 Climate change projections and impacts
Temperature - The mean annual temperature for Cameroon is projected to increase by 1.0 to 2.9˚C
by the 2060s, and 1.5 to 4.7˚C by the 2090s. The projected rate of warming is faster in the
continental interior regions of Cameroon (the north and east) and slower in the western coastal
areas. Model projections all indicate increases in the frequency of days and nights that are
considered ‘hot’ in current climate. All projections indicate decreases in the frequency of days and
nights that are considered ‘cold’ in current climate. These cold events are expected to become
exceedingly rare, and to not at all by the 2090s in under the highest emissions scenario (A2)
(McSweeney et al, n.d.).
Precipitation - Projections of mean annual rainfall averaged over the country from different models
in the ensemble indicate a wide range of changes in precipitation for Cameroon. Projected change
range from ‐12 to +20mm per month (‐8 to +17%) by the 2090s, with overall means +1 to‐3 mm per
month (0 to 2%). Models are broadly consistent in indicating increases in the proportion of total
rainfall that falls in heavy events, even in seasons when mean rainfall does not increase. Annually,
these changes range from ‐2% to +15%. Projections indicate that maximum 1‐ and 5‐day rainfalls
are also likely to increase in magnitude by as much as 27mm and 40mm respectively (McSweeney et
al, n.d.).
Sea level rise - Cameroon is also expected to experience the impacts of sea level rise over the next
Century, with the coastal lowlands, estuary and fisheries industry becoming vulnerable (Norrington13
Davies, 2011). Sea‐level in this region is projected by climate models to rise by the following levels by
the 2090s, relative to 1980‐1999 sea‐level, depending on the SRES model (McSweeney et al, n.d.):
•
0.13 to 0.43m under SRES B1
•
0.16 to 0.53m under SRES A1B
•
0.18 to 0.56m under SRES A2
Sea level rises, along with the change in
temperatures, could change the mangrove
ecosystem, and the flora and fauna contained
within it, with implications for local shrimp
fisheries. Sea level rise is also expected to cause
saltwater to intrude the Dibamba and Wouri
rivers, and into coastal aquifers, negatively
impacting
agriculture
industries.
Coastal
infrastructure is also at risk. The Douala airport,
due to its position at low altitude, could be
threatened at some point, particularly with the loss of mangrove forest protection. As well, there is
the potential for increased sedimentation at Douala’s port. Overall, Cameroon estimated in its 2005
National Communication that its coastal industrial properties were at risk of experiencing major
financial losses and damages due to climate change by 2100 (Cameroon profile, 2011).
Vulnerable sectors and impacts - In Cameroon’s more arid Sudano-Sahelian zone, agricultural
productivity is already expected to grow at a slower rate than the population, i.e. food shortages can
be expected in the future. Agriculture and livestock production will be most affected by any future
changes in temperature, with agriculture production projected to decrease by between 10 and 25
per cent depending on the warming scenario (Cameroon profile, 2011: citing Crawford et al, 2011).
While climate change threatens most crops in Africa, cotton could do well under warmer conditions.
Another area of concern for Cameroon is its health sector. Climate change could bring about
potential increases in the incidence of malaria (due to more heavy rainfall events) and the threat of
cholera (due to greater flood risk (Cameroon profile, 2011: citing Crawford et al, 2011).
Various hydropower installations are also at risk in Cameroon (Grijsen and Patel, 2014).
The pressure of a rapidly growing population, combined with erratic rainfall patterns, increases the
risk of disasters, food insecurity and environmental degradation – particularly as the economy is so
heavily depending on natural resource exploitation. It would seem that Cameroon is on a very
unsustainable development trajectory.
Impacts on forests - Climate change presents a risk to the composition, health, and vitality of forest
ecosystems everywhere. The vulnerability of the forest ecosystems is not just related to the direct
and indirect impacts of climate variability and change, but also the pressures from human activities,
notably land clearing and logging. Given the complex interrelations that exist between natural and
14
human systems, impacts on one system will affect the other systems, in the same light; the
vulnerability of one system could potentially lead to the vulnerability of other systems (Sonwa et al,
2012). Endemic species like chimpanzees could become even more threatened as climate change
(and deforestation) alter their habitat (Kasnof, 2015, reporting on the work of Clee et al, 2014).
Impacts on mountain ecosystems and species
Mountains and mountain ecosystems were not highlighted in this initiation selection of climate
change needs in the initial National Communication (2005) (ALM Cameroon, 2009), but obviously
will be impacted upon, as they will be globally. Potential changes include changes to vegetation
cover and catchment performance, as well as conflict as both species and human activities seek to
move upwards to cooler climes.
A study has been done on the Nigerian-Cameroon chimpanzee, which is the most endangered of all
the chimpanzee subspecies, is considered to be the least studied subspecies of common chimpanzee
as well as the most threatened. A research team collected data from hair and fecal samples for
genetic analyses, and other sources such as nesting sites and tools. What emerged was a detailed
distribution of two distinct populations of Nigerian-Cameroon chimpanzee. The population in
western Cameroon lives in mountainous rainforest, whereas the other population inhabits a mosaic
of forest-woodland-savanna (known as an ecotone habitat) of central Cameroon. Nigeria-Cameroon
chimpanzees living in the mosaic forest-savanna-woodland habitat are under the most immediate
threat of climate change and may completely lose their habitat within our lifetime. Scientists predict
that much of the current habitat of the Nigerian-Cameroon chimpanzee will become degraded by
2020, resulting in significant harm to populations of this rare great ape already threatened by illegal
hunting, logging, and other pressures (Kasnof, 2015, reporting on the work of Clee et al, 2014).
Using climate change scenarios provided by the UN’s Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,
the team then predicted how habitats might change by the years 2020, 2050, and 2080 under the
influence of climate change. The authors predicted that the chimpanzee’s mountainous rainforest
habitat would fare best in future scenarios, while the mosaic habitat would decline by the year 2020
and could vanish altogether by the year 2080. The authors cautioned that their analyses did not
include the potential for chimpanzee populations to adapt to these changes (Kasnof, 2015, reporting
on the work of Clee et al, 2014).
Convention on climate change (UNFCCC) - The Republic of Cameroon is a signatory of the UNFCC,
and its obligations include participation in UNFCCC processes. Cameroon is not categorized as a
Least Developing Country by the United Nations, and thus does not submit National Adaptation
Programme of Action for the UNFCCC. Nevertheless, to reduce its climate vulnerabilities, the country
did identify a number of planned adaptation strategies in its Initial National Communication (2005).
Cameroon is working closely with UNDP towards this goal. Cameroon’s diverse topographic features
make the impact of climate change variable. The northern regions are arid while the southern parts
are humid and equatorial (due to the presence of a dense equatorial forest). Precipitation is
expected to remain stable in the southern zones. It is anticipated that Cameroon will experience
15
changes in temperature which will affect the regeneration of water resources, in the tropical forest,
soil fertility and sea level rise for instance (ALM Cameroon, 2009).
To reduce its climate vulnerabilities, the Cameroon identified a number of planned adaptation
strategies in its initial National Communication (2005) (ALM Cameroon, 2009):
 In mangrove/coastal zones: improved zoning requirements in the coastal zones and
resettlement programmes; improved, resilient housing; and improved protection through
the construction of dikes.
 In the health sector: in the Waza-Logone area, undertake preventive initiatives (education
and communication programmes, improved water systems, early warning systems for
natural disasters, improved access to health services, improved capacity for health workers,
better distribution of medication, improved sanitation information, etc.); improvements to
basic sanitation infrastructure; anti-malaria and anti-schistosomiasis campaigns; and
increased measures in place to reduce vector-borne diseases.
 Proposed administrative and organizational strategies: improved coordination between
institutions involved in the management of epidemics and natural disasters; the
establishment of the national disaster management program; and the creation of a fund for
emergency responses to natural disasters.
Norrington-Davies (2011) found that climate change and planning in Cameroon is unlikely to become
a government priority in the near future, although Cameroon focuses on improving job creation and
reducing widespread poverty which will undoubtedly create resilience. High level political
commitment for climate change planning is limited and there is currently no capacity within line
ministries to mainstream climate change across sector programmes. A National Observatory for
Climate Change (ONACC) is expected to address some of these issues but its creation has been
pending since December 2009 (Norrington-Davies, 2011). Climate change activities remain donordriven with little domestic traction. There is also no national strategy or policy for climate change in
Cameroon, and no agreed mechanism for future climate change financing (Norrington-Davies, 2011).
Cameroon is committed to reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation plus
conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of carbon stocks (REDD+). To
achieve this goal, the government has introduced a series of policy reforms and formulated a
number of key strategic planning documents to advance the REDD+ readiness process in Cameroon
(Kehbila et al, 2014).
2.8.2 Sustainable development challenges
Like many other sub-Saharan African countries, Cameroon faces intense pressure from a growing
human population which will require land, livelihoods, education and healthcare. This situation and
climate change will undoubtedly act together in ways that may mutually undermine poverty
alleviation, social development and economic growth efforts.
Cameroon’s development challenges are consolidated through its Vision 2035 which serves as the
basis for the medium-term Growth and Employment Strategy Paper (GESP 2010-2020). The GESP has
three main focus areas based on growth, job creation and poverty reduction. In 2001 a multi-donor
16
PRSP Monitoring Committee (MDC) was set up by twelve donors (Germany, AfDB, World Bank,
Canada, Spain, United States, France, IMF, Great Britain, Japan, the Netherlands, UNDP, European
Union) to provide a platform for dialogue and coordination around Cameroon’s key development
issues. Since 2005 the MDC has formed technical sub-committees to help to increase harmonisation
and alignment processes across a number of thematic development areas. This work is guided by the
Aid Effectiveness principles set out by the OECD DAC (Norrington-Davies, 2011).
Cameroon has several strategy processes underway that relate to sustainable development. The
National Environmental Management Plan (NEMP) is considered by Cameroon as its national
sustainable development strategy, but in fact is not outlined in enough detail to fulfil this task. The
NEMP was the first legislation to introduce strict environmental requirements including
environmental impact assessments, air quality safeguards, and the preservation of local ecosystems
and natural resources (Norrington-Davies, 2011).
Other notable documents that link to sustainable development include the Cameroon’s Poverty
Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) (2003), the National Programme on Good Governance (NPGG), the
National Plan for the Fight against Corruption, and a national strategic plan addressing HIV Aids. The
NEMP is officially cited (2004) by the government of Cameroon as its national sustainable
development strategy process and has been the focus of several recent WSSD preparatory reports
and assessments. There are problems with the way all of these strategies link to each other) (IISD,
2004).
Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs) describe a country's
macroeconomic, structural, and social policies in support of
growth and poverty reduction, as well as associated external
financing needs and major sources of financing (IISD, 2004). The
Cameroon PRSP (2003) is a national integrated socio-economic
development strategy. Presents seven priority areas are 14
policy fields and 193 specific indicators (measures) each with a
target date for achievement. As a cross-sectoral strategy it is
comprehensive; unfortunately, there is no linkage or coordination between the PRSP (2003) and the
National Environmental Management Plan (NEMP), despite there being many important links
between poverty and the environment (IISD, 2004).
2.9 Profile of mountains in the Cameroon
Cameroon is largely an elevated country, and apart from a small area of coastal lowlands, is part of
the African plateau. Mount Cameroon (volcanic) near the coast is a significant tourism asset with
unique biodiversity.
17
2.9.1 Geological map of Cameroon
The map below shows the relief of mountainous regions in Cameroon, along with the provincial
boundaries (map sourced from http://www.richardafuma.com/cameroon-overview.html). The
mountains are found mostly in the Littoral, West, South West and North West provinces (Mount
Cameroon and associated mountains), while a strip of mountains stretches north through the North
Province and Extreme North provinces (western edge with Nigeria, and the eastern edge with the
Central African Republic). Within each province, there are further administrative divisions. For
example, the Kilum Range (also known as Mount Oku) is situated in Bui Administrative Division in the
North West Province.
See adjacent map of administrative
provinces and divisions adjacent,
sourced from
http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/AGPC/do
c/Counprof/cameroon/figure2.htm
18
2.9.2 Inland mountain regions
The mainland mountain regions are much
cooler than the surrounding lowlands,
and also contain unique and ecologically
important environments. The Western
High Plateau rises in steps from the west
to the east, and terminates in mountains
(Manengouba, Bamboutu and the Oku
Massif that range in height from 1 000 m
to 2 500 metres). The plateau gives way
to the Adamawa Plateau to the
northeast, a larger but less rugged region
(Wikipedia, 2015).
The Western High Plateau features
several dormant volcanoes, including the
Bamboutos Mountains, Mount Oku, and
Mount Kupe. Crater lakes dot the
plateau, the result of dead volcanoes
Figure 3: Map sourced from
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Atlas_of_Cameroon
filling with water. This includes Lake
Barombi Mbo and Lake Bermin, which have
the highest number of endemic fishes per area recorded anywhere in the world. Lake Oku is another
crater lake on the plateau (Wikipedia, 2015).
2.9.3 The Cameroon line
Mount Cameroon is part of a feature called the
Cameroon line, a 1600 km chain of volcanoes,
and includes islands in the Gulf of Guinea and
mountains that extend along the border region
of eastern Nigeria and western Cameroon, as
well as Mount Cameroon on the Gulf of Guinea
north and other mountains east towards Lake
Chad. The Cameroon volcanic line is geologically
unusual in extending through both the ocean and
the continental crust.
In the Gulf of Guinea, the Cameroon line consists
of six offshore volcanic swells that have formed
islands or seamounts. These islands have tropical
climates and are home to many unique plant and
bird species. From the southwest to the
19
northeast the island groups are Pagalu (or Annobón), São Tomé, Príncipe and Bioko. Two large
seamounts lie between São Tomé and Príncipe, and between Principe and Bioko.
On the mainland, the line starts with Mount Cameroon and extends northeast in a range known as
the Western High Plateau, home to the Cameroonian Highlands forests. Volcanic swells further
inland are Manengouba, Bamboutu and the Oku Massif. East of Oku are further volcanic mountains
in the Ngaoundere Plateau, some of which appear to have similar volcanic origins (Wikipedia, 2014).
2.9.4 Other geophysical issues
Earthquakes in Cameroon are caused by two main factors: specifically the existence of the Foumban
Shear Zone or Ngaoundéré lineament in the north and the Congo craton and Sanaga fault systems in
the south, and the existence of Mount Cameroon which is part of the Cameroon Volcanic Line.
Periodic movements along the faults result in earthquakes in the central (Tibati, Magba, GarouaBulai) and southern (Kribi, Lolodorf Akonolinga) areas. In 2002 a magnitude 3.6 earthquake struck
Kribi, a southern Cameroon city. It caused general panic but no casualties. Analyses of seismic risks
in the area suggest the need for a seismic building code, with structures designed to withstand
earthquakes with a Modified Mercalli (MM) intensity of at least VII. More than 35% of the
earthquakes occurred around Mount Cameroon, most preceding and/or accompanying eruptions,
with some strong enough to destroy houses (Gaston et al, 2012).
Another key environmental issue is carbon dioxide seepages from deep lakes in Cameroon. Studies
revealed that the gas explosions of Lakes Monoun and Nyos were caused by seepage into and
continuous accumulation of natural carbon dioxide (CO2) at the bottom of the lakes. In the case of
Lake Nyos it was found that the lake still contained about 350 million cubic metres of CO2. Human
habitation in the area is therefore still risky, so action is being taken to remove the gas from the
lakes and reinforce the dam. Lake Monoun is now completely degassed, whilst Lake Nyos is 30%
degassed and will become completely degassed in 1−2 years. However, much still needs to be done
in effectively resettling the displaced population as well as providing and improving on basic services
for the populations around the lakes.
3.0 Protected areas
3.1 Protected areas, forests and mountains
There are ten national parks in Cameroon. These are Bénoué National Park, Bouba Njida National
Park, Boumba Bek National Park, Campo Ma'an National Park, Faro National Park, Korup National
Park, Lobéké National Park, Nki National Park, Kalamaloue National Park and Waza National Park. In
more detail, the distribution of protected areas within Cameroon covers: the Lowland forest zones
of Dja (5 260 square kilometres (2 030 sq mi)) with corridors connecting to the Nki and Minkébé
protected areas, the Nki National Park covering 1,950 square kilometres (750 sq mi) with ecological
corridors to Dja and Boumba–Bek, the Boumba Bek National Park covering 2 330 square kilometres
(900 sq mi), and the Lobéké National Park covering 2,100 square kilometres (810 sq mi) (integrated
with the Trinational Park of Cameroon, the Central African Republic, and the Republic of Congo and
20
linked with an Eco-corridor to Boumba–Bek Reserve; the Campo Ma'an National Park of 3 000
square kilometres (1 200 sq mi), which borders with the Rio de Campo of Equatorial Guinea; and the
Savanna Zone comprising the Waza National Park of 1 700 square kilometres (660 sq mi) near Chad
border, Faro National Park of 3 300 square kilometres (1,300 sq mi) area with common boundary
with Nigeria, and the Kalamaloué National Park of 45 square kilometres (17 sq mi) on the Chad
border (Wikipedia, 2015). 1
3.1.1 Mount Cameroon National Park
A new national park has been proclaimed by the Cameroonian government that encompasses the
highest mountain in West and Central Africa and will help protect some of the rarest ecosystems in
the Congo Basin. This is the 58 178 hectare Mount
Cameroon National Park, which includes the 4 095metre high Mount Cameroon which is also one of the
largest active volcanoes on the African continent
(Ngea, 2015). For many years, poor land-use
planning, land clearance, increasing agriculture, and
the bushmeat trade damaged the area’s forest
resources and high biological diversity. About 300
Figure 4: Mt Cameroon from Limbe. Source
http://www.fieldtripearth.org/media_image.x
ml?object_id=3385&file_id=8656
000 people live the area, which provides them with
large amounts of non-timber forest products, protects
their water supplies and shelters sacred sites for many
traditional communities. The management authority for this reserve is the Regional Delegate of
Cameroon’s Ministry of Forestry and Fauna (MINFOF) in the South West Region, and coordinator of
the Programme for the Sustainable Management of Natural Resources (PSMNR). Creation of the
new Mt Cameroon National Park is the result of intense efforts and collaboration since 2007
between MINFOF and WWF, with the financial support of the German Cooperation (KfW). WWFSweden, the North Carolina Zoological Park and the North Carolina Zoological Society also provided
specific support to track and monitor activities of three forest elephants through satellite tracking
collars (Ngea, 2015). 2
3.1.2 The Campo-Ma'an area in Cameroon
Located in the south western corner of Cameroon, bordering on Equatorial Guinea to the south and
the Atlantic Ocean to the west, is the Campo-Ma’an National Park and its buffer zone which cover an
area of approximately 700 000ha. The landscape features a national park (264 064 ha), two logging
concessions, an agro-industrial belt made up of rubber and palm oil plantations and community
agro-forestry zones.
1
2
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protected_areas_of_Cameroon#Biosphere_scope
http://www.fieldtripearth.org/article.xml?id=1542
21
Here one finds 80 species of mammals, such forest
elephants, leopards and gorillas, as well as 302 bird
species, 122 reptile species and 250 fish species.
The Campo-Ma'an area in Cameroon is
characterised by a rich and diverse flora with 114
endemic plant species, of which 29 are restricted
to the area, 29 also occur in south western
Cameroon, and 56 others that are also found in
other parts of Cameroon. Although most of
the forest types rich in strict and narrow
endemic species occur in the National Park,
there are other biodiversity hotspots in the coastal zone and in areas such as Mont
d'Eléphant and Massif des Mamelles that are located outside the National Park.
Unfortunately, these areas, supporting 17 strict endemic species that are not found in the
park, are under serious threat and do not have any conservation status for the moment.
Another potential threat is the planned hydro-electric dam at the Memve’ele falls on the Ntem River
immediately South of the Campo-Ma’an national park (WWF, 2015).
3.2 Legal framework for management of forests, catchments and mountains
In the past, Cameroon was not well serviced by environmental legislation, and even after
independence in 1972, the Constitution was vague on environmental issues.
For natural forests, the law protecting non-planted (indigenous) forests was Law No. 81/13 of 27th
November 1981 and placed all ownership of these forests with the state. Persons or organisations
had to apply for permits to log, and this was a long and tedious process, with ample opportunities
for corruption (Anong, 2006).
Until 1992, this Ministry in charge of forests was the Ministry of Agriculture through its department
of Forestry. In December 1992, the Ministry of the Environment and Forestry (MINEF) was created.
Each of the ten provinces had a provincial Delegate who was assisted by provincial heads of the
various technical departments. This structure is replicated at the divisional level where a Divisional
Delegate was the head. At the sub-divisional level and special units, Chiefs of Forestry and Wildlife
Posts and Chiefs of Environment posts were located in the various regions. At grassroots, traditional
management structures held sway (for example, in certain regions through the ‘fon’ traditional land
tenure system). This bureaucratic structure regulated access to forests throughout the national
territory. In accordance with the law, all natural forests belong to the state and are administered by
MINEF (Asanga, 2002).
Cameroon now has a comprehensive environmental legislation. The legislation provides for the
establishment of a National Environmental Management Plan (NEMP) adopted by the Government
in1996. This plan is specified in Law No. 96/12 of 5 August 1996. Law No 92 96/12 of August 5, 1996
22
is currently the reference document for environmental management and impact assessment. In
addition to this, other comprehensive legal instruments were already promulgated prior to the
environmental management code of 1996. These include, inter alia :
•
Law No 94/01 of January 20, 1994 laying down forests, wildlife and Fisheries regulations.
•
Decree No 95/531/PM of August 23, 1995 setting the modalities for the implementation of
forest regulations.
•
Decree No 95/466/PM of July 20, 1995 setting the modalities for the implementation of
wildlife regulation
None specifically control or regulate the use of mountains.
It has generally been recognized that more conventional protection measures such as creating forest
reserves and policing have had little success and that one factor in this failure may have been the
lack of community involvement. The more recent trend is to manage forests as community forests,
which in some way, addresses the complexity of a range of local stakeholders, their needs and their
expectations with regard to the forests (Anong, 2006). In the Cameroon, new forestry law allows for
devolution of management authority from central government to local communities. Many bilateral
organizations, international and local NGOs have taken advantage of the new enabling policy and
are working at various levels with government, local communities and other partners to promote
partnerships in the collaborative management of natural resources (Asanga, 2002).
There are many other environmental laws in Cameroon.
For example, Law No. 98/005 of 14 April 1998 lays down regulations governing water resources. This
law defines the procedures pertaining to water and general principles for environmental
management and protection of public health. Section 4 of this Law prohibits acts that could impair
the quality of surface, ground or sea water, or jeopardize public health as well as marine fauna and
flora, which is prejudicial to economic development and tourist activities.
As well as many additional national environmental laws, Cameroon is also a signatory of the full suite
of international treaties and conventions relating to : Biodiversity, Climate Change, Kyoto Protocol,
Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection,
Tropical Timber, Tropical Timber, Wetlands, Whaling (CIA, 2014). Regional awareness on climate
change has been established in line with the opportunities presented by emerging carbon markets
and financial incentives for voluntary reductions in national deforestation rates (Norrington-Davies,
2011). Cameroon also participates in the Hyogo Protocol and measures.
23
4.0 Summary
See Tables 1 and 2 below.
Table 1: Selected socio-economic indicators for Cameroon
Selected socio-economic indicators for Cameroon
Indicator
Description
Development status of country (UNFCCC ranking)
Not considered to be a UN Least Developed
Country
Score 93.1. In the ‘Alert’ category of concern
Status on the FSI 2014 (Fragile State Index) ##
Human Development Status 2013 ###
Structure of the economy (reliance on agriculture)
(Economywatch, 2010).
http://www.economywatch.com/world_economy/camero
on/structure-of-economy.html
Population size (2014) and 2050 and 2100 projections
(World Population Review) #
Expected Annual Average Population Growth Rate (20102015) (World Population Report, 2010)*
Use of contraception prevalance rate (2011) ####
Low Human Development (0.504 and a rank
of 152 of 187 countries)
• Agriculture creates 20% to the GDP and
engages 70% of the labour force
• The industrial sector provides for almost
29.7% of the GDP, employing 13% of the
working population.
• The services sector provides for 50 % of
GDP and 17 % of workforce
22.8 million (2014); 49 million (2050); 89
million (2050)
2.6 percent
23.4 %
Changes in percent of population living in urban areas
between 1990 and 2010 @
% agricultural land **#
1990=13.0% urban; 2014=19.0% urban. and
2050 38 % urban
Agricultural land (2009): 19.8%
Percent of the population living on degraded land @@
15.3
Population living insevere poverty (UNDP HDI Report,
2014)
Population living in multidimensional poverty ###
27.1 %
% of country that is arable (or under cultivation)**
20.6 %
Land under formal protection (% surface area), 2006****
n/a
Change in forest area, 1990/2011 (%) :
Percentage change in area under forest cover (UNDP HDI
Report, 2014)***
Incidence of climate-related disasters over the last decade
-19 %
Climate change projections
Warmer and drier, but complex patterns
across the landscape
48.2 %
Some floods
# www.worldpopulationreview.com
## http://ffp.statesindex.org/rankings-2014
### http://hdr.undp.org/sites/all/themes/hdr_theme/country-notes/CMR.pdf
#### http://www.indexmundi.com/cameroon/contraceptive_prevalence_rate.html
@ http://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/Highlights/WUP2014-Highlights.pdf Page 20
@@ http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/population-living-degraded-land
*World Population Report (2010). http://esa.un.org/wpp/Demographic-Profiles/pdfs/120.pdf
** http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.AGRI.ZS
***http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/change-forest-area-19902011
**** http://www.prb.org/pdf06/06WorldDataSheet.pdf
24
**#http://www.nestle.com/asset-library/documents/creating%20shared%20value/responsiblesourcing/deforestation-guide-cameroon.pdf
Table 2 : Key mountain Indicators : Cameroon
Key Mountain Indicators: Cameroon
Indicator
Names of key mountains
Names of provinces and magisterial districts
within which the mountains are located
Description
Mt Cameroon, Cameroon line volcanic mountains Rumpi
Hills, the Bakossi Mountains, Mount Nlonako, Mount
Kupe and Mount Manengouba. These are also part of
the Cameroon Highlands Global Ecoregion.
Litoral, West, South West, North and Extreme North.
Population growth in and around key
mountains
This would be an important statistic to determine and
monitor over time.
% national population living in and around
mountains
This would be an important indicator to determine and
monitor over time.
Details of any mountain management plans,
management authorities, protected areas or
other NGO or international efforts to
sustainably management these mountains
This would be an important indicator to determine and
monitor over time.
Details of any Sustainable Mountain
Development (SMD) indicators in use
This would be an important indicator to determine and
monitor over time.
Formal urban settlements within 100 km radius
around key mountains (names, population
dynamics past and future) – including change in
settlement patterns
This would be an important indicator to determine and
monitor over time.
Data on informal settlements and farms within
100 km radius around key mountains –
including change in settlement patterns
This would be an important indicator to determine and
monitor over time
Data on rural-rural migration into mountainous
regions and associated lowlands
This would be an important indicator to determine and
monitor over time
Farming activities (formal and informal) in and
around mountains – and changes (1990 – 2015)
This would be an important indicator to determine and
monitor over time
25
Key Mountain Indicators: Cameroon
Indicator
Description
Change in farming activities in and around key
mountains – and changes (1990 – 2015)
This would be an important indicator to determine and
monitor over time
Change in mountain land degraded (forests,
land, wetlands, rangelands) – and changes
(1990 – 2015)
This would be an important indicator to determine and
monitor over time
Forested area (% of land)*
42 % (2010)
Deforestation and land clearing statistics –
changes (1990 – 2010)**
1990-2000: -0.94 %y
2000-2005: -1.02 %y
2005-2010: -1.07 %y
Change in Forest Area (UNDP HDI Report,
2014)* in and around key mountains – and
changes (1990 – 2015)
This would be an important indicator to determine and
monitor over time
Catchment management issues and agencies
The effectiveness of these would be an important
indicator to determine and monitor over time.
Biomes and key biodiversity features of
mountains and associated lowlands
The country has exceptionally high biological diversity and
high levels of endemism.
Cameroon is divided between four biomes: the Sahel
biome in the extreme north of the country; the remaining
northern parts of the country fall within the Sudan-Guinea
Savanna biome; all lowland forests form part of the
Guinea-Congo Forests biome; and Mount Cameroon and
the western highlands form part of the Afro-tropical
Highlands biome.
Cameroon and its mountains form part of the Cameroon
Highlands Global Ecoregion
Number of threatened species*
632 (2012)
Names and types of protected areas
There are ten national parks in Cameroon. These are
Bénoué National Park, Bouba Njida National Park, Boumba
Bek National Park, Campo Ma'an National Park, Faro
National Park, Korup National Park, Lobéké National Park,
Nki National Park, Kalamaloue National Park and Waza
National Park
Other conservation designations of note
33 Important Bird Areas (IBAs) have been identified in
2
Cameroon covering 42,056 km or 8.8% of the surface area
of the country.
Other issues relating to sustainable mountain
development
Further investigations are needed to identify what is
needed to ensure sustainable mountain development in
Cameroon
Carbon emissions (national total and per capita,
6668 and 0.3 (2009)
metric tonnes)*
*http://www.uneca.org/oria/pages/Cameroon
** http://www.nestle.com/asset-library/documents/creating%20shared%20value/responsiblesourcing/deforestation-guide-cameroon.pdf
26
5.0 Conclusion
There is a wealth of information about the natural resources, biodiversity and people of Cameroon,
including studies on the Cameroonian mountains themselves. For these mountains, information is
available (although not all the research questions have been researched) on mountain biodiversity,
on the endangered species, on aspects of the Global Ecoregions, biodiversity hotspots, the
Lepidopteran hotspots and International Birding Areas of Cameroon and its mountains, as well as
and the livelihoods of mountain people, although not all of which was reviewed for this study. The
main issue now is that we know from research how priceless this heritage is – but we don’t know
exactly how to keep it intact under current and future pressures.
As the biodiversity is very rich and complex in Cameroon, to understand whether or not it is
changing under the influence of human pressure and climate change requires careful, long term
monitoring and research. Some of this work has been done, for example, the work on the rare
Cameroon Nigerian chimpanzee. Also, many projects and programmes are underway to work with
local people in the Cameroons to achieve a better outcome for themselves and the natural
environment they depend upon.
Yet, mountains and mountain ecosystems were not highlighted as vulnerable in the initial National
Communication (2005) (ALM Cameroon, 2009), but obviously will be impacted upon as mountains
will be globally. Potential changes include changes to vegetation cover and catchment performance,
changes in species composition and distribution, as well as alternations in temperature and
precipitation, as well as conflict as both species and human activities seek to move upwards to
cooler climes. Some species might be able to adapt, for example, the rare Nigerian-Cameroon
Chimpanzee, although this does seem unlikely unless human pressures change. Although the
National Climate Change Communication does not include mountains in any way, mention is made
of the vulnerability of forests, which perhaps could be a surrogate for ‘mountains’.
Also, it would seem that while new environmental legislation is in place, covering a range of
situations and impacts, there is no plan to management of Cameroon’s mountains sustainable or
holistically. In terms of the management of Cameroon’s mountains, it appears as if the mountains
are not managed as entities in themselves, but rather managed as the forests by the Ministry of
Environment and Forests (MINEF), or managed as catchments or managed as protected areas. In
recent times, there are many more programmes which involve local people, like the Forest People’s
Programme.
This deconstructive approach may make management systems more implementable at a certain
practical level, but mean that various linkages are neglected, for example, the links between forests
and water flows. It may also mean that the global environmental change/climate change nexus and
its impacts in the Cameroon mountains will not be understood or managed in a holistic way,
although the changes in each system (catchments, vegetation, biodiversity, forests, soil, human
livelihoods) may be understood separately.
27
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