Download DRAMA The drawings and paintings on the walls of the caves where

DRAMA
The drawings and paintings on the walls of the caves where the early inhabitants dwelt
show that dance, music and drama were an intrinsic part of their lives. The dancer-actor of
antiquity wore masks and used make-up as well as colourful costumes and ornaments. Enactment
of hunting expeditions by the early human community is perhaps the earliest known ‘drama’.
The idea may have been to cast sympathetic magic on the hunt to take place, but the enactment
had all the ingredients of drama. Significantly, Bharatamuni, who wrote Natyashastra, like the
Greek Aristotle, said drama is born out of imitation of action.
While the origin of Indian theatre is still obscure, it is quite certain that a very long time
ago itself, dramatic performances some kind were given. At Sitabena and Jogimara in Sarguja,
Chhattisgarh, structures have been discovered which are said to be among the world’s oldest
theatres. According to some scholars, about 5,000 years ago, these auditoria were being used for
drama and dance. The Indus Valley Civilisation, too, must have had some dramatic
entertainment: a seal shows a man playing on a drum and another disguised as a tiger. Toys have
been found whose limbs could be moved with the help of strings—these could be the precursors
of the dramatic puppets of a later day. When we come to the Vedic period, there is evidence of
the dramatic urge in the people. Dance and music they certainly enjoyed; their rituals were
replete with drama; the priests performed the rituals, assuming different roles, even enacted short
episodes, and sang songs. A few hymns of the Rigveda are in the form of monologue and
dialogue—perhaps they could be considered as the earliest dramatic literature in India Outside
ritual dance and music were also means of entertainment. Drama gradually evolved as an
independent art form.
Bharata’s Natyashastra tried to evolve some guidelines for drama. Certain acts were to be
avoided, on stage, such as bathing, decoration of the body, sleeping; kissing or embracing;
sporting in water, or any immodest act in general. Death was preferably not to be shown; also to
be avoided were scenes of bloody battle. Apparently, the need for such guidelines came to be felt
as theatrical entertainment took an unsavoury and vulgar direction. Popular theatre thrived
despite the frowns of the learned social thinkers of the day. It survived the Buddha’s strictures
and even Ashoka’s ban on dramatic activities. Out of this tradition, however, arose the classical
Sanskrit theatre.
CLASSICAL THEATRE
There are several views on how the classical Sanskrit drama originated and evolved,
though nothing conclusive has been established. Tradition has it that early plays were enacted on
the occasion of the flag-staff festival of the god of rain and thunder, Indra. Scholars contend that
classical theatre evolved by drawing on popular entertainment such as shadow theatre and puppet
theatre. Some writers have found elements in common between the Indian and the classical
Greek theatre. It is pointed out that the curtain at the back of the stage was called yavanika, and
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yavana means Greek. Mricchakatika (The Little Clay Cart) in Sanskrit is seen to have a
superficial resemblance to the late Greek comedy of the school of Menander. The Greeks liked
dramatic entertainment and the courts of the Greco-Bactrian kings in north-west India must have
witnessed some of their plays. These could have inspired unknown Indian poets to develop their
own popular theatre into a classical art form.
Some scholars do not subscribe to the theory that Greeks inspired the origin of Indian
drama; the drama was already in vogue in India and Greek practices may have been imbibed
gradually. The Ramayana and the Mahabharata were dramatically narrated by the ‘Sutas’. This
was the main inspiration for the development of the classical Sanskrit theatre. Bhasa’s plays
draw heavily on the epics for their subject. The Uparupuka (secondary dramas) in Prakrit dialect
were probably enacted before the general populace on special or ceremonial occasions.
Fragments of plays by Asvaghosa are supposed to be the earliest dramas to have
survived. Bhasa’s plays are considered the first complete plays to come down to us—though
scholars are not unanimous in stating his works are older than those of Kalidasa. Some of the
great dramatists of antiquity are, besides Bhasa, Kalidasa, Shudraka, Visakhadatta and
Bhavabhuti. After Bhavabhuti (early eighth century), the quality of Sanskrit drama declined.
The Sanskrit dramas that have survived are as varied as they are numerous: they range
from short one-act playlets to long plays in ten acts. Normally dramas were performed privately
or semi-privately—in palaces or rich homes, or in temple courts on festival occasion. The
Natyashastra describes three types of theatres and specifies their mode of construction. The
theatre consisted of the auditorium, the stage and the backstage behind the stage. A curtain
divided the stage from the backstage from where the actors made their entrance. No curtain
separated the stage from the auditorium. The drama was performed without scenery, and
minimum of stage property was used: the actors used a rich gesture language and facial
expressions to communicate atmosphere and situation effectively. Costumes and make-up were
regulated by convention so that roles were immediately recognisable. Most types of drama had a
hero, a heroine and a villain, besides the vidushaka who provided comic relief.
Dramatists of Antiquity
Bhasa Scholars variously place Bhasa as early as the 4th century BC and as late as the
10th century AD. He lived in the northern region, and created plays mainly on themes drawn
from the Mahabharata and the Ramayana.
In Madhyamavya yoga, a one-act play, Bhima is involved in a conflict with his son
Ghatotkacha who is unaware of Bhima’s identity; Bhima protects a brahmin and his family
whom Ghatotkacha wants to take to his mother Hidimba for killing. When Bhima goes to
Hidimba in place of the brahmin family, recognition and family reunion take place.
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Urubhangam depicts the death of Duryodhana whose thigh is broken by Bhima in the
Mahabharata war. Duryodhana appears a heroic figure though a villain. The play has been
considered the only tragedy of a high level in Sanskrit dramatic literature. Ashwathama’s pledge
to destroy the Pandavas in their sleep adds a further dimension to the dramatic effect.
Pratijnya Yaugandharayana and Swapnavasavadatta, based on the Katha literature, deal
with the Udayana cycle of stories. Udayana on an elephant hunt is taken prisoner by the king of
Ujjain. Appointed to teach the lute to Princess Vasavadatta, Udayana falls in love with the
princess. She reciprocates. Yaugandharayana, Udayana’s minister, arranges their escape. In the
end all is well as the king of Ujjain is reconciled to the situation.
In Swapnavasavadatta, political exigency forces Yaugandharayana to create a rumour of
Vasavadatta’s death by fire so that Udayana may be made to marry Princes Padmavati of
Magadha. A situation is created where Udayana speaks in his sleep and Vasavadatta (who is kept
in Padmavati’s custody without the latter being aware of her identity) answers his questions. On
waking up, Udayana is confused. In the end the lovers unite.
Bhavabhuti Considered next only to Kalidasa, Bhavabhuti (early 8th century) lived at
Kanyakubja, and marks the last of the greats among Sanskrit dramatists. His Mahaveeracharita
and Uttararamacharita are based on the story of Rama; the first cover Rama’s story from his
marriage to coronation, and the second depicts the latter part of the Rama story—from Sita’s
exile to her reunion with Rama at Valmiki’s hermitage. The main sentiment of the play is pathos.
Malati-Madhava is a romantic comedy of two young lovers who are finally united by the clever
moves of a Buddhist nun, Kamandaki. There are spectacles of terrible tantric rituals and human
sacrifice— unusual in Sanskrit literature. Bhavabhuti, unlike other Sanskrit dramatists, makes no
use of the vidushaka (jester).
The drama generally opened with a benediction song. This was followed by a prologue in
the form of a dialogue/ discussion between the chief actor and his actress-wife/stage manager
(sutradhara) giving the title, nature and occasion of the play. The play proper often spanned
several years in time and several miles in distance. Violence and death were forbidden on
stage—though Bhasa’s Urubhangam flouts it by showing the death of Duryodhana. At the end of
the play came a concluding verse—a virtual vote of thanks.
Indian dramatic convention precluded tragedy: while scenes of pathos were common
enough, the endings were almost invariably happy. Both men and women acted on the stage. The
audience consisted of men and women. Theorists classified plays in. more than a dozen
categories, according to style and length.
Harsha Three plays are supposed to have been written by Harshavardhana, the ruler of
Kanauj. Ratnavali is the love story of King Udayana and Princess Ratnavali who lives in disguise
in the king’s harem. Priyadars7zika has a similar theme concerning King Udayana. Nagananda
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has a Buddhist theme. It tells the story of Prince Jimutavahana, who gives his own body to stop
the sacrifice of snakes to divine Garuda.
Kalidasa Kalidasa is the most famous poet and dramatist in Sanskrit. Nothing much is
known of Kalidasa. Generally he is placed in the 4th-5th century AD. Some scholars believe he
was a court poet of Vikramaditya of Ujjain—one of the ‘navaratna’ of the court. Legend has it
that Kalidasa was a simple rustic youth who was transformed into a brilliant poet by the
blessings of Kali whose devotee (dasa) he became. However, he wrote splendid poems like
Raghuvamsha, Ritusamhara, Kumarasambhava and Meghaduta, besides three well-known plays.
Malavikagnimitra is a comedy of love depicting the romance of Vidarbha princess, Malavika and
King Agnimitra. The court jester has an important role in this play. Vikramorvashiya is the love
story of Urvashi, the heavenly nymph, and King Pururava. Abhijnanasakuntalam, considered his
masterpiece, presents the story of King Dushyanta and Sakuntala: how the two meet, fall in love,
get married; how the ring, a token of the king, gets lost and with it the king’s memory of
Sakuntala; how the ring is found and brings recognition to the king; and finally the reunion of
Dushyanta, Sakuntala and their son Bharata. It is the dramatic and poetic rendering of the
maturity of love, separation and suffering that makes the play remarkable.
Mahendravikraman The Pallava king, Mahendravikraman, a contemporary of Harsha,
wrote a delightful farce, Mattavilasa (‘Sport of Drunkards’). Satirical dialogue in the play throws
light on the times and depicts the degeneration that had set into different religious cults. The
humour is Rabelaisian.
Shudraka Once again the details, of who Shudraka was, are obscure. But his
Mricchakatika has a prologue which indicates that he was a king. Adapting the first four acts of
Bhasa’s incomplete play Charudatta with minor changes and adding six more acts, he created
Mricchakatika (‘The Little Clay Cart’), a beautiful drama full of vitality. It depicts the love
between a beautiful intelligent courtesan Vasantasena and a poor brahmin, Charudatta. A subplot
of political revolution is also woven into the play. The characterisation is remarkable, with even
minor characters having a distinct personality. The scenes are well-laid out and there are poetic
descriptions of beauty.
Vishakadatta Probably of the sixth century, Vishakadatta was the dramatist who dealt
with political themes. His only surviving play, Mudraraksasa (‘Signet Ring of Raksasa’), deals
with the schemes of Chanakya to foil the plots of Raksasa, the minister of the last of the Nanda
rulers, and to place Chandragupta Maurya on the throne. The complicated plot is worked out
skillfully and the play is beautifully constructed to lead up to a brilliant scene where one of the
chief characters is saved from death at the last moment. His Devichandragupta is about the rise
to power of Chandragupta H but it exists only in fragments.
FOLK THEATRE
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The richness and variety of folk theatre in India speaks for the basic artistic capacity of
the people. Folk legends and myth combine with song and dance to create a vibrant theatre in
every region of India. The origin of folk theatre, like its classical, counterpart, goes back to the
Vedic hymns, many of them in the form of dialogues. Classical theatre never eroded the vitality
of folk drama. Though initially all forms of folk drama were religiously oriented, as time went
by, the drama became oriented towards depicting the social conditions.
The folk theatre forms have become a part of our cultural tradition, kept alive over the
centuries, surviving the onslaught of changes due to social and political upheaval. It is
spontaneous, may be sometimes crude, but simple and yet, profound, reflecting the habits,
traditions and vitality of a dynamic cultural heritage.
The roots of folk theatre probably lay in the minor dramatic forms mentioned by Sanskrit
dramaturgists. With the Bhakti movement, theatrical activity came in handy for propagation ‘of
different ideas and faiths. Indeed, at this time the regional varieties of folk dramatic forms got
crystallised. However, all of them have in common an imaginative and earthy use of music,
dance and mime.
Discussed here are some of the prominent folk drama forms prevalent in India.
Ankia Nat A synthesis of classical Indian theatrical forms and local traditions, Ankia Nat
is a one-act play with its roots in rural Assam. Ankia Nat is generally performed in the village
hail or a pandal in an open field; it appeals to the learned and the ignorant, drawing its themes, as
it does, from the Vaishnava tradition. The language is Assamese Brajubuli interspersed with
Sanskrit slokas. Songs are used to express feelings. Painted masks are used. The impact is meant
to be religious. Sankaradeva has written several Ankia Mats.
Bhand Pather A traditional theatre form of Kashmir, Bhand Pather combines dance,
acting and music. The enactment is by members of the farming community which means that
their ideals and lifestyle influence this theatre form. Laughter is an important part of this theatre.
It is generated through satire, parody and wit.
Bhaona Bhaona is a theatre form that is a presentation of the Ankia Nat. There is a
sutradhar (narrator) who introduces the story—in Sanskrit first and then in Assamese or Brajboli
(as Bhaona has cultural links with Assam, Bengal, Odisha, and Mathura and Vrindavan in Uttar
Pradesh.
Bhavai Prevalent in the western part of India, Bhavai originated in Rajasthan and
northern parts of Gujarat. Initially the Bhavai performances were part of religious rituals to
propitiate the mother goddess during religious festivals. Later, however, they came to be
performed throughout the year, though even now the first performance of the year is presented
o1i the first day of Navaratra, in a Shiva temple. Bhavai is a series of playlets (vesha) strung
together. A playlet may me mythological or social in theme. Some of these veshas have Muslims
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as principal characters showing the influence of the Muslim rulers in Deccan and Delhi on the
form. The Bhavais travel from village to village with their show. The music uses classical ragas
but in a style of its own. The dance, too, is not classical though the influence of Kathak, besides
the folk dances of Raas and Garba, is seen. The dance form is used to reveal a character in the
play. Traditional instruments used in Bhavai performances are bhungal, zanz and pakhavaj.
Costumes and make-up are codified. Bhavai has social relevance for it incorporates topical issues
and holds up the mirror to society and thus functions as a creator of public opinion. The Bhavai
dances of Rajasthan have some main themes such as ‘Bora and Bori’ caricaturing a village
baniya and his miserable wife; ‘Dhola Maru’, depicting the eternal story of Dhola and Maru: and
‘Dokri’ depieting the ill face of an old woman.
Dashavatar A theatre form of the Konkan and Goan people, Dashavatar involves
enactment of the incarnations of Lord Vishnu. The performers wear masks of wood and papier
mache and apply stylised make-up.
Jashin A well known performing art of Kashmir, Jashin is a combination of farces called
pathers (from patra = dramatis personae), and is performed by folk artists called bhands. Every
pather ends with a comic event. Sanskrit drama has influenced the form. Performances take place
in open air and actors mingle with the people. A clown is a must in a pather. Jashin is a powerful
medium of satire on social evils.
Jatra The term ‘jatra’ probably derives from the Oraon language in which it means an
important ritual dance festival. On the occasion of the festival, dramatic performances are held.
In Bengal and Odisha, where Chaitanya’s school of Vaishnavism had a great impact, Jatra is
always associated with a Vaishnava festival. Thus its themes are drawn from the story of
Krishna’s life.
With the decline of Vaishnavite influence on the social life of Bengal from the beginning
of the eighteenth century, Jatra began to draw on Purapic and secular themes too. The new form
of Jatra introduced an orchestra with indigenous and foreign instruments—a characteristic
retained to this day. This form is known as ‘Nutan Jatra’. It added prose dialogue in imitation of
Western theatre. During the national movement, Jatra turned to social themes aiming at removal
of social evils such as untouchability and casteism.
Jatra is a moving theatre and the professional troupes travel around performing in
different places, generally between October and June.
Karyala A folk drama of Himachal Pradesh, Karyala deals with serious questions of life
and death briefly, with simplicity of expression and diction, all enveloped in humour. Indeed, the
audience is given the essence of our cultural heritage which views the world as a stage and as an
unsubstantial pageant which is to be negotiated and lived by one by rising above it.
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Khyal Rajasthan has developed varieties of dance dramas known as Khyals. The
tradition is more than 400 years old. The Khyals have been a powerful medium of entertainment
as well as cultural and social education. The Khyals have, singing and it involves distinctive
techniques of instrumental music.
Krishnattam A cycle of eight plays depicting the life of Krishna from birth to death,
Krishnattam is based on Manaveda’s Sanskrit poem, Krishna Giti. The dialogues are spoken/
sung by a chorus and orchestra while the actors use elaborate gestures to act out the text. A
similar dance-drama is that of Rama Attam, evolved out of the Rama cycle of plays.
Kudiyattam In the Kerala of the ninth-century, the ‘chakyars’—actors—began staging
the Sanskrit dramas of Bhasa, Kulashekharavarman, etc in temple theatres. Very elaborately
presented over several days, the dramatic form involves very rich gestures: indeed every word of
the text is practically interpreted by theatrical gesture. The Malayalam language is used by the
jester to explain the Sanskrit passages, thus bringing the Sanskrit classical drama to the masses.
This dramatic form influenced the development of Krishnattam and Rama Attam, out of which
grew the classical dance form of Kathakali. Today the art form is dying with just a few major
exponents, among them Ammanur Madhava Chakyar, Parameshwar Chakyar and Mani Madhava
Chakyar.
Macha Macha or Maach musical dance drama of Madhya Pradesh was probably born in
Ujjain about two centuries ago. The term macha refers to the stage, and the plays are performed
around Holi, during the harvest season. Mostly based on mythological stories, folk tales of
romance and valour, and historical episodes, the Macha also makes plentiful use of music—
songs in traditional folk tunes as well as classical ragas. Some themes from contemporary social
life are also depicted.
Mudiyettu A ritualistic dance drama of an ancient descent in Kerala, the Mudiyettu is
performed annually at Kali temples. It signifies the triumph of good over evil, as Kali vanquishes
the demon Darika. It involves elaborate drawings on floors, masks made of areca nut fronds and
drum-playing. It belongs to the period when worship was conducted in kavu or grove. The
salient features of the ritual dance drama includes absence of a restricted and designated stage
that ensures the viewers involvement, near total absence of hasthamudras or hand gestures and
the theme of incarnation of Bhadrakali as the compilation of the positive forces of the universe
and as the sum total of the strength of all the gods. The adversary is the concentration of all that
is evil. Mudiyettu is performed in Bhagavati Kavus, the temples of the goddess in villages along
the rivers Chalakkudy Puzha, Periyar and Maovattupuzha. The dance is performed by the
Ezhavathy community, who were once priests of temples. Theeyattua is considered a by-product
of Mudiyettu.
Nautanki This popular form of musical theatre has emerged during the last few centuries
in Uttar Pradesh. Its name is said to have been derived from the name of the heroine of the play
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Shahjadi Nautanki. The dialogues of Nautanki are mostly in verse form which are delivered in a
high pitch to the accompaniment of the nakkara—a percussion instrument. The metres used in
the verses are doha, chaubola, chhappai and behar-e-tabeel. Earlier, only men acted in Nautanki
but women also take part in it now. The style is quite melodramatic. Romantic tales are preferred
and the repertoire has such famous love stories as Laila Majnu, Amarsinh Rathore and Heer
Ranja, Gulab Bai of Kanpur is credited with giving a new dimension to this theatre form.
Prahalad Nataka A theatre form belonging to southern Odisha, particularly Ganjam
district, Prahalad Nataka enacts the popular story of Prahalad and his father Hiranyakashipu.
Enacted for three to seven nights by some twenty characters, the play is in a language that is a
mix of Sanskrit and colloquial Odia. The theatre form includes dance, mime and stylised
gestures.
Ram Leela Goswami Tulsidas is considered to have started the tradition of performing
plays based on the life of Rama, known as Ram Leela, at Kashi. The episodes from the
Ramayana are enacted in sequence on the different days of the Dussehra festival and at different
places. The Ramnagar Ram Leela is famous in this tradition with the audience travelling with the
performance from place to place over a period of thirty-one days. Characters like Ravana and
Hanuman wear striking masks. Dialogues are conducted in a stylised manner. The Ram Leela is
presented in different ways in many places in the northern region. According to a 2008 UNESCO
report, the most representative Ram Leelas are those of Ayodhya, Ramnagar, Varanasi,
Vrindavan, Almora, Satna and Madhubani.
Ramman Ramman is a religious festival and ritual theatre of the Garhwal Himalayas.
The twin villages of Saloor-Dungra in Uttarakhand, in late April, celebrate Ramman in honour of
the tutelary god and local deity Bhumiyal Devta.
Complex rituals are involved in the festival that includes recitation of a version of the
Rama epic and legends, songs and masked dances. Each caste or group has a distinct role. The
brahmans lead the prayers and perform the rituals and the Bhandaris (kshatriyas) wear the sacred
mask of the halfman, half-lion deity Narasimha. The youth and the elders perform the events.
Ramman combines theatre, music and traditional tales—both oral and written—to enact the
environmental, cultural and spiritual concept of the community
Ras Leela Krishna has always held an attraction for the devotees of the Bhakti cult. In
the Braj region of Uttar Pradesh there developed in the l5th-l6th centuries a dramatic style—
Krishna Leela. This developed into the Ras Leela. The themes of the Ras Leela are taken from
the Mahabharata, Bhagavata and other Puranas and from folklore centred round Krishna. These
operatic plays were performed in temples, or even by the road side. The Ras involves Krishna
and Radha and the gopis dancing together and separately. The Leela is the dramatisation of
episodes from Krishna’s life, especially his childhood pranks and heroic deeds. Child actors
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perform in the plays. Ras Leela is thus probably the only theatre with such a long continuous
tradition involving children.
Saang Haryana has a rich tradition of folk theatre called Saang (or Swang). Musicians sit
in the middle of an open air stage around which the audience sits. The actors-cum-singers cumdancers move round the stage. The plot is based on a popular legend. Comic scenes are
interwoven in the performance. The form is characterised by softness of emotions and
accomplishment of rasa. There are two styles of Saang: the Rohtak style in Haryanvi and the
Haathras style in Brajbhasha.
UNESCO Inscribes Three Indian
Performing Art Forms
The UNESCO has inscribed three Indian performing-art forms, the Mudiyettu, a ritual
theatre of Kerala, the Chhau dance, a tradition from eastern India, and the Kalbella folk songs
and dances, in the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. This was
done at the fifth session of the UNESCO Intergovernmental Committee for the Safeguarding of
the Intangible Cultural Heritage in Nairobi in 2011. The List Is an annual list that spotlights
performing art forms of outstanding value which are vulnerable unlike the World Heritage List
that is concerned with monuments and natural sites.
The inscription is seen as necessary for better visibility for the heritage arts and
international assistance to preserve them.
The inscription makes it obligatory on the governments who have ratified UNESCO’s
Convention for Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage and who nominate heritage
elements, to take steps to safeguard the art forms. UNESCO would facilitate international
cooperation, extend support of finances and studies, provide experts and training, and create
infrastructure for the purpose.
Governments forward nominations of heritage elements for inscribing in the
Representative List. Separate nominations are sent for inscribing in the Urgent Safeguarding
List.
So far eight Indian heritage elements have been inscribed in the Representative List.
These include the Ramlila, Kudiyattam drama form, Ramman ritual theatre and Vedic chanting.
Tamasha Maharashtra has a flourishing theatrical tradition. Initially Tamasha started as a
singing and dancing party. It was in the later Peshwa period that Tamasha took on a definite
shape and achieved its present format. Women began appearing on the stage. The theatre is
simple—devoid of special props or dazzling costumes and make-up. Only the jester puts on a
funny dress. Tamasha has its own distinct style of dancing and singing. The Lavani dance is
interwoven in the presentation. The Tamasha reflects the social and sometimes even political
aspirations of the people. It has deeply influenced modern theatre and film.
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Therukkoothu A unique form of rural entertainment and communication in Tamil Nadu,
Therukkoothu combines music, dance and drama. Literally it is ‘street theatre’, performed in the
open. Some influence of classical Sanskrit drama on it is apparent. There is a kattiyakaran—
parallel to the sutradhar— who, however, has a more elaborate role, taking on different parts
besides those of jester and commentator. The tradition is oral, and the players have to be
specially talented as they have often to compose poems impromptu and sing in tune and tala.
Female parts are played by the males. The stories are taken from the epics and other classical
legends. At some places the Koothu is performed for several days. There is an element of ritual
involved, and the audience often involve themselves totally in the performance. In the course of
the performance, day-to-day problems, too, are discussed in a clinical and dialectical way. While
the acting is stylised, the effect is profound.
Theyyam Basically a form of ancestor worship in Kerala, the ritualistic dancer in
Theyyam represents local gods and goddesses who are held to—be protectors of the village. The
costumes and make-up are striking.
Yakshagana Bayalata A theatre-form of Karnataka, Yakshagana Bayalata has
developed from the ancient Bhagavatara Ata. They were plays enacted in the open air and the
troupes were maintained by temples. The actors put on elaborate make-up, colourful dresses and
huge head-dresses. The themes enacted are drawn from the epics and the Dasavatara of on
Vishnu. Udipi, the hone of Madhavacharya, and the Mookambika Temple are said to have been
the home of Yakshagana.
Dr Kota Shivaram Karanth led the movement to revive this ancient art form which had,
over the years, fallen into obscurity. He evolved his own style called Yaksha Ranga. It is also a
predominantly male preserve. There are five or six types of roles, and generally each dancer is
trained for one. Similarities to Kathakali are obvious to an observer. The dances are mostly of the
pure nritta variety marked by footwork and body movements, expressing basic human passions
and celebrating the victory of good over evil.
Zatra Zatra has a special significance for the people of Goa; indeed, it is an integral part
of their socio-religious life. Zatra is the annual celebration of a particular deity at a particular
temple. Goans’ passion for drama is evident in Zatuas, for several dramas are performed on these
days in a given year.
PUPPETRY
String Puppets
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The puppet theatre of India has a long and old tradition. String, rod, glove -and shadow
puppets were well-known and traditional puppeteers went from place to place to entertain people
with legends from myths and historical romances. The puppets show the influence of the
paintings, sculpture, costumes and decorative arts of the regions to which they belong.
Rajasthani Kathaputli shows have become famous among the string puppet variety
(marionettes). The puppets are made of wood and cloth and dressed in medieval Rajasthani
costume. Carved from a single piece of wood, the puppets are like big dolls with colourful
costumes—long trailing skirts. They do not have legs. Puppeteers manipulate the puppets with
strings, varying from two to five on each. The strings are tied to their fingers (not to a prop). The
Rajasthani puppets are expertly manipulated to present historical romances. The legend of
Amarsinh Rathore is very popular, with plenty of opportunity to show duels, fights and dances.
Typical of this show is the accompaniment on a whistle—boli—producing shrill notes. The
Sakhi Kundhei of Odisha, Puda Nach of Assam, Malasutri Bahuly of Maharashtra and
Gombeyatta of Karnataka are other variations of string puppetry in India. The Gombeyatta
puppet figures are styled like the Yakshagana characters, with joints at the legs, shoulders,
elbows, hips and knees. Five to seven strings on the puppet are tied to a prop. The episodes
enacted are based on prasangas of Yakshagana plays. Folk and classical elements are fused in the
music that is played. Bommalattam of Tamil Nadu is a remarkably skilful art in which huge
realistic puppets are manipulated by the puppeteer with the help of strings attached to a circular
metal ring on his head and two rods in his hands. The art is found in Karnataka and Andhra
Pradesh also.
Shadow Puppets
Shadow puppets are flat, leather puppets made translucent. When they are pressed against
the screen with a strong source of light behind it, silhouettes are created on the screen. Shadow
puppets, mostly made of animal hides, beautifully coloured and ornately perforated, are popular
in Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Kamataka, Odisha and Kerala. The puppets have several joints
to facilitate movement. While the Tolpavakoothu of Kerala and the Tholu Bommalata of Andhra
Pradesh mainly depict episodes from the epics, the Togalu Gombeyatta of Karnataka deals with
secular themes and characters. Tholu Bommalata puppets are large with jointed waist, shoulders,
elbows and knees. The classical music of the region influences the music played in the shows.
The Togalu Gombeyatta puppets are usually smaller in size, but the puppets depicting kings and
religious characters are larger than those depicting the common people.
The Ravanachhaya shadow puppets made of deer skin belong to Odisha. They are
jointless—that is, each is in one piece. They have to be manipulated with great skill for this
reason. Humans and animal characters are used as well as props like trees, mountains and
chariots. The puppets are generally small in size.
Glove Puppets
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Glove puppets are manipulated by the puppeteer in full view of the audience. They are
also called sleeve, palm or hand puppets. There is the head made of cloth, wood or papier mache.
The rest of the puppet is dressed in a long-flowing skirt. The puppeteer uses three fingers to
manipulate a puppet and produce a wide range of movements. This tradition is popular in the
states of Odisha, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Kerala.
In Odisha, glove puppets enact tales of Radha and Krishna. The puppeteer is skilful: he
manipulates the puppet even while playing the dholak with one hand. In Uttar Pradesh, the glove
puppets enact social themes. The Pavakoothu is a fascinating variety from Kerala. Originating in
the eighteenth century under the influence of Kathakali, the puppets in this form are one-to-two
feet in size. They are carved of wood but joined together with thick cloth. Paint decorates their
faces; peacock feathers and pieces of gilded tin are among the materials used to decorate them.
They enact episodes from the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata.
Rod Puppets
Rod puppets are larger than glove puppets. They are manipulated by rods from below. It
is found in West Bengal and Odisha. The Patul Nach of West Bengal is a variety of the rod
puppet art form. The big doll carved of wood is tied on to a pole fastened to the waist of the
puppeteer who is behind a huge screen and controls the puppet’s movement with the help of
rods.
The Bengal rod puppets found today are generally three- to-four feet in height and wear
costumes resembling those of the actors who perform the Jatra plays. The puppets have three
joints; the main rod supports the head and is joined at the beck; the hands are attached to the
roads at the shoulders. Interestingly, the puppeteers who manipulate the puppets also move and
dance, imparting corresponding movements to the puppets.
The Odisha rod puppets (Kathikundhei Nach) are smaller, combining elements of string
and rod puppets (the hands are tied to strings). The puppeteer sits on the ground and manipulates
the puppets to the accompaniment of music that blends folk and classical tunes. The rod puppet
shows in the state are more operatic than those elsewhere. The puppet dance here is a rare and
unusual type of stylised indigenous drama and dance based on mythological stories. The puppets
are usually the representations of various characters and animals of a particular drama.
The Yampuri rod puppets of Bihar are made of wood. They are different from the rod
puppets of West Bengal and Odisha in that they do not have joints and are of one-piece each.
High skill is required to manipulate them as they are jointless.
In each mode, there is background music based on the classical and folk music of the
particular region. The puppeteers deliver the songs and dialogues in prose. The puppeteers have
to be not only skilful with their hands but also versatile at singing and dialogue delivery.
12
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN DRAMA
When the British came to India, their theatre also came with them. Under the influence of
Western education and theatrical traditions, English plays, especially those of Shakespeare, were
translated or adapted into Indian languages. English and Italian dramatic troupes toured India and
performed many English plays, mainly those of Shakespeare, in cities like Bombay (now,
Mumbai) and Madras (now, Chennai). The Portuguese brought a form, of dance drama to the
West coast. A Russian music director, Rebedoff, is said to have produced the first modern drama
in Calcutta (now, Kolkata) towards the end of the 18th century. Thus, the Western impact
awakened “the dormant, critical impulse in the country to bring Indians face to face with new
forms of life and literature, and to open the way for a fruitful cross-fertilisation of ideas and
forms of expression”, in the words of Krishna Kriplani.
It was in Bengal and Maharashtra that the new theatre movement was initiated. In
Bengal, a Russian Geratin Lebedev, with the help of his tutor Golaknath Dass, translated two
English comedies into Bengali and staged them in 1795. These could be considered the first
‘modern’ Indian plays. But the real beginning was in 1831 when Prasanna Kumar Thakur
established the Hindu Rangmanch at Calcutta and staged Wilson’s English translation of
Bhavabhuti’s Sanskrit drama Uttar Ramacharitam. Social drama of Girish Chanda Ghosh,
historical dramas of D.L. Roy and artistic dramas of Rabindranath Tagore (Muktadhara,
Chandalika) continued to be staged through the period of the worst-ever famines of Bengal and
the Second World War. Gradually the new dramatic trend made itself felt in different parts of the
country. Dramas began to take up social themes, voice political unrest, and express resentment
against alien rule, sometimes cleverly using myth and historical legends to do so. Furthermore,
the narrative element of traditional theatre was reduced and psychological analysis of characters
placed in different situations became prominent. The Bengali Neeldarpan by Dinabandhu Mitra
written in 1860 took up the plight of the indigo plantation workers as its theme. Krishnaji
Prabhakar Khadilkar wrote Kichaka Vadha in Marathi reflecting nationalist sentiments. Other
plays took up social evils and strongly expressed reformist ideas. In this context, it would be
worth noting the contributions of the Indian People’s Theatre Association (IPTA) which became
a part of the mass struggle of peasants, youth and workers. Personalities who developed into
independent theatre workers on their own after the IPTA broke up include, among others, Habib
Tanvir, Sheela Bhatia, Utpal Dutt, Shombhu Mitra and Balraj Sahni.
Parsi theatre occupies a prominent place in theatre development of the nineteenth century
Postagi Pharmji was the pioneer in establishing the Parsi Theatre Company in India. Professional
Parsi drama companies staged plays in different languages—Hindi, Urdu, Gujarati and English.
The basic aim was entertainment, and diverse elements from diverse sources— folk theatre,
music and dance, myth and historical romances— were freely assimilated and adapted to
techniques of European theatre to create a theatre that was truly popular. There was melodrama,
spectacle, glittering costume, fights and dances. Indeed, Aga Hashra Kashmiri, who wrote for the
prolific Parsi theatre, came to be known as the Indian Shakespeare.
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Many new theatre experiences were brought up on stage during the evolution of the Parsi
theatre in India. The amateur theatre also developed with the works of Bharatendu
Harishchandra, acclaimed as the father of Hindi drama.
Maharashtra also saw the development of a musical theatre under actor Balagandharva
and later, the dramatist Khadilkar. The plot or story line would be feeble, being there only to
bring in several songs set to folk or classical tunes. There was a dignified charm about the
theatre, but the surfeit of music began to pall, and soon a prose theatre grew in different regions
of the country. Theatre groups like the Indian National Theatre and Prithvi Theatre came up.
Literary personage like Bharatendu Harishchandra and Jaishankar Prasad in Hindi, Ishwar
Chandra Nanda and Norah Richards in Punjabi, for example, made significant contributions to
the development of regional theatre.
Indian English Drama was started when Krishna Mohan Banerji wrote The Persecuted
in 1837. But the real beginning of Indian English drama is traced to Michael Madhusudan Dutt’s
Is This Called Civilization which appeared on the literary horizon in 1871. Rabindranath Tagore
and Sri Aurobindo, the two famous thinker-poets of India, are seen as the first Indian dramatists
in English.
Although the pre-Independence Indian English drama is notable for its poetic excellence,
thematic variety technical virtuosity, symbolic significance and its commitment to human and
moral values, it was by and large not geared for actual stage production. The post-Independence
Indian English drama, however, was benefitted by the increasing interest of the foreign countries
in Indian English literature in general and Indian English drama in particular. A good number of
plays by Indian playwrights like Asif Currimbhoy, Pratap Sharma and Gurcharan Das was
successfully staged in England and U.S.A. But no regular school of Indian English drama was
established in India. This was mainly because of the encouragement drama received from several
quarters immediately after India got freedom but it was monopolised by the theatre in the Indian
regional languages while Indian English drama was ignored.
With the advent of cinema, the drama suffered a setback in popularity. However, it got a
fresh impetus after independence. A conscious effort was made to search for the indigenous
forms to create a ‘national theatre’. Traditional forms began to be experimented with, new
techniques were evolved, and old and new began to be combined to create a fresh approach to
theatre. Internationally, well-known writers were studied and their essence assimilated in a
meaningful manner in Indian drama Contemporary Indian drama, deviating from classical and
European models, is experimental arid innovative in terms of thematic and technical qualities. It
has laid the foundation of a distinctive tradition in the history of world drama by reinvestigating
history, legend, myth, religion and folk lore with context to contemporary sociopolitical issues.
A cumulative theatrical tradition evolved by Mohan Rakesh, Badal Sirkar, Vijay Tendulkar and
Girish Karnad, prepared the background for contemporary Indian English theatre.
14
Street Plays
Street theatre as a form of communication is well-rooted in the Indian tradition as noted
in the presence of the sutradhar in Indian puppetry and the existence of the narrator in Indian folk
theatre. The highlight of the street theatre form is that it breaks the formal barriers and
approaches the people directly. This form has been used to propagate social and political
messages and to create awareness amongst the people regarding social issues. There have been
plays taking up issues of black marketing and corruption. Street theatre has also been used as a
political weapon during elections or to get across an ideology or use of political powers for
pressurising people. It has also been successfully utilised as a vehicle for inducing a scientific
outlook in some people by bringing to them news from the world of science issues concerning
women is an important theme in street plays. In 1980, the famous Mathura rape case instigated a
lot of shows on the need to make the rape laws more stringent. Om Swaha dealt with demands
for dowry resulting in harassment and sometimes death. There have been several productions
which give a short summary of the life of a woman in India and examine a woman’s needs and
abilities. Others highlight caste conflicts or ideas about hygiene and health. Street theatre is also
used as a means to encourage literacy amongst villagers. There have been notable plays on
environment projecting a beautiful relationship of trust and friendship between humans and their
natural environment. Habib Tanvir and Utal Dutt used street theatre as a political catalyst in the
1940s and the 1950s. Street theatre was revived in the 1970s and the movement spread all over
the country. There are about 50 groups in the country, mainly in cities and the immediate suburbs
that are active in the genre of street theatre.
Indian street theatre developed as an art form to illustrate the feelings of common people;
hence germinated a whole new theatre form. Common people, day-to-day life problems and the
colours of daily life gained a dimension in Indian street theatre whilst making this particular
genre of Indian natya stand apart. It was during and after the independence of India that, Indian
street theatre drastically developed, as an artistic expression in illustrating the colour of daily life.
Gradually Indian street theatre became a method of communicating the message to the people
illustrating the realities of daily life. Breaking all the boundaries of orchestra, galleries, audience,
music, songs and stage to reach the common people, street theatre is just not a form of
entertainment but has evolved as a meaningful art form for creating social awareness. The street
theatre is a much direct, brief and concise theatrical expression. The objective is to convey a
particular idea or to portray a significant meaning—a direct, intimate and effective means of
dramaturgy.
One of the earliest streets plays in Calcutta (now, Kolkata) was Chargesheet (1949).
Early street theatre seems to have mimicked the stage, with the action often taking place in front
of a wall or some other backdrop, and actors entering from and exiting into makeshift wings. But
plays like Utpal Dutt’s Din Badaler Pala (1967) were more elaborate. During the turbulent
1970s, hundreds of such performances were brought out by radical outfits. With the Emergency
declared by the central government, repression unleashed against Communists and the
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revolutionary Naxalbari uprising in Bengal, street theatre entered a new phase. Performers were
attacked, often by the police.
Some names are prominent in the field of ‘street plays’ as a genre. Badal Sircar abadoned
mainstream drama and took to open-air performance, communicating with the dissatisfied and
uprooted urban working class. Many street theatre groups benefited from the workshops he held
all over the country In Bengal, a vibrant tradition is there with regular shows performed by
veterans like Probir Guha. Safdar Hashmi’s Jana Natya Manch (or Janam), formed in 1973, led
the movement of Indian street theatre. Till 2002, it had notched up about 7000 performances of
fifty-eight street plays, many of them later translated or adapted across South Asia. Its first play
was Machine (1978), and then came Aurat (1979), Hallabol (1988), and Scream (1996) on sexual
abuse of children. The popular political theatre featured direct confrontation and energy as well
as artistry. Theatre Union (1983-9), in Delhi did some excellent street productions, such as Toba
Tek Singh, based on Saadat Hasan Manto’s short story. Nishant, a group in Delhi, and Gursharan
Das in Punjab have been dedicated to street plays; In Gujarat, the groups Samvedan, Garage, Lok
Kala Manch (all in Ahniedabad), and Parivartan (in Va4odara) perform street plays.
South India has some of the best exponents, starting with Samudaya which was formed
in 1975. It has its units in Karnataka. Among Kannada dramatists, Chandrashekhar Patil used the
form to satirise social evils and human follies. The revitalised Praja Natya Mandali in Andhra
Pradesh, Nija Nataka Iyakkam (formed in 1978 in Madurai), an energetic Tamil street theatre,
and the Marxist Chennai Kalai Kuzhu (formed in 1984 in Madras, now Chennai) were among the
groups that became prominent. Kerala also has considerable street theatre.
In 1984, the shocking death of thousands after a poison gas leak from the Union Carbide
plant in Bhopal sparked off protest theatre at street corners in many towns, some groups
mobilising support and donations for survivors.
A point was reached in street theatre after the murder of Safdar Hashmi during a show in
1989.
The theatre movement has spread to all states over time. Non-governmental organisations
have used street theatre in the 1990s, to promote ecological consciousness, awareness about HIV
and AIDS, and family planning. Today, in India, street theatre continues to be a. popular form of
expression.
Women’s Theatre
In the 1970s, socially relevant theatre and the women’s movement’ began to emerge. A
number of tabooed issues found acceptance through theatre. In the 1980s and the 1990s women’s
16
question entered the Indian theatre scene in a big way. Though feminist theatre was an emergent
cultural form in the 1970s it had its origin in the experimental theatre group and women’s
movement.
Women’s theatre actually coalesces with the street theatre movement, using the same
technique in performance and production. It can be termed a ‘Theatre Of Protest’ because
women writers have expressed their resentment against the politics of exploitation on the basis of
gender discrimination. The Jan Natya Manch or People’s Theatre Front (1973) of Safdar Hashmi
performed the street play called Aurat (1979) which took up bride burning, wife battering and
dowry as its theme. Women’s theatre also revived the traditional myths of Sita and Savitti and
tried to reinterpret the epics from the women’s point of view. The dramatic work of Usha
Ganguli and Mahasweta Devi can be placed in this category. Mahasweta Devi emerged as a
dramatist with a quest to explore something challenging and new. Her five plays are Mother of
1084, Aajer, Urvashi O’ Johnny, Bayen and Water. The play Mother of 1084 is a moving
account of the anguish of an apolitical mother who has witnessed the horrors of the naxalite
movement. In Aajir, Mahasweta Devi deals with the issue of the fast deterioration of values and
their effects on society, particularly on illiterate people. Urvashi O’ Johnny is a play on the love
affair of Johnny with Urvashi, a talking doll. The play Bayen presents a moving account of the
harsh reality of a woman’s life in rural India. The play Water is the story of a professional waterdiviner who is an untouchable boy. Her plays represent a profound concern for human
predicament and a sincere hope for the better future of mankind.
Focus of the theatre on women-centred issues received a boost with the development of
the Indian Peoples Theatre Movement or IPTA which was active from 1943. Poile Sengupta
(English), Varsha Adalja (Gujarati), Manjula Padmanabhan (English), Tripurari Sharma (English
and Hindi), Kusum Kumar (Hindi ), Gitanjali Shree (Hindi), Irpinder Bhatia (Hindi), Neelam
Mansingh .Chaudhury (Punjabi), Binodini (Jelugu), B. Jyashree (Kannada), Shanoli Mitra
(Bengali), Usha Ganguli (Hindi), Shanta Gandhi (Gujarati), Sushma Despande (Marathi),
Veenapani Chawla (Marathi), and Qudsia Zadie (Urdu) are among some major women
playwrights. Subsequently there arose theatre festivals, workshops, and ideologically committed
theatre groups celebrating the cause of women. These included Akka, the National Women’s
Theatre Festival held in Mysore, 2001. National Women’s Theatre Festival organised by
Yavanika, a theatre group based in Hyderabad; and National Workshop on Women, Poorva,
M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation organises yearly festivals.
Feminist theatre is the process of women’s awareness and empowerment. Tripurari
Sharma’s Bahu (1979), the first play she ever wrote, deals with the subjugation of women.
Traditional dramatic structures relied on invisible authors whereas a feminist theatre gave voice
to the writer’s own perceptions as a woman. Pratima Kulkarini’s directed play Smritichitre, a
one-woman performance based on Laxmibai Tilak’s autobiographical writings, is an example.
Feminist theatre focuses on female characters and explores concepts/ themes of feminist drama,
relationships, sisterhood, sexuality and female autonomy. Rudali is based on Mahasweta Devi’s
17
fiction, adapted by Usha Ganguli of the Calcutta Theatre Group Rangkarmee in December 1992.
Patriarchal traditions endorsed power hierarchies, main characters, and standard social/artistic
roles but feminist theatre highlighted communal power structures.
The content of the plays have ranged from re-working of traditional myths to concern
with social issues. Feminist plays deconstruct the emasculating structures of ancient legends and
criticise the feminine myths that are prevalent in the social scene. Mainstream hero-centred
literature and myth are seen as normalising contemporary patriarchal cultural values and feminist
theatre seeks to overcome these Madhavi (1984) by Bhisham Sahani and Varsha Adaija’s
Mandodari debunk the myth but also create a new feminist reading of formerly patriarchal
legends. The belief of feminist theatre is in the efficacy of theatre as a tool for conscientisation,
for critiquing social disparities and for self-exploration and expression.
Usha Ganguli wrote Antaryatra (2002), a play in which she uses herself as a reference
point to narrate the story of an actress’s struggle through life. She explores the Indian woman’s
psyche here through her characters.
Jyoti Mhapsekar’s Beti Aayee is a play with an all-female cast and it deals with women’s
issues. This play focuses on discrimination against the girl child. The theme is explored is
through narration and the enactment.
The play Nati Binodini (Hindi) was presented by Theatre and Television Associates,
Delhi, under the direction of Amal Allana (Allãna has based the script on the English translation
of Aamar Katha and Aarnar Abhinetri Jeebon by Rimli Bhattacharya. it is based on the life of
Nati Binodini who was the fifth woman in Bengal to become a professional actor, in the 19th
century.
Embedded in the structure of many feminist plays is the argument that identity and
gender are not fixed or innate but rather dynamic and culturally created Umrao (in 1993) by
Geetanjali Shree, an adaptation of Umrao Jan Ada (1905), a novel in Urdu by Mohammad Hadi
Ruswa, was based on the life of a courtesan and questioned the stereotypical image of the
courtesan and of the woman as a sexual object, an embodiment of beauty and glamour, and as a
victim.
Tripurari Shaip’s Lado Mausi (1990) is a comedy that was inspired by Graham Greene’s
‘Travels with My Aunt’. Madhushree Dutta’s Sundari explored how the performing arts can
unbind the shackles of gender constraints. An Actor Prepares, produced by Majlis, received
much critical acclaim and toured widely in India beginning 1998. The story is based on the
autobiography of an early twentieth century female impersonator Jaishankar Sundari, active in
Bombay (now, Mumbai) from 1901 to 1931.
Aur Kitne Tukde, B. Gauri’s script, directed by Kirti Jam, based on Urvasi Butali’s book
on partition, The Other Side of Silence: Voices from the Partition of India, looks a partition
18
through the eyes of four female protagonists. The performance of nationalism—through
embodied acts of sexual violence, conversion, martyrdom and state violence—is enacted upon
female bodies that are transformed into political artifacts.
Feminist theatre was born out of an interaction between the experimental theatre
movement of the 1960s and the feminist movement that was going on at the same time in the
political arena. It was as much a political attempt as a theatrical one. Revisionist in spirit, it
questioned orthodoxy. It questioned the male-centred view of life and male-dominated discourse.
A traditional dramatic structure would often hinge on exposition of complication/conflict and
denouement. Women-centred drama is hinged on revelation and recognition of the perceptions
on the differences between men and women. These devices along with a preference for nonlinear plots and open ended conclusions as opposed to climaxes are just some of the elements
that comprise feminist theatre.
Feminist theatre is a creative theatre that challenges representation of our dominant
culture. The goal of almost all feminist theatre groups is to subvert expectations, to enable or
initiate positive changes in women’s lives through political and theatrical representations.
Feminist theatre is a cultural representation made by women and is informed by the perspective
of its makers, its performers, its spectators and its critics whose aim is positive re-evaluation of
women’s role and/or to effect social change.
Theatre as a mode of intervention on women’s behalf has meant departing from the
conventional way of producing and staging plays. It has also meant addressing modes of
performances, idioms of expression and representation of women, and using training in theatre
for articulating the perception and aspiration of women. From creation of the script through
improvisation and visualisation on to rehearsal, right up to performance and relating to the
audience, the emphasis has been on collective function.
Feminist theatre aims at empowerment; it enables women to speak out, giving them
voice. It is considered as being at the intersection of art, activism and social relevance. Feminist
theatre is seen as an instrument of real change in women’s lives.
Modern Dramatists
Asif Currimbhoy The most prolific playwright of post- independence period is Asif
Currimbhoy, who has written and published more than thirty plays. Some important plays are
The Tourist Meeca (1959), The Restaurant (1960), The Doldrumness (1960), The Captives
(1963), Goa (1964), Monsoon (1965), An Experiment With Truth (1969), Inquilab (1970), The
Refugee (1971), Sonar Bangla (1972) and Angkor (1973). Inspite of comprehensiveness,
Currimbhoy’s dramatic art has been a subject of criticism for the lack of structured plot,
embellished language and balanced characterisation in his plays. His language, it is said, is not
suitable to capture the internal drama of the clash of motives.
19
Badal Sircar Badal Sircar is a prestigious name in the realm of contemporary theatre. He
represents the New Theatrical Movement in India. He has created an appropriate ‘people’s
theatre’ that is, a theatre supported and created by people. His dramatic career began with the
humorous play Solution X. His plays include Evan Inderjit (1962), That Other History (1964)
and There Is No End (1971). All these plays are based on political, social, psychological and
existential problems. Evan Inderjit is the tale of a playwright who struggles in vain to write, a
play. In the play There’s No Need, Sircar develops the thesis that ‘We are all accused’ and share
the burden of guilt. His later plays, Procession, Bhoma and Stale News are based on the concept
of ‘Third Theatre’. The play Procession is about the search for a ‘real home’ in a new society
based on equality. It suggests a ‘real way’ so that man does not have to live exploiting man but
can work according to his own needs. Bhoma is a dramatisation of the life of oppressed peasants.
The analysis of these three plays suggest remarkable changes in Sircar’s concept of a ‘real
home’, a new society based on equality and one that is free from the horrors of exploitation.
Chandrashekhara Kambara A prominent writer in Kannada language, he is known for
his effective usage of North Karnataka dialect of Kannada in his plays and poems. His plays
revolve around folk or mythology inter-linked with contemporary issues and he achieved a blend
of the folk and modem theatrical forms. His 22 plays include the popular Aramane, Mahamayi,
Singaravva, Harakeya Kuri and Kulothe Chingaramma, as well as Jokumaraswamy and
Sirisanipige which have been translated into many languages.
Dharmveer Bharati Dharamveer Bharati’s Andha Yug is a verse play depicting the
aftermath of the Mahabharata war: how it affected both the vanquished and the victors. The
theme, however, was made to have contemporary relevance for it reflects on the agony an4
devastation of war and the role of mankind in causing suffering.
Girish Karmad Girish Karnad, in the capacity of writer, director and actor substantially
contributed to enrich the tradition of Indian English theatre. His dramatic sensibility was
moulded under the influence of touring natak companies and especially Yakshagana which was
in those days not accepted as a purified art form. He borrowed his plots from history, mythology
and old legends but with intricate symbolism, he tried to establish their relevance in
contemporary socio-political conditions. A writer of Kannada plays, Karnad made a noteworthy
impact with Yayati and more so with Tughlaq. Hayavadana, a story of a woman in search of the
perfect man, is a powerful play based on a legend in the Kathasaritsagar. In the play Tale Dande,
he discovers the vital relationship between contemporary society and literature. His use of myth
as a structure and metaphor in his play gives “new meaning to the past from the vantage point of
view of the present. In the play Nagmandala, the conflict is between patriarchal and matriarchal
views of society.
Gurcharan Das Gurcharan Das is a writer of novels, essays and plays and a columnist.
He is the author of Three English Plays, an anthology which includes Larins Sahih, prize
20
winning play about the British in India; Mira, which won critical acclaim from New York critics,
and 9 Jakhoo Hill.
Habib Tanvir A new dimension to Indian theatre was given by Habib Tanvir who used
folk traditions and tribal theatrical forms of Madhya Pradesh with great effect in his productions;
His Mitti ki Gadi is a unique experiment in this direction., He created a repertory of folk and
tribal actors who presented most effectively, in the dialect of Chhattisgarh, the play, Charandas
Chor—the humorous story of a thief who has to sacrifice his life for promising good conduct.
Harindranath Chattopadhyay Another playwright who has made significant
contribution to the growth of Indian English drama is Harindranath Chattopadhyay. He started
his career as playwright with Abu Hassan (1918). There are seven verse plays to his credit
published under the title of Poems and Plays (1927) and are based on the lives of Indian saints.
His Five Plays (1929) are written in prose. The Window and The Parrot deal with the lives of the
poor. The Sentry’s Lantern is a symbolic display of the expectation of the advent of a new age
for the downtrodden people. Sidhartha: Man of Peace is an adventurous effort to dramatise the
Buddha’s life.
Javed Siddiqui A playwright who wrote in Hindi and Urdu, he is known for his play
Tumhari Amrita, based on A.R. Gurney’s classic American play Love Letters, which became
critically successful (debut in 1993). His Saalgirah dealt with the complexity of divorce in
modern, urban life. His play Andhe Choohe is based on Agatha Christie’s Mousetrap. His other
plays include 1857: Ek Safarnama, Hamesha, Begum Jaan, Aap ki Soniya and Kacche Lamhe.
He is known for his poignant lines and for delving into contemporary themes in his adaptations.
Mohan Rakesh A striking dramatist who made his impact in the 1960s, the plays of
Mohan Rakesh are the creatiofls of a sensitive mind exploring the world of human emotions
caught up in the hard realities of life. Ashadh ka Ek Din (1958), a lyrical play .based on the life
of Kalidasa, evokes the pathos inherent in life. Adhe Adhure portrays strikingly the fears and
frustrations of a disintegrating middle class family, and the woman who is trying to hold it
together. His Laharon ke Rajhans is yet another play dealing with basic human emotions. He
wrote in Hindi but for their exceptional dramatic relevance, his plays have been translated into
English and other regional languages. As a playwright, his main concern is to portray the crisis
of contemporary man caught in the web of uncongenial surroundings and the persistent threat to
human relationships. Mohan Rakesh perceived drama as a complex art involving the uniform
contribution of actors, scenic effects, light and music, and effective stage direction. He
experimented in theatre. He often used words and languages not as dialogues or direct statements
but as the tools of suggestion to convey a meaning beyond the verbal connotation;
Nissim Ezekiel Nissim Ezekiel is acknowledged for his exceptional poetic creed and rare
dramatic sensibility Nissim Ezekiel’s Three Plays (1969) including Nalini: A Comedy, Marriage
Poem: A Tragi Comedy and The Sleepwalkers: An Indo-American farce are famous. Songs of
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Deprivation (1969) is also a short play by Ezekiel. His plays can be appreciated for symmetrical
construction with an abundance of irony. They unveil his sharp observation of the oddities of
human life and behaviour. Ezekiel’s plays make pleasant reading. Ezekiel is said to come very
close to the spirit of some the English social satirists in theatre.
Pratap Sharma Pratap Sharma wrote two prose p145, A Touch Of Brightness (1968)
and The Professor Has A War Cry (1970). His plays were staged even abroad successfully but
they failed to be staged in the country. Sex remains the prime theme of his plays but Pratap
Sharma’s dramatic art has been appreciated for his keen sense of situation and effective
dialogues.
Rabindranath Tagore Tagore wrote primarily in Bengali but almost all his Bengali
plays are available to us in English renderings. His prominent plays, Chitra, The Post Office,
Sacrifice, Red Oleanders, Chandalika, Muktadhara, Natir Puja, and others, are firmly rooted in
the Indian ethos and ethics in their themes, characters and treatment.
Rambriksh Benipuri A Hindi writer, Benipuri’s dramas dealt with ancient events and
characters like the life of the famous courtesan Ambipur who converted to Buddhism, in his
Amipure, and a historical legend involving Ashoka and his son Kunal that is’ the theme of
Netradaan.
Ramesh Mehta The uncrowned king of Delhi theatre in the 1950s and the 1960s, Mehta
was a prolific writer of plays (over 26) and he is credited with directing some 14 plays. He also
adapted and translated plays from other regional languages. His greatness lies in the contribution
he made to promote the culture of drama, mainly through the Three Arts Club, a theatre group of
the government employees of Delhi. His plays have been performed not only in India but also in
other countries.
Sharad Joshi Sharad Joshi, a Hindi writer, is known for Andhon ka Haathi and Ek Tha
Cadha Urf Aladat Khan, a satirical play that became very popular. He was awarded the Padma
Shri in 1990.
Sri Aurobindo Sri Aurobindo is another prominent dramatist in Indian English drama.
He wrote five complete blank verse plays besides his six incomplete plays. His complete plays
are Perseus the Deliverer, Vasavadutta, Radoguna, The Viziers of Bassora and Eric and each of
these plays is written in five acts. His incomplete lays are The Witch of Ilni, Achab and
Esarhaddon, The Maid and the Mill, The House of Brut, The Birth of Sin and Prince of Edur.
The notable feature of Sri Aurobindo’s plays is that they depict different cultures and countries
in different epochs, ringing with a variety of characters, moods and sentiments. Perseus the
Deliverer is grounded on the ancient Greek myth at Perseus. Vasavadutta is a romantic tale of
ancient India. Rodoguna is a Syrian romance. The Viziers of Bassora is a romantic comedy that
goes back to the days of the great Haroun al Rashid, while Eric is a romance of Scandinavia, a
story of love and war between the children of Odin and Thor. In Aurobindo’s plays we find
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romance, heroic play, tragedy, comedy and farce. Aurobindo was much influenced by
Elizabethan drama in matters of plot construction and characterization. The use of the English
blank verse is flawless in Aurobindo. We also find the impact of Sanskrit playwrights like Bhasa,
Kalidas and Bhavabhuti on Aurobindo.
Vijay Tendulkar Indian theatre gained immensely through Tendulkar’s Marathi play,
Shantata ! Court Chalu Aahe; it reveals the shocking streaks of cruelty hidden below the ordinary
middle, class veneer. In the course of the rehearsal of a mock trial, a woman’s character is
attacked verbally by others with disturbing ferocity and sadistic delight. His Sakharam Binder,
banned for alleged vulgarity but triumphantly’ vindicated by the Bombay High Court which
declared the ban void, Gidhale and Ghasiram Kotwal are studies in violence and sex inherent and
suppressed in human nature. Bold themes are dealt by him in a serious manners. Vijay Tendulkar
symbolises the new awareness and attempts of Indian dramatists of, the century to depict the
agonies, suffocations and cries of man, focusing on the middle class society. In all his plays, he
harps upon the theme of isolation of the individual and his confrontation with the hostile
surroundings. Influenced by Artaud, Tendulkar relates the problem of anguish to the theme of
violence in most of his plays. The plays Chimanicha Ghor Hote Menache (1960), Kalojanchi
Shalai (1968) and Ek Holti Mugli (1967) reflect Tendulkar’s concern with authority and the idea
of exploitation of the individual. Kamala (1982) and Kanyadaan (1982) are written on the lines
of naturalistic tradition. Kamala is a study of marital status as well as a study in the theme of
exploitation. Kanyadaan is a complex play about the cultural and emotional upheavals of a
family. Tendulkar was associated with the New Theatrical Movement in Maharashtra. He
presents a fictional reality in which the reality of life acquires a sharp, focused character having
rare dramatic power.
Some Famous Directors and Artistes in Theatre
Alyque Padamsee Alyque Padamsee has contributed to the world of theatre in a big way.
He is a theatre director who has staged 63 plays in a career of 50 years. His famous productions
include Evita, Tughluq and Jesus Christ Superstar.
Badal Sarkar An illustrious theatre personality, Badal Sarkar made farce and comedy to
reveal the social condition in India. His famous plays, in Bengali, include Boro Pishima, Ram
Shyam Jadu and Ebong Indrajit.
K.V. Akshara A major playwright in Kannada language, K.V. Akshara is a prominent
figure in Kannada theatre. He has directed several plays. He heads Ninasam, the theatre group
and cultural complex in Heggodu, Karnataka.
Pearl Padamsee A noted personality Pearl Padamsee has directed famous plays
including Gieve Patel’s Princes, Van Italy’s Serpent and Dostoevsky’s The Idiot.
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Safdar Hashmi Mainly associated with street theatre, Safdar Hashmi was concerned
with focusing on the problems of the common people. He was the founder-member of Jana
Natya Mancha. His plays Enemies and Mote Ram ka Satyagraha became symbols of ethnic
resistance against authoritarianism in India.
Shambhu Mitra A doyen of the Bengali theatre, Shambhu Mitra formed the theatre
group Bahurupee. His famous plays include Nobanno, Ulukhagra and Pothik. He tried to make
theatre a true representation of the “unedited realities” of day-to-day living.
Utpal Dutt An eminent director, playwright and actor, Utpal Dutt was active primarily in
Bengali theatre, though he also achieved fame in English theatre. Utpal Dutt’s famous plays
include Fariry Faul,Titas Ekti Nodir Naam, Kollol, Din Bodoler Pala and Leniner Daak which
illustrate his Marxist views. His views on human rights and democracy are best highlighted by
the plays Tiner Talowar and Manusher Odhikare. His dramas showcased the sufferings of the
common people. He was also a founding member of Indian People’s Theatre Association
(IPTA).
Zohra Sehgal A well-known stage artist, Zohra Sehgal is most famous for her acting in
the play Ek Thi Nani.
World’s Longest Running One-Man Show
Adrak ke Panje, an Urdu farce by Babban Khan, a one- man show, ran from 1965 to 2001. It is
mentioned in the Gunness Book of World Records in 1984 as the world’s a longest running oneman show. It is written in a mix of Urdu and Dakhni languages. It has been translated into 27
different-languages. The theme of the comedy is the ordinary man trying to make ends meet and
incurring heavy debts to manoge his family.
Institutions for Promoting Theatre
There are certain institutions set up to promote theatre in its various forms in the country.
National School of Drama The National School of Drama is a training institute situated
at New Delhi. Under the directorship of E. Alkazi, it did much to promote modern Indian theatre.
Established in 1959 by the Sangeet Natak Academi, it became an autonomous institution in
1975, fully financed by the government. It was granted deemed university status in 2005 but in
2011, it was revoked on the request of the institute. It imparts training in dramatics and
propagates theatre in the country. It has initiated training of its students in folk, traditional and
regional theatre forms.
Performing Wings of the NSD The National School of Drama Repertory Company was
established in 1964 as the professional performing wing of NSD. Its aim is to promote
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professional theatre in India. It was first headed by Om Shivpuri. The Repertory Company has
staged over 120 plays based on the works of about 70 playwrights. It has featured around 50
directors in several countries. It has its own festival every year which is called the Annual
Repertory Company Summer Festival. Here both new and past plays are performed. In 2004, the
repertory celebrated its fortieth anniversary with a theatre festival in New Delhi.
Sanskaar Rang Toli In 1989, the NSD established the Theatre-in-Education Company
(T.I.E) or the Sanskaar Rang Toli. It is the country’s premier educational resource centre, and it
coaches children from the age of 8 to 16. The company regularly performs plays for school and
adult audiences alike. Its yearly theatre festivals are the Jashn-e-Bachpan and Bal Sangam.
Regional Centres The NSD has opened Regional Resource Centres (RRC) across the
country, the first of which was opened at Bengaluru in 1994. This was an attempt by the NSD to
decentralise its activities.
Bhartendu Academy of Dramatic Arts is a theatre training institute in Lucknow, India.
It is an autonomous organization set up under the Ministry of Culture, Government of Uttar
Pradesh. .BNA was founded on July 2, 1975 under the auspices of Uttar Pradesh Sangeet Natak
Academy by the sheer effort of Raj Bisaria, veteran theatre personality.
The other institutes for propagation of theatre in India include the Department of Theatre
Arts, University of Hyderabad, the Flame School of Performing Arts and the Centre of Theatre
and Film University of Allahabad.
Festivals of Theatre
The following are some of the festivals of theatre held in India to popularise theatrical art.
The Prithvi Theatre Festival is the premier theatre festival in India. It is organised by
Prithvi Theatres. The festival was started by Prithvi Raj Kapoor in 1978. It presents plays that
include one-act plays and monologues. They are directed by professional and amateur directors.
Though basically a Hindi/ Urdu theatre festival, selective good works in English are also staged.
Bharat Rang Mahotsav is held by the National School of Drama, New Delhi.
Established in 1999, it is an annual theatre festival. It is acknowledge as the largest theatre
festival of Asia that is dedicated solely to theatre,
There is Nandlikar’s National Theatre Festival, an annual affair that is the biggest theatre
carnival in Kolkata. Most plays are in Bengali.
Started in 1958, Kalidas Samaroh is celebrated annually at Ujjain. It attracts the best
known artistes in the field of dramatics and dance performance. The Samaroh consists of
productions of Kalidas’ original plays in Sanskrit, versions of Sanskrit plays in Hindi and other
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Indian languages, and performances of traditional theatrical and dance form, ballets and dance
recitals.
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There is the Purple Umbrella Theatre Festival held by the Platform for Action in Creative
Theatre, New Delhi.
Prem Utsav, a festival of plays based on Munshi Premchand’s stories, is held every year
beginning July 31 in Mumbai.
THESPO is an An All India Annual Youth Theatre Festival held by Quasar Theatre
Production (QTP) and Theatre Group Bombay (TGB). It is organised in the month of
December every year at the Prithvi Theatre and NCPA, Mumbai.
Some other festivals of note are AKKA Festival, Mysore; NINASAM Cultural Festival,
Heggodu; Soorya Festival, Thiruvananthapuram; Nehru Centre’s National Theatre Festival,
Mumbai; Sundari Festival, Mumbai; Velvi National Theatre Festival, Madurai; and Adishakti
Ramayana Festival, Puducherry.
Theatre Awards
The following are some famous awards given in the field of theatre.
The Sangeet Natak Akademi Award Sangeet Natak Akademi Puraskar is given by the
Sangeet Natak Akademi, the national academy of music, dance and drama in India. The awards
are, given in the categories of music, dance, theatre, other traditional/folk/tribal/dance/music
theatre, Puppetry and contribution/scholarship in performing arts. The award consists, since
2003, of
Rs. 50,000, a citation, a shawl and a brass plaque (tamrapatra).
The Theatre Pasta Theatre Awards are administered by the Chilsag International,
Actor’s Experimental Lab. USA and Theatre Pasta, the international theatre magazine.
The Kalidas Samman is a prestigious award presented annually by the government of
Madhya Pradesh. It was first awarded in 1980. From 1986-87 onwards, the awards have been
presented for outstanding achievement in the fields of classical music classical dance, theatre and
plastic arts every year. The award carries a cash prize of Rs. 2 lakh.
Among the other awards of note are, Inlaks Theatre Awards and Mahindra Excellence in
Theatre Awards.
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