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FROM CHALLENGES TO OPPORTUNITIES SUSTAINIA a part of MONDAY MORNING FROM CHALLENGES TO OPPORTUNITIES ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS DNV GL and Monday Morning Sustainia would like to thank the following for their contribution to the publication: The participants at the roundtables in Shanghai, Brussels and Washington DC. For each roundtable we were happy to see a diverse group of patient representatives, professionals, policy makers, providers and researchers working together on mapping challenges in their region and pointing towards opportunities for the future. Their willingness to share experiences and thoughts has been an invaluable part of this publication. The regional experts. Thank you to Mr. Alex Lam, Ms. Weiwei Zhang, MEP Christel Schaldemose, Professor Francesco De Lorenzo, Professor Bob Smith and Ms. Britanni Kessler for sharing their perspectives on the present challenges and future possibilities for healthcare in China, Europe and the USA. The change-makers. Thank you to Ms. Susan Sheridan, Professor Jeffery Lazarus and Professor Stephen MacMahon for sharing their stories of creating change in the healthcare system and thereby inspiring others to dare dream of a safer, smarter and more sustainable future for healthcare. © DNV GL and Monday Morning Sustainia 2015 Print: Rosendahls ISBN: 978-87-93038-30-1 1P ri n t e d m a tt e Rosendahls 5 7 5 04 4 r0 FOREWORD The unfolding science of patient engagement Over the last 5 years of evangelizing a new view of the role of the patient in medicine, it has become apparent to me that changing the cultural conversation about who is capable of what is challenging because it creates a shift in the balance of power. The people that had been viewed as the responsible leaders can experience a loss of power and authority. While the Scientific Revolution brought an understanding of how medicine works, one of the unintended side effects was the disenfranchisement of anyone without medical training. Today, we are in an era of awakening that recognizes the need to better incorporate patients in their own treatment programs. We cannot co-create healthcare systems if providers do not accept patient engagement as both helpful and necessary. In my case, my oncologist agreed to be quoted in the British Medical Journal saying that the information I got from a patient community about how to cope with side effects of a treatment that sometimes kills people increased my chances of survival. Clearly, change is possible when knowledge in the patient community is harnessed. In order to create that, we must acknowledge the clear evidence that activated, engaged and informed patients today are quite capable of truly improving their outcomes. If we create a scientific model for patient engagement, one of the parameters will be usability. In any other industry, if what you want the customer to do is too difficult, you go out of business. In medicine, you blame the victim. The art of culture change – in healthcare as well as any other matter – is to see clearly what is newly possible without giving up what has always been valuable. This publication helps guide us to that goal by outlining our current state of affairs and offering exciting opportunities for change. One of the most wonderful things that could happen in my view is for the doctors and nurses and researchers whose work saved my life to find that they themselves now have a better life because their contributions can unfold in a richer more effective environment. That is co-creation. E-PATIENT DAVE BIO Dave deBronkart, known on the internet as e-Patient Dave, is the author of the highly rated Let Patients Help: A Patient Engagement Handbook and one of the world’s leading advocates for patient engagement. After beating stage IV kidney cancer in 2007 he became a blogger, health policy advisor and international keynote speaker. An accomplished speaker in his professional life before cancer, he is today one of the best-known spokesman for the patient engagement movement, attending nearly 300 conferences and policy meetings internationally, including testifying in Washington for patient access to the medical record under Meaningful Use. e-Patient Dave was a participant at the Co-Creating Healthcare Roundtable in Washington DC By e-Patient Dave deBronkart, healthcare expert, author and cancer survivor dedicated to patient engagement and advocacy I propose that we need a new scientific approach to understanding the role of the patient. 4 5 Table of Contents 8 66 INTRODUCTION EUROPE– SHARING A HEALTHCARE GOAL 68 Protecting universal care 71 Creating a patient safety culture 10EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 75 Towards co-creation at different speeds 79 Growing demand and shrinking budgets 81 EU guides the way to more effective care 13 WHAT WE DID AND WHY 14 16 17 18 MAPPING THE STATE OF HEALTHCARE ROUNDTABLES WITH KEY STAKEHOLDERS HIGHLIGHTING OPPORTUNITIES, INSPIRING CHANGE WHAT YOU SHOULD KEEP IN MIND WHEN READING THIS PUBLICATION 25GLOBAL HEALTHCARE OUTLOOK 28AFRICA 30 THE AMERICAS 43 HEALTH SYSTEMS IN FOCUS FROM EAST TO WEST 46 CHINA – RECALIBRATING A SYSTEM FOR NEW DISEASE PATTERNS 32EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN 48Physical and social inequalities 34EUROPE 50 6 CO-CREATING HEALTHCARE 22 SEEING THE WHOLE SYSTEM 22 STANDARDS FOR COCREATION Safety is a challenge for patients and professionals 36 SOUTH-EAST ASIA 38 WESTERN PACIFIC 52 The patient is a resource 40 GLOBAL OVERVIEW 54 The economic burden of no 86 A healthy environment 88 Brussels roundtable Effectiveness is improving but 60 64 Worth the wait? In need of a breath of fresh air door to universal healthcare 119 Case in Kenya: A doctor to the masses 121 122 92 Case in USA: Bringing the patient safety 94 96 Watch the access gap 98 103 Healthcare: more than the Case in Australia: Strong 106 108 128 Case in Germany: Improving quality by measuring the 130 131 133 134 – Steven MacMahon, China 154WHO’S BEHIND THIS PUBLICATION 155FURTHER READING 156REFERENCES Case in England: Bridging time lags with Case in China: It’s time for a change in healthcare Towards a sustainable provision healthcare agenda Expert insight Chronic disease management in rural China better communication Healthcare on time… 112 148 Knowledge sharing helps increases effectiveness Washington DC roundtable – Susan Sheridan, USA healthcare do its job worth? 110 Improving patient safety through advocacy true value of care Commissioning for Value sometimes 144 Knowing the value of Getting your money’s Too much and not enough – Jeffrey V. Lazarus, Europe healthcare is key Towards healthcare of, by and for the people 101 127 The fight to improve patient safety Bridging the “Knowing-Doing” Gap sum of its parts Expert insight THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA – BALANCING THE SCALES 140 The patient as the expert patient voice to the world of 125 139 THE CHANGE MAKERS Mobile health apps open the healthcare Shanghai roundtable Expert insight 118 A JOURNEY TOWARDS OPPORTUNITIES alliances create integrated not incentivized 58 116 125 gatekeeping 62 21 Timing is everything 90 44 56 19SYSTEMS THINKING AND CO-CREATION 84 115 ROADMAP TO CHANGING HEALTHCARE 136 Green thinking is becoming the new normal 137 Case in USA: Hospitals are leading the green battle 7 INTRODUCTION A Journey Towards Co-Creating Healthcare DNV GL and Sustainia share a vision of a future with safer, smarter and more sustainable healthcare systems throughout the world. The two organizations wish to help bridge the gap between the systemic healthcare challenges and the opportunities, solutions and people that are creating the healthcare systems of tomorrow, today. In April 2014, at the BMJ IHI International Forum on Quality and Safety in Healthcare, we launched our guide to Person-Centred Care: Co-Creating a Healthcare Sector for the Future. That guide analyzes the benefits of putting the patient at the center and promoting co-creation between the different stakeholders of health systems. Since then, we have traveled around the world disseminating the publication in different cultural settings and discussing the state of healthcare with experts and influential stakeholders in each region we visited. We presented knowledge and insights from the publication at 10 healthcare conferences in 10 different regions across four continents. On top of these events, we conducted roundtables to discuss the work ahead with key participants in China, Europe, and the USA in order to uncover the barriers to and the opportunities for co-creating more sustainable healthcare systems. Furthermore, we have engaged people online, creating a network of health experts to share opinions, frustrations and solutions with each other in order to scale and spread opportunities. The ambition of our journey is twofold. On one hand, we wish to give an overview of the challenges that global healthcare systems face and how these issues determine the quality of care that these systems produce. One the other hand, we want to highlight the good news, which is that many of the healthcare solutions we need already exist today. There are people, initiatives and organizations all over the planet that are currently developing innovative ways of solving problems faced by healthcare systems. With this publication we hope to inspire the process of change by highlighting and promoting co-creation within healthcare systems around the world. Equipped with a thorough understanding of the current state of the world’s healthcare systems and the challenges they face, this publication moves us closer to realizing the healthcare innovations of tomorrow. There is still a long way to go before global healthcare systems are truly economically, socially and environmentally sustainable, and before they are able to co-create healthy, happy and independent lives. We believe that in order to succeed we must make the journey a co-created effort that reaches across sectors and fields and includes stakeholders from all parts of the healthcare system. Regardless of whether you participate in the healthcare system as a patient, professional, policy maker, researcher or provider, we hope that this publication will inspire you and that we can join together on a journey towards safer, smarter and more sustainable healthcare systems. 8 HENRIK O. MADSEN ERIK RASMUSSEN President & CEO DNV GL Group Founder of Sustainia and CEO of Monday Morning 9 Executive Summary HEALTH SYSTEMS IN FOCUS This section of the publication gram tackling the challenge of NCDs can seem so enormous and sys- in rural China. It is our hope that the USA in order to map out the differ- temic that it may feel impossible stories of their efforts will inspire ences and similarities and flesh out to separate them from each other. and galvanize each reader to take how and why healthcare systems But improvement is possible and is charge of healthcare in his or her struggle to deliver the best quality happening. own community. selected because they face similar This final chapter of the publication challenges in terms of rising demand puts the spotlight on seven case CO-CREATION and costs, concerns with quality studies highlighting opportunities and changing disease patterns. for improvement within the seven They represent different underlying dimensions of healthcare. From causes, different types of health mobile health apps in Kenya to systems and different responses. A cost-efficiency measurements at comparison of these three health- clinics in Germany, the solutions that Before making an improvement, care systems offers valuable insight will form the healthcare systems of we need to know where we stand into changing healthcare dynamics tomorrow are popping up all around today. In this section we synthe- in the world today. the world to address the specific of care. These three regions were GLOBAL HEALTHCARE process that went before it is to closer look at healthcare systems OUTLOOK enrich the conversation about the around the world in order to exam- future of healthcare by including ine what is holding the quality of solutions, innovations and people care back and what solutions exist that are co-creating greener and today. size data on health systems from process of stakeholder engagement The overall challenge that this pub- throughout 2014 and the first half lication addresses is the fact that of 2015. Over the last 18 months we quality improvement1 and evidence have met with people from around based practice movements2 have the world who are showing that not been able to change health sys- change in healthcare is possible. tems so that they deliver consistent care that improves both individual Our findings are presented in the and population well-being. following chapters: Global Healthcare Outlook, Health Systems in A key reason for this is that such Focus and Roadmap to Changing attempts at change have tended Healthcare. to focus on preventing the reoccurrence of particular ailments and their immediate causes rather than needs of specific locations. around the world to give a snapshot China, Europe and the USA are of healthcare. We frame this by examined through seven dimensions Finally, revolutions need leaders, and placing it in the context of the WHO of healthcare quality: equity, safety, healthcare is no exception. To guide regions. person-centered care, effective- the reader from learning about the ness, cost-efficiency, timeliness inspirational performances of others The data offer insight into the chal- and environmental sustainability. towards creating change in their lenges faced in different regions. Healthcare in China is challenged by own system of healthcare, three For instance, NCDs cause 87% of its extreme urban and rural divide, change makers tell the story of how deaths in Europe, but only 28% in while in the USA, historical social they saw a need and created a solu- Africa. However, developing coun- inequalities continue to have an tion to meet it. tries struggle with a lack of health- impact on the healthcare systems care resources compared to more of today. Europe, meanwhile, is We learn how Susan Sheridan, after industrialized regions. performing a balancing act between her family experienced two serious leaving health issues to the nations medical system failures, succeed- Importantly, when compared, alarm- and consolidating policymaking at ed in changing the standards of ing figures from one region can an EU level. care. We meet Jeffrey Lazarus, be seen as warning signs for other understanding and strengthening the underlying system and promoting co-creation between different stakeholders. 3 MacMahon and Lifeseeds, a pro- systems in China, Europe and the On the following pages, we take a This publication is the result of a And we hear the story of Stephen Challenges in healthcare systems The aim of this publication and the healthcare systems of tomorrow. CHANGING HEALTHCARE sets out to examine the healthcare “We cannot solve our problems with the same thinking we used when we created them.” This quote from Albert Einstein hits the nail on the head when it comes to the publication you hold in your hands. smarter pathways towards the ROADMAP TO – FRONT AND CENTER Voices of patients, professionals, policy makers and researchers are all vital in collecting the puzzle pieces that constitute a healthcare system. Without this complete picture, long term, systemic change is unlikely. Through our roundtables in Shanghai, Brussels and Washington DC; interviews with experts at each location; and in-depth profiles of three leading change makers, healthcare experts – in every sense of the word – have helped outline the current challenges and illuminate the future opportunities. This publication is a truly co-created effort. who co-founded the HIV in Europe regions hoping to avoid the same But despite the differences, all three Initiative as a way of closing the gap health problems in due time. regions have been subject to polit- between what we know and what ical reforms and policy change on we do. the subject of health and healthcare, pointing to the fact that the unsustainability of current healthcare systems is on the top of the agenda for decision makers in all three regions. Dixon-Woods M et al. Explaining Matching Michigan: An Ethnographic Study of a Patient Safety Initiative. Implementation Science 2013; 8(70):1-13. 1 10 Greenhalgh T et al. Evidence Based Medicine: A Movement in Crisis? BMJ 2014; 348: 1-7. 2 World Health Organization. Systems Thinking for Health Systems Strengthening. 2009. 3 11 WHAT WE DID AND WHY THE GOAL OF THIS PUBLICATION IS TO GIVE AN OVERVIEW OF THE CHALLENGES THAT ARE MAKING HEALTHCARE SYSTEMS WORLDWIDE UNSUSTAINABLE. MORE THAN POINTING TO THE PROBLEMS, IT ALSO AIMS TO SHIFT THE FOCUS FROM CHALLENGES TO HEALTHCARE SOLUTIONS AND INITIATIVES THAT ARE READY AND AVAILABLE TODAY. This publication builds on Monday Morning Sustainia and DNV GL’s 2014 publication: Person-Centred Care: Co-Creating a Healthcare Sector for the Future. In our writing, we have used different approaches and sources of knowledge in order to gather relevant information. Hence our analysis and synthesis triangulates a critical literature review, expert interviews and roundtables with key stakeholders. 12 13 1) Mapping The State Of Healthcare The challenges that healthcare systems around the HEALTH SYSTEMS IN FOCUS THE 7 QUALITY DIMENSIONS OF HEALTHCARE By adding it to the existing quality dimensions, we world are facing are known – they are documented and Here, we present the reader with an examination of We have adapted the six quality dimensions of provide a framework for identifying priority areas communicated in various indices, reports and fore- healthcare systems in China, Europe and the USA the Institute of Medicine by adding sustainabili- that, if improved, would increase healthcare’s abili- casts. A key element in our work has been to gather by using 7 quality dimensions of healthcare as an ty. The impact of healthcare on the environment ty to meet the needs of service users and commu- the newest information on the challenges, select the analytical framework, outlined on page 15. The health and the environment on healthcare is increasingly nities today and tomorrow. relevant data and present them in an easy to under- systems profiled in this section are chosen due to recognized as an important factor in the ability of stand and engaging way that enables comparison their importance and impact on the global economy, healthcare to deliver services that meet the needs between regions. the sheer size of their populations, and their different of individuals and populations.1 healthcare schemes. They each represent different The result of the literature review is presented in the funding models but each are going through periods of Global Healthcare Outlook and in the Health Systems significant change. in Focus section. The data used to create the Global Healthcare Outlook THE GLOBAL HEALTHCARE OUTLOOK and Health Systems in Focus are found by gathering This chapter uses the WHO-defined 6 world regions knowledge and research from leading global health- and highlights key and comparable figures on health- care organizations and institutions such as the Com- care and society in every region, each time touching monwealth Fund, the WHO and EU institutions. We’ve down in 10 specific spots to shed some light on exam- analyzed and synthesized data from leading regional ples of healthcare in action. and national healthcare authorities and institutions to compile a snapshot of current performance and The data we have chosen for the Global Healthcare challenges. EQUITY SAFETY PERSON-CENTERED EFFECTIVENESS Providing care that does Avoiding harm arising from CARE Providing services based not vary in quality because the way care is delivered. Providing care that is on scientific knowledge to of personal characteristics respectful of and respon- all who could benefit, and such as gender, ethnicity, sive to individual patient refraining from providing geographic location, and preferences, needs, and services to those not likely socioeconomic status. values, and engaging them to benefit. Outlook gives the reader a quick overview of the as equal partners in co-cre- healthcare system and health in society for each ating care. region. The following data has been used for the global healthcare outlook: DATA USED FOR THE HEALTHCARE SYSTEM OVERVIEW Physicians Hospital beds Total General per 10,000 people Out-of-pocket Per capita total per 10,000 expenditure people on health as % Government expenditure expenditure Expenditure as % of private on health of GDP of total expenditure on at average expenditure on health exchange rate health COST-EFFICIENCY TIMELINESS ENVIRONMENTAL Avoiding waste, including Reducing waits and some- SUSTAINABILITY waste of equipment, sup- times harmful delays for Limiting the negative plies, ideas, and energy. both those who receive impact of the healthcare and those who give care. sector on the environment and simultaneously better managing the impact of the environment (including, DATA USED FOR THE HEALTH IN SOCIETY OVERVIEW climate change) on the healthcare sector2 Life expectancy Under-five Deaths HIV Obesity mortality rate caused by mortality rate rate NCDs Alcohol consumption and tobacco use NHS Sustainable Development Unit. Sustainable, Resilient, Healthy People & Places: A Sustainable Development Strategy for the NHS, Public Health and Social Care system. 2014. 1 The definitions are adapted from the 2001 Institute of Medicine report, Crossing the Quality Chasm, except for the sustainability dimension, which we have defined. 2 14 15 WASHINGTON DC 9TH OF FEBRUARY 2015 BRUSSELS 18TH OF NOVEMBER 2014 SHANGHAI 28TH OF OCTOBER 2014 3) Highlighting Opportunities, Inspiring Change 2) Roundtables With Key Healthcare Stakeholders An overview of the challenges for global health- We identified numerous cases that fit the above care systems lets us know where we stand. But a criteria and then focused on the 7 selected based focus on opportunities helps us share the solu- on their quality, potential and diversity. tions. Therefore, this publication includes seven inspirational performances from across the globe. In order to inspire the reader to initiate change in They illustrate the fact that innovative, sustainable his or her own healthcare setting, we also present developments already exist and are tackling some three change maker interviews with people that of the challenges within healthcare. have a proven track record for tackling healthcare challenges and changing healthcare systems for THE CRITERIA FOR SELECTING THE CASES the better. The aim of this chapter is to highlight a variety of Although gathering and analyzing existing knowl- The roundtable participants were selected by com- solutions which demonstrate that opportunities are The change makers, and the initiatives for which edge gives the publication a strong foundation, bining DNV GL and Monday Morning Sustainia’s created all around the world and come in different they are responsible, correspond to the three loca- we also wanted to listen to key stakeholders in our networks, and reaching out to experts in each loca- shapes and sizes. tions of the Health Systems in Focus: China, Europe three core regions and extract what they consid- tion. This process ensured that each participant list ered to be the biggest challenges and opportuni- included patients, professionals, providers, policy The seven inspirational performances reflect our each change maker using core questions in order ties for healthcare in their region. The roundtable makers and researchers. 7 quality dimensions of healthcare. They span to extract common threads and best practices for different countries, costs, and scopes of change. success in transforming healthcare sectors around the world. locations were chosen to match the policy epicen- 16 and the USA. An interview was conducted with ters of each of our three Health Systems in Focus: After the roundtables, we conducted interviews Some are multi-million dollar, large scale initiatives, Shanghai, Brussels and Washington DC. with two participants from each region in order to while others are home grown and locally supported harvest even more of their knowledge within the campaigns. They also differ in terms of where they The roundtables were in the format of one-day field, giving the reader a more in-depth under- are in the implementation process. This breadth interactive workshops. Each roundtable included standing of the different healthcare systems. of coverage is important in order to stress that an inspirational talk from an expert participant, fol- solutions to healthcare issues exist at every level of lowed by structured group-work and discussions. operation. 17 What you should keep in mind when reading this publication In the pursuit of creating a publication that is accessible and inspiring for a broad group of readers, we have created a narrative that gives an overview and a taste of the different challenges and opportunities. It is not an extensive review of all the challenges and opportunities. We are aware that with a different focus, we could have found other inspirational performances or other experts with different viewpoints and included other challenges that would have painted a different picture of the healthcare landscapes. For the purposes of this publication, we have used the WHO global regions to frame our analysis. The exception is in relation to Europe where we have drawn on both the broader WHO region as well as the narrower European Union (EU) that sits within it. The WHO includes 53 countries within its definition of Europe; the EU consists of 28 Member States. Although we This publication does not target one specific type of reader but rather is meant to inspire all the different stakeholders across healthcare systems worldwide and to encourage discussion and debate on how we can collectively change SYSTEMS THINKING AND COCREATION healthcare for the better. have included examples from across the 53 countries defined by the WHO, we have also focused particualrly on the policies and regulations of the EU as these represent an attempt to create a common ambition to improve the well-being of populations across national borders. In order to allow easy comparisons between the different regions and health systems, we have converted all currency to American dollars through Google Finance’s currency exchange system. The figures express the exchange rates from 2 March 2015. BEYOND MAPPING THE STATE OF GLOBAL HEALTHCARE AND THE CHALLENGES IT FACES, THIS PUBLICATION HIGHLIGHTS EXAMPLES FROM LOW, MIDDLE AND HIGH INCOME COUNTRIES IN WHICH PATIENTS, HEALTH PROFESSIONALS, MANAGERS AND POLICY MAKERS ARE PROVING, FROM MICRO TO MACRO LEVELS, THAT CHANGE IS BOTH DESIRED AND ACHIEVABLE. What connects each of these stories is their focus of patient empowerment, systems-thinking approaches to problem-solving, and cultivation of healthcare environments that allow for and encourage the co-creation of person-centered care. 18 19 CO-CREATING SAFER, SMARTER Co-Creating Healthcare AND MORE SUSTAINABLE SYSTEMS Healthcare has changed greatly over the last century. New technology and advances in treatment mean that a girl born in 2012 can expect to live around 73 years and a boy to the age of 68 years. This is six years longer than average global life expectancy for a child born in 1990.1 Co-creation means delivering services “… in an equal and reciprocal relationship Yet, as the regional analyses in the following chapters show, all countries are cur- between professionals, people using services, their families and their [communi- rently struggling to deliver safe and sustainable healthcare. Ageing populations, ties … so that both services and communities] become far more effective agents the pandemic of non-communicable diseases, rising costs, disparities in access of change”.4 Engaging patients as active partners in the design and delivery of between rich and poor and unacceptably high rates of patient harm are clear and services is a powerful tool for transformational change, resulting in: significant threats to sustainable healthcare around the world. 1) IMPROVED COSTS The growing complexity of healthcare, with care becoming ever more sub-specialized, poses an additional challenge. Increasing numbers of health and social Patients who are actively engaged have better health outcomes at lower costs care professionals are involved in each patient’s journey through the system, par- compared with less activated patients. For example, patients with the lowest ticularly those with multiple co-morbidities. Within this complexity the patient is activation scores (i.e. people with the least skills and confidence to participate in in danger of becoming lost as different parts of the health and social care system their own healthcare) can cost 8 to 21% more than patients with the highest acti- struggle to coordinate with one another. 2 Too often services are fractured and vation levels, even after adjusting for health status and other factors. 5 fragmented: reflecting the evolution of abstract political ambitions rather than a purposeful and coherent system design based on what patients need or want. 2) IMPROVED OUTCOMES Attempts to improve healthcare have relied on narrowly defined, technocrat- Working with patients and their family members to co-create person-centered ic approaches with inadequate attention to context and engagement of local care is proven to have a positive impact on outcomes in low, middle, and high providers, practitioners and patients as co-creators of health systems. 3 There is, income countries, including: health status6, knowledge7, adherence 8 , and patient therefore, a clear need to look for ways that build on the knowledge of quality and practitioner satisfaction. 9, 10 improvement and evidence based practice by involving stakeholders in strengthening health systems as a whole. But to achieve this requires an understanding of how systems and their different components work together to produce results. Such change is possible. Beyond mapping the state of global healthcare and the challenges it faces, this publication highlights examples from low, middle and high income countries in which patients, health professionals, managers and policy makers are proving, from micro to macro level; that change is both desired and achievable. What connects each of these stories is their focus on patient empowerment, systems-thinking approaches to problem-solving, and cultivation of healthcare environments that allow for and encourage the co-creation of person-centered care. 1 WHO. World Health Statistics. 2014. Donaldson L in Monday Morning Sustainia & DNV GL. Person-Centred Care. 2014. 2 Leyshon S & McAdam S. The importance of taking a systems approach to person-centred care. BMJ Spotlight Supplement on Patient Centred Care. 2015. 6 Boyle D & Harris M. The challenge of co-production: How equal partnerships between professionals and the public are crucial to improving public services. 2009. 7 3 4 20 Hibbard JH et al. Patients with lower activation associated with higher costs; delivery systems should know their patients’ “scores”. Health Affairs 2013; 32: 216-22. 5 Sidani S. Effects of patient-centered care on patient outcomes: An evaluation. Research And Theory For Nursing Practice: An International Journal 2008; 22(1): 24-37. DiMatteo MR et al. Patient adherence and medical treatment: A meta-analysis. Med Care 2002; 40: 794 – 811. 8 The King’s Fund. Patient-Centred Leadership: Rediscovering Our purpose. 2013. 9 Stewart M et al. Patient-Centered Medicine: Transforming the Clinical Method. 2003. 10 Mead N & Bower P. Patient-centred consultations and outcomes in primary care: a review of the literature. Patient Education and Counselling 2002; 48: 51–56. 21 Seeing the whole system Systems-thinking is an approach to improvement that sees challenges to quality as part of a wider, dynamic structure: looking for patterns of distributed risk rather than fragments or individual episodes.11 It involves more than a reaction to a particular outcome or event; it requires a deeper understanding of the distribution, linkages and relationships among the processes that characterize the entire system.12 As such, systems thinking is a: SYSTEMS-THINKING IN HEALTHCARE, AS WELL AS OTHER SAFETY CRITICAL AND COMPLEX ADAPTIVE SECTORS, FOCUSES ON: “… mindset that views systems and their sub-components as intimately related and connected to each other, believing that mastering our understanding of how things work lies in interpreting interrelationships and interactions within and between systems.” 13 Creating pre-emptive and mitigation controls to deliver safe and consistently reliable results Establishing policies that set clear and explicit goals and directions regarding quality (including defining what quality means for an organization) Standards for co-creation Identifying and assessing risks to human, technologiContinuously improving cal and organizational safety through the analysis of and performance (including One way to ensure that the co-creation of person-cen- The Global Healthcare Outlook examines and com- tered care and systems-thinking are put into practice is pares systems on a macro and regional level giving the through accreditation. Accreditation provides a prac- reader an immediate overview of the state of health- tical, structured framework for addressing the quality care around the world. In the Health Systems in Focus improvement needs of healthcare. Trained external chapter, we zoom in to the Chinese, American and Eu- peer reviewers evaluate an organization’s compliance ropean healthcare systems and examine the different Mapping processes and iden- with pre-established performance standards that quality components of a healthcare system, offering tifying indicators to monitor can be applied to specific threats (such as managing the reader a basis for further discussing what the infection risk) or across services. Evidence shows that systems have in common, what needs to be changed healthcare providers “… that have either ISO certifica- and what three seemingly different health systems can tion or accreditation are safer and better than those learn from each other. performance and the how these are distributed adoption of necessary within and across organiza- process changes to tions and who owns them) achieve results those processes (including Measuring process performance and how they connect within and between organizations) monitoring the efficacy of controls that have neither” 14 and that “… accreditation programs should be supported as a tool to improve the quality of Lastly, in the Roadmap to Changing Healthcare healthcare services”.15 chapter, we continue to dig deeper, highlighting the solutions, organizations and people that constitute Combining systems-thinking with the co-creation of the disruptive elements in healthcare systems in low, person-centered care plus frameworks such as accred- middle and high income countries. These solutions itation offers a powerful way to redesign healthcare. address system failures with truly co-created efforts. In this publication, we examine systems on different levels of action. Leyshon S & McAdam S. The importance of taking a systems approach to person-centred care. BMJ Spotlight Supplement on Patient Centred Care. 2015. 11 12 World Health Organization. Systems Thinking for Health Systems Strengthening. 2009. Adam T. Advancing the application of systems thinking in health. Health Research Policy and Systems 2014; 12(50): 1-5. 13 22 Shaw C et al. Accreditation and ISO certification: do they explain differences in quality management in European hospitals? International Journal for Quality in Health Care 2010; 22(6): 445-451. 14 Alkhenizan A & Shaw C. Impact of accreditation on the quality of healthcare services: a systematic review of the literature. Ann Saudi Med 2011; 31(4): 407-416. 15 23 GLOBAL HEALTHCARE OUTLOOK AS THE PROVERB GOES, “A JOURNEY OF A THOUSAND MILES BEGINS WITH A SINGLE STEP.” ON THIS JOURNEY FROM HEALTHCARE CHALLENGES TO OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVEMENT, THE GLOBAL HEALTHCARE OUTLOOK IS OUR FIRST STEP TOWARD CHANGE. 24 25 Algeria Angola AFRICA Global Healthcare Outlook Benin Botswana Burkina Faso Burundi Cabo Verde Cameroon Central African Republic Chad Comoros Congo Côte d’Ivoire Democratic Republic of the Congo Equatorial In this chapter, we map out the state of healthcare throughout the Guinea Lesotho Niger South Sudan Eritrea Liberia Nigeria Swaziland Ethiopia Madagascar Rwanda Togo Gabon Malawi Uganda Gambia Mali Sao Tome and Principe Ghana Mauritania Guinea Mauritius Guinea Bissau Mozambique Kenya Namibia Senegal Seychelles Tanzania Zambia Zimbabwe Sierra Leone South Africa world, using the six WHO regions as guides, in order to give a broad, chapter. The Outlook includes key health-related financial indicators, such as total expenditure on health and out of pocket expenditures, but also figures on social elements of health, like the prevalence of non-communicable diseases and life expectancy. These numbers provide a THE AMERICAS global overview before diving into our three health systems in the next Antigua and Barbuda Brazil Dominican Republic Haiti Peru Canada Honduras Argentina Chile Ecuador Jamaica Saint Kitts and Nevis Bahamas Colombia El Salvador Mexico Saint Lucia Barbados Costa Rica Grenada Nicaragua Cuba Guatemala Panama Bolivia Dominica Guyana Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Paraguay Suriname Afghanistan Iran Lebanon Pakistan Sudan Bahrain Iraq Libya Qatar Djibouti Jordan Morocco Saudi Arabia Syrian Arab Republic Belize Trinidad and Tobago United States of America Uruguay Venezuela Therefore, each regional outlook also presents 10 illustrations of healthcare in particular countries, allowing the reader to zoom in and get a more complete look at the challenges, opportunities and com- EUROPE plexities of healthcare in every region. EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN general overview of healthcare in each region, but lack a local context. Egypt Kuwait Oman Somalia Tunisia Albania Croatia Hungary Malta Andorra Cyprus Iceland Monaco Russian Federation Armenia Czech Republic Ireland Montenegro Austria Denmark Israel Netherlands Azerbaijan Belarus Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina SOUTH EAST ASIA WESTERN PACIFIC Finland France Georgia Italy Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Latvia Germany Lithuania Greece Luxembourg Bhutan Democratic People’s Republic of Korea Australia Brunei Darussalam Bulgaria Norway Poland Portugal Republic of Moldova Yemen San Marino The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Serbia Turkey Slovakia Turkmenistan Slovenia Ukraine Spain United Kingdom Sweden Uzbekistan Switzerland Romania Tajikistan India Maldives Nepal Thailand Indonesia Myanmar Sri Lanka Timor-Leste Fiji Marshall Islands Niue Micronesia Palau Republic of Korea Tuvalu Japan Kiribati Mongolia Samoa Vietnam Cambodia Lao PDR Nauru Papua New Guinea China Malaysia New Zealand Philippines Solomon Islands Bangladesh Cook Islands 26 Estonia United Arab Emirates Vanuatu Singapore Tonga 27 AFRICA PHYSICIANS PER 10,000 PEOPLE (2006 – 2013) 2.6 0.1 – 12.1 Tanzania, Liberia – Algeria Ethiopia’s community-based nutrition interventions have HOSPITAL BEDS PER 10,000 PEOPLE (2000 – 2009) increased primary healthcare coverage from 77% of communities in 2004 to 92% in 2010. This preventive care has also decreased 10 facts about healthcare in the region 2 1 – 63 Mali – Ethiopia, Gabon deaths per 1,000 live births in 2000 to 77 in 2011.7 The removal of user fees for Rwanda has mandatory health in- children’s healthcare in 12 districts surance (even for visitors staying in Burkina Faso led to an average less than 15 days). Currently 92% increase of 2,000 visits per year of the population is covered. 2 per center – a 110% spike. 3 THE HEALTHCARE SYSTEM under –five mortality from 139 tile in Madagascar were attended by skilled health personnel, while this was only the case in 22% of births in the poorest quintile. 4 sick children sought treatment TOTAL EXPENDITURE ON HEALTH AS % OF GDP (2011) GENERAL GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE OF TOTAL EXPENDITURE ON HEALTH (2011) 90% of births in the richest quin- In Ghana, 92% of caregivers of PER CAPITA TOTAL EXPENDITURE ON HEALTH AT AVERAGE EXCHANGE RATE (US$) (2011) $99 $12 – $1,051 Eritrea – Equatorial Guinea 6.2% 1.7% –16.3% South Sudan –Sierra Leone 48.3% 16.2% –94.8% Sierra Leone – Seychelles from community-based agents OUT-OF-POCKET EXPENDITURE AS % OF PRIVATE EXPENDITURE ON HEALTH trained to manage pneumonia and malaria and most sought care for their children within 24 hours of the onset of fever. 5 A study in Zambia found that 56.6% 12.7% –100% Botswana – Comoros, Eritrea 68% of children with pneumonia received early and appropriate treatment from community health workers, and that overtreatment of malaria significantly declined. 9 The introduction of results-based and the McArthur Foundation financing (RBF) in Burundi – the worked together on the devel- allocation of bonuses based on opment, installation, monitoring, performance and quality – result- and maintenance of micro-solar ed in visits per child increasing installations in 28 health facilities from 1.16 in 2009 to 1.6 in 2010, in Nigeria. 6 and institutional deliveries increasing from 51% in 2009 to 62% in 2010.11 Only five countries: Botswana, Studies on hospital-wide health- Madagascar, Rwanda, Togo care associated infections from and Zambia, have been able to African countries report high achieve the target set in the Abuja infection rates e.g. Mali 18.9%, the Declaration – dedicating more Tanzania 14.8% and Algeria 9.8%. 8 than 15% of general government expenditure to healthcare.10 Pfizer. The Global Burden of Noncommunicable Diseases. 2011. 1 World Health Organization. The African Regional Health Report. 2014. 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10 eHealth Africa. Micro-Solar Systems for Maternal Health. Undated. 6 28 The World Bank. Results Based Financing at the World Bank: Burundi’s National Performance Based Financing (PBF) Program. 2011. 11 58 LIFE EXPECTANCY AT BIRTH IN YEARS (2012) HEALTH IN SOCIETY eHealth Africa, WE CARE SOLAR 46 –74 Sierra Leone – Cape Verde, Seychelles, Mauritius DEATHS CAUSED BY NCDS 1 (2008) 28% 20% – 85% Central African Republic – Mauritius UNDER-FIVE MORTALITY RATE DEATHS PER 1,000 LIVE BIRTHS (2012) 95 13 – 182 Seychelles – Sierra Leone 29 low health literacy are estimated my between $106 billion and $236 billion annually. 4 pitals in Cuba found the overall prevalence rate of device-associated healthcare-associated infections (DA-HCA) to be 22.4%. 6 10 facts about healthcare in the region HOSPITAL BEDS PER 10,000 PEOPLE (2006 – 2013) to cost the United States econo- A 3-year study of two ICU hos- Partners in Health’s mobile clinics in Haiti have helped more than 33,000 patients since 2013, and By staggering start-times for sur- who tested HIV+ to receive fur- equipment, wait times dropped ther care.7 75% and the number of surgeries PER CAPITA TOTAL EXPENDITURE ON HEALTH AT AVERAGE EXCHANGE RATE (US$) (2011) completed increased by 136% in 23 6 – 62 Guatemala – Barbados $3,482 $62 – $8,467 Haiti – USA TOTAL EXPENDITURE ON HEALTH AS % OF GDP (2011) GENERAL GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE OF TOTAL EXPENDITURE ON HEALTH (2011) have referred over 450 people gery and standardizing surgical 20.8 2.1 – 67.2 Guyana – Cuba The economic repercussions of THE HEALTHCARE SYSTEM THE AMERICAS PHYSICIANS PER 10,000 PEOPLE (2006 – 2013) 14.1% 4.5% – 17.7% Venezuela – USA 49.5% 21.5% – 94.7% Haiti – Cuba some Canadian hospitals. 9 OUT-OF-POCKET EXPENDITURE AS % OF PRIVATE EXPENDITURE ON HEALTH In Brazil, it is estimated that 76% of towns dispose of medical and municipal wastes together at the An estimated 1.6 million chronic Costa Rica has one of the most patients could benefit from effectively universalized health- mHealth in Mexico, which would care systems in Latin America. Its result in per capita healthcare health insurance coverage rate spending reductions of 25%. 3 rose from 87.6% in 2006 to 91.9% Webster P. “Health in Colombia: a system in crisis.” Canadian Medical Association Journal 2012; 184(6): 289-290. 2 in adult intensive care units of Cuban university hospitals: International Nosocomial Infection Control Consortium (INICC) findings.” International Journal of Infectious Diseases 2011; 15(5): 357-362. Skoll Foundation. Partners in Health. 2015. 7 PricewaterhouseCoopers. Socio-economic impact of mHealth. 2013. 3 covered by health insurance, only controls for essential medicines, 40% of the country receives high which account for more than 54% quality care, typically at private in the Ecuadorian pharmaceutical hospitals. 60% of people rely market, making access to these on inadequate care at crowded, drugs less expensive and more public facilities. 2 equitable.10 Center for Health Care Strategies Inc. Health Literacy Implications of the Affordable Care Act. 2010. 4 Meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus is the most common hospital acquired infection in Latin America, and the disease had a 51% infection rate in Argentine hospitals in 2006. 5 Guzman-Blance M, et al. ”Epidemiology of meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in Latin America.” International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents 2009; 304-308. 5 Guanche-Garcell H, et al. “Device-associated infection rates 6 30 Pan American Health Organization. Costa Rica. 2012. 8 Canadian Health Coalition. Wait Times: Causes and Cures. 2009. 9 IHS Inc. Ecuadorian government introduces price controls for essential medicines. 2014 10 Health Care Without Harm. Medical Waste and Human Rights. 2011. 11 76 LIFE EXPECTANCY AT BIRTH IN YEARS (2012) HEALTH IN SOCIETY Pfizer. The Global Burden of Noncommunicable Diseases. 2011. 1 Ecuador has introduced price 3.5% – 100% Haiti– Barbados, Cuba, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines municipal landfills.11 in 2010. 8 While 97% of Colombians are 30.1% 62 – 82 Haiti – Canada 79% DEATHS CAUSED BY NCDS 1 (2008) 47% – 88% Guatemala – Canada, USA UNDER-FIVE MORTALITY RATE DEATHS PER 1,000 LIVE BIRTHS (2012) 15 5 – 79 Canada – Haiti 31 10 facts about healthcare in the region HOSPITAL BEDS PER 10,000 PEOPLE (2006 – 2013) between 50,000 and 100,000 Iraqis travel each year to countries in the region like Lebanon, Pakistan’s government spent only $36 per person on health in 2011, the lowest in the region, while Qatar spent the most, at $1,738. HAI prevalence rate to be 9.4%. TOTAL EXPENDITURE ON HEALTH AS % OF GDP (2011) OUT OF POCKET EXPENDITURE AS % OF PRIVATE EXPENDITURE ON HEALTH husband decides whether contraKing Faisal Specialist Hospital & PER CAPITA TOTAL EXPENDITURE ON HEALTH AT AVERAGE EXCHANGE RATE (US$) (2011) GENERAL GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE OF TOTAL EXPENDITURE ON HEALTH (2011) 7 For 55% of Qatari women, their 10 ception is used or not. 2 Research Center in Saudi Arabia Out-of-pocket health expendi- is ranked in the top 5% of hospi- tures account for 59% of total tals worldwide for safety, quality health financing in Egypt – the of care and efficiency. 5 0.4–77.4 Somalia–Qatar 8 1– 37 Iran – Libya healthcare. 6 hospitals in Iran determined the tons of medical waste every 11.4 Jordan, Iran and Turkey to receive A study of 4,350 patients at 8 Palestine generates about 512.6 month. Due to instability caused by war, THE HEALTHCARE SYSTEM EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN PHYSICIANS PER 10,000 PEOPLE (2006 – 2013) $195 $36 – $1,738 Pakistan– Qatar 4.2% 1.9% – 8.8% Qatar – Jordan 51% 19% – 82.4% Afghanistan – Kuwait 88.9% 58.8% – 100 Saudi Arabia– Iraq, Libya, Syrian Arab Republic highest in the Region, and 4% in the Saudi Arabia, the Region’s 100% of the population in the lowest. 9 of the population live less than to local health services, while this 5 km from a healthcare facility, The rate of antiretroviral whereas in rural areas, this number is only 30%. figure is only 57% in Afghanistan. 3 treatment (ART) coverage for 4 HIV-positive patients in Yemen has increased by 115% in three years (2010-2013). 8 Pfizer. The Global Burden of Noncommunicable Diseases. 2011. 1 Mobaraki A & Soderfeldt B. ”Gender inequity in Suadi Arabia and its role in public health.” Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal 2010; 16(1): 113-118. 2 32 WHO Regional Office for the Eastern Mediterranean. Demographic, Social and health Indicators for Countries of the4 Eastern Mediterranean. 2013. 3 Global Health Workforce Alliance. The Morocco Country Case Study: Positive Practice Environments. 2010. 4 HIMSS Analytics. Saudi hospital first in the Middle East to achieve global recognition for its healthcare IT. 2012. 5 6 Bossone A. “Sharing the pain: Improving healthcare in warzones.” Nature – Middle East. 2014. Askarian M, Yadollahi M & Assadian O. “Point prevalence and risk factors of hospital acquired infections in a cluster of university-affiliated hospitals in Shiraz, Iran.” Journal of Infection and Public Health 2012; 5: 169-176. 7 Medecins Sans Frontieres. Yemen: Enrolment for antiretroviral treatment increasing in health facilities. 2014. 8 The World Bank. Who Pays?: Out-of-Pocket Health Spending and Equity Implications in the Middle East and North Africa. 2010. 9 10 Al-Khatib I. “Medical waste management in healthcare centres in the occupied Palestinian territory.” Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal 2007; 113(3): 694-705. 68 LIFE EXPECTANCY AT BIRTH IN YEARS (2012) United Arab Emirates has access HEALTH IN SOCIETY In urban areas of Morocco, 100% 53 – 80 Somalia –Lebanon 52% DEATHS CAUSED BY NCDS 1 (2008) 19% – 85% Somalia – Lebanon UNDER-FIVE MORTALITY RATE DEATHS PER 1,000 LIVE BIRTHS (2012) 57 7 – 147 Qatar – Somalia 33 PHYSICIANS PER 10,000 PEOPLE (2006 – 2013) EUROPE Only 7.7% of the healthcare 11.5 – 71.7 Albania – Monaco facilities in Russia are capable of using electronic health histories or electronic medical records. Less HOSPITAL BEDS PER 10,000 PEOPLE (2006 – 2013) than 3% are equipped with the means to use telemedicine. 4 53 25 – 138 Andorra, Turkey – Monaco In 2011 administrative costs in Scotland accounted for 12% of total hospital expenditures while in the Netherlands this In Georgia, pharmacies and doc- figure was 19.8%.7 tors are incentivized to dispense brand name drugs in preference to generics. By contrast, studies in Scotland, which has been a test Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan show a bed for telehealth innovation high level of generic prescription, since 2006, currently has approx- about 70% in both countries. 8 imately 180,000 people signed up to its telecare services, delivered through 32 local partnerships. 5 THE HEALTHCARE SYSTEM 10 facts about healthcare in the region 33.1 PER CAPITA TOTAL EXPENDITURE ON HEALTH AT AVERAGE EXCHANGE RATE (US$) (2011) TOTAL EXPENDITURE ON HEALTH AS % OF GDP (2011) GENERAL GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE OF TOTAL EXPENDITURE ON HEALTH (2011) 100,000 people waited over 12 $2,370 $48 – $9,908 Tajikistan – Norway 9% 2.1% – 11.9% Turkmenistan – Netherlands 73.9% 18.1% – 88.6% Georgia – Monaco months for an outpatient appointment at public hospitals in Ireland Hospital in-patient medicines, all during April of 2013. 9 cancer medicines, and medicines OUT OF POCKET EXPENDITURE AS % OF PRIVATE EXPENDITURE ON HEALTH prescribed by family doctors are free of charge to patients in Turkey. 2 In the Netherlands, almost 70% of the population return their unused In Latvia only 6% do the same.11 The average waiting times for a hip replacement in 2012-13 was less than 40 days in the Netherlands, but around 150 days in Spain and Hungary.10 Pfizer. The Global Burden of Noncommunicable Diseases. 2011. 1 WHO Regional Office for Europe. Better noncommunicable disease outcomes: challenges and opportunities for health systems. Country assessment: Turkey. 2014. 2 34 European Commission. Special Eurobarometer 411: Patient Safety and Quality of Care. 2014. Management Systems Society. Integrated Health Innovations Conference: Press Release. 2013. WHO European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies. Health Systems in Transition: Russian Federation. 2011. 6 3 4 5 Healthcare Information and is 82% in Cyprus – the highest in The cost of unnecessary Cae- Europe, and lowest is Austria at sarean sections in Italy was $101 21%. 3 million in 2008 – the highest in Europe. This cost was lowest in Bulgaria, at $2.3 million. 6 WHO. The Global Numbers and Costs of Additionally Needed and Unnecessary Caesarean Sections Performed per Year: Overuse as a Barrier to Universal Coverage. 2010. Himmelstein D, et al. “A Comparison of Hospital Administrative Costs in Eight Nations: US Costs Exceed All Others By Far.” Health Affairs 2014; 33(9): 1586-1594. 9 WHO Regional Office for Europe. Regional Pharmaceutical Situation Report. 2013. 10 7 8 WHO European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies. The impact of the financial crisis on the health system and health in Ireland. 2014. European Commission & OECD. Health at a Glance: Europe 2014. 2014. Health Care Without Harm. Unused Pharmaceuticals Where Do They End Up? A Snapshop of European Collection Schemes. Undated. 11 HEALTH IN SOCIETY harmed by healthcare services hazardous waste collection point. 32.1% – 100% France – The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Turkmenistan 76 LIFE EXPECTANCY AT BIRTH IN YEARS (2012) The perceived likelihood of being medicines to the pharmacy or a 68.8% 63– 83 Turkmenistan – Andorra, Italy, San Marino, Switzerland 87% DEATHS CAUSED BY NCDS 1 (2008) 62% – 95% Tajikistan – Serbia, The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia UNDER-FIVE MORTALITY RATE DEATHS PER 1,000 LIVE BIRTHS (2012) 12 2– 58 Iceland, Luxembourg – 58 Tajikistan 35 In 2010 North Korea spent less HOSPITAL BEDS PER 10,000 PEOPLE (2006 – 2013) than $1 per person on healthcare. This was less than any other country in the world. 8 29% of Indonesians have mobile internet access, making them 10 facts about healthcare in the region 5.9 0.7 – 14.2 Timor-Leste – Maldives prime candidates for mobile health apps. 5 THE HEALTHCARE SYSTEM SOUTHEAST ASIA PHYSICIANS PER 10,000 PEOPLE (2006 – 2013) A project at the cardiology outpatient department of a large About 10% of hospitalized university hospital in India was patients in Indonesia suffer an able to significantly reduce wait- adverse event and 5–10% acquire ing times. In 2011, 64% of patients a healthcare associated infection. 6 PER CAPITA TOTAL EXPENDITURE ON HEALTH AT AVERAGE EXCHANGE RATE (US$) (2011) TOTAL EXPENDITURE ON HEALTH AS % OF GDP (2011) GENERAL GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE OF TOTAL EXPENDITURE ON HEALTH (2011) waited 3 hours or more for their 10 6– 59 Bangladesh, Myanmar – Timor-Leste $69 $19 – $525 Myanmar – Maldives 3.7% 1.8% – 8.1% Myanmar – Maldives 36.7% 15.9% – 83.9% Myanmar – Bhutan consultation, while after the OUT-OF-POCKET EXPENDITURE AS % OF PRIVATE EXPENDITURE ON HEALTH project’s completion, in 2013, this number had dropped to just 8%. 9 84.3% 15.4% – 96.6% Timor-Leste – Bangladesh While Bangkok has about 1 doctor 510 tons of medical waste is pro- per 1,000 people, the poorer duced in the Maldives each year.11 northeast region of Thailand has only 1 doctor per 8,000 people. 3 LIFE EXPECTANCY AT BIRTH IN YEARS (2012) In 2010 Sri Lanka had a maternal mortality rate of only 39 deaths per 100,000 live births – an In their first 1.5 years of operation, dedicated telemedicine centers in Bangladesh provided over 5,800 consultations. 4 exceptional achievement for a developing country.7 Pfizer. The Global Burden of Noncommunicable Diseases. 2011. 4 WHO Regional Office for SouthEast Asia. Health in South-East Asia. 2013. 5 2 OECD. Structural Policy Country Notes: Thailand. 2013. 3 36 WHO Regional Office for SouthEast Asia. eHealth in South East Asia Region of WHO. 2013. 1 Mobile Monday. Mobile Southeast Asia Report 2012: Crossroads of Innovation. 2012. new mothers in Myanmar had difficulties in raising necessary funds to cover the cost of safe Village Health Volunteers in birth practices. 17% even forewent Thailand provide essential basic essential food in order to cover healthcare services to 65 million these payments. 2 Thai villagers, all free of charge.10 Peerapakorn S & Jayawickramarajah PT. “Role of Medical Education in patient safety.” South East Asian Journal of Medical Education 2008; 1(1). 6 Commonwealth Health Online. Health in Sri Lanka. Undated. 7 WHO Regional Office of South-East Asia. A Decade of Public Health Achievements in WHO’s South-East Asia Region. 2013. 8 Amnesty International. The Crumbling State of Health Care in North Korea. 2010. 10 Dinesh TA, et al. “Reducing Waiting Time in Outpatient Services of Large University Teaching Hospital – a Six Sigma Approach.” Management in Health 2013; 1(17). 11 9 The World Bank. Climate Change in the Maldives. 2010. HEALTH IN SOCIETY 67% of pregnant women and 67 66 – 77 Myanmar, Timor-Leste – Maldives 55% DEATHS CAUSED BY NCDS 1 (2008) 44% – 81% Timor-Leste – Maldives UNDER-FIVE MORTALITY RATE DEATHS PER 1,000 LIVE BIRTHS (2012) 50 10 – 57 Sri-Lanka – Timor-Leste 37 with chronic conditions can be expected to secure same-day access HOSPITAL BEDS PER 10,000 PEOPLE (2006 – 2013) spending for many countries in the Western Pacific are among the highest in the world. In the Philippines, household spending accounts for 58% of health spending. 2 MRSA (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus )were reported in the Philippines (38.1%) compared to the Republic had very high prevalence rates of 77.6% and 74.1%, respectively. 8 Region. It is estimated that air PER CAPITA TOTAL EXPENDITURE ON HEALTH AT AVERAGE EXCHANGE RATE (US$) (2011) TOTAL EXPENDITURE ON HEALTH AS % OF GDP (2011) GENERAL GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE OF TOTAL EXPENDITURE ON HEALTH (2011) of Korea and Vietnam, which 2012 lived in the Western Pacific 43 The levels of out-of-pocket Lower rates of hospital-acquired killed by air pollution globally in 0.5 – 32.7 Papua New Guinea – Australia 5 – 137 Philippines – Japan 10 facts about healthcare in the region 40% of the 7 million people 15.3 to a healthcare provider.7 THE HEALTHCARE SYSTEM WESTERN PACIFIC PHYSICIANS PER 10,000 PEOPLE (2006 – 2013) About 65% of Japanese patients pollution caused 350,000 to $679 $35 – $5,991 Lao PDR – Australia 6.6% 2.2% – 17.6% Brunei – Tuvalu Darussalam 65% 22.6% – 99.9% Cambodia – Tuvalu 400,000 premature deaths in China alone.11,12,13 OUT-OF-POCKET EXPENDITURE AS % OF PRIVATE EXPENDITURE ON HEALTH 6.3% of admissions into Ministry Initiatives to address financial bar- of Health non-specialist hospitals riers to accessing care in Cambo- in Malaysia had an adverse event dia include Health Equity Funds 78.4% 0.5% – 100% Kiribati – Cook Islands, Niue, Tuvalu (AE) and 78.8% of the AEs were which now cover 80% of the due to errors. 5 poorest people in the country. 3 76 A skilled birth attendant was pres77.2% of Singaporeans rated their overall satisfaction levels with public healthcare institutions as “excellent” or “good”. 6 The healthcare system in 50% of patients who had been Singapore was ranked “most placed on a public hospital efficient in the world” by ent at only 37% of births in Lao PDR. The number is 100% for Fiji. 4 elective surgery waiting list in Bloomberg Rankings in 2014. Australia waited 36 days or less.10 The city-state’s life expectancy is 82.1 years and healthcare costs account for just 4.5% of GDP. 9 Chen C & Bennett S. “China Smog at Center of Air Pollution Deaths Cited by WHO.” Bloomberg Business. 2014. 11 Pfizer. The Global Burden of Noncommunicable Diseases. 2011. 3 WHO. Health System Financing Country Profile: Philippines. 2012. 4 1 2 38 WHO. Country Cooperation Strategy at a glance: Cambodia. 2014. WHO. Achieving the health-related Millennium Development Goals in the Western Pacific Region. 2012. Institute for Health Systems Research. Adverse Events in MOH Non-Specialist Hospital. 2010. 7 Ministry of Health, Singapore. Patient Satisfaction Survey 2013. 2013. 8 5 6 Orlanes JE. “Health Check: The Cost of Medical Care in Japan.” Tokyo Weekender. 2014. WHO Regional Office for the Western Pacific. Antimicrobial Resistance. 2014. Bloomberg. Most Efficient Health Care 2014: Countries. 2014. 9 Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Survey in Australia’s hospitals. 2014. 10 WHO. Public health, environmental and social determinants of health (PHE). 2015. 12 Moore M. “China’s ‘airpocalypse’ kills 250,000 to 500,000 each year.” The Telegraph. 2014. 13 HEALTH IN SOCIETY LIFE EXPECTANCY AT BIRTH IN YEARS (2012) 62 – 83 Papua New Guinea – Australia, Singapore DEATHS CAUSED BY NCDS 1 (2008) 80% 42% – 91% Papua New Guinea – Australia UNDER-FIVE MORTALITY RATE DEATHS PER 1,000 LIVE BIRTHS (2012) 16 3 – 72 Japan, Singapore – LAO PDR 39 PHYSICIANS PER 10,000 PEOPLE (2006 – 2013) AFRICA THE AMERICAS EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN EUROPE SOUTHEAST ASIA WESTERN PACIFIC 2.6 20.8 11.4 33.1 5.9 15.3 2 23 8 53 10 43 HOSPITAL BEDS PER 10,000 PEOPLE (2006 – 2013) AFRICA THE AMERICAS EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN EUROPE SOUTHEAST ASIA WESTERN PACIFIC 58 76 68 76 67 76 28% 79% 52% 87% 55% 80% 95 15 57 12 50 16 377 20 5.5 20 22 6.8 29.7% 23.5% 24.5% 13% 23.1% 20.4% 3.7% 1.7% 6.8% 5.1% LIFE EXPECTANCY AT BIRTH IN YEARS (2012) DEATHS CAUSED BY NCDS 1 (2008) UNDER-FIVE MORTALITY RATE DEATHS PER 1,000 LIVE BIRTHS (2012) $99 $3,482 $195 $2,370 $69 $679 PER CAPITA TOTAL EXPENDITURE ON HEALTH AT AVERAGE EXCHANGE RATE (US$) (2011) HIV MORTALITY RATE DEATHS PER 100,000 PEOPLE (2012) OBESITY RATE TOTAL EXPENDITURE ON HEALTH AS % OF GDP (2011) 6.2% 14.1% 4.2% 9% 3.7% 6.6% AMONG ADULTS OVER 20 YEARS OLD (2008) 11.1% women ALCOHOL GENERAL GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE OF TOTAL EXPENDITURE ON HEALTH (2011) 48.3% 49.5% 51% 73.9% 36.7% 65% OUT-OF-POCKET EXPENDITURE AS % OF PRIVATE EXPENDITURE ON HEALTH 56.6% 30.1% 88.9% 68.8% 84.3% 78.4% 40 USE AMONG ADULTS OVER 15 YEARS OLD (2011) men women 6 CONSUMPTION LITERS PER YEAR AMONG ADULTS OVER 15 YEARS OLD (2011) TOBACCO 5.3% men women 8.4 men 0.7 women men women 10.9 men women 3.5 men 6.8 7% 22% 16% 26% 4% 38% 19% 38% 4% 34% 3% 47% women men women men women men women men women men women men 41 HEALTH SYSTEMS IN FOCUS TAKING THE TEMPERATURE OF HEALTHCARE IN CHINA, EUROPE AND THE USA. 42 43 CHINA FROM EAST TO WEST China faces some unique challenges in terms of sustainable healthcare provision in the coming decades. Its demographic and economic transitions have resulted in a massively expanding healthcare system, even outpacing the country’s economic growth. While government reforms in 2009 have acknowledged the need for a more personcentered healthcare system, the country is still struggling to institute such changes From China over Europe to the United States of America, healthcare systems are under pressure to fulfill their task of delivering quality healthcare. across the board. Drastic differences in access to quality healthcare between rural and urban populations is a major challenge, as are safety and hospital payment structures that incentivize over- and under-treatment of patients. Although the challenges China faces in relation to healthcare quality and sustainability This chapter gives three of the largest and most prominent healthcare are significant, certain bright spots, such as hospital coordination improvements and systems in the world a check-up in order to describe some of the systemic the Essential Drug List, could have the potential to help transform China’s healthcare challenges that are holding them back from becoming safer, smarter and system into one that is more equitable, person-centered and sustainable. more sustainable. By giving an objective diagnosis of the healthcare sysPAGES 46-65 tems in China, Europe and the United States of America, we can begin to discuss the differences as well as the common healthcare denominators for the world today. The state of healthcare is uncovered by examining how the seven dimensions of quality in healthcare – adapted from the Institute of Medicine – EUROPE measure up with the reality on the ground. The healthcare systems of Europe are a microcosm of the region as a whole: constantly evolving and increasingly coherent, yet still fragmented in many respects. The Euro Debt Crisis and subsequent financial instability has put a serious strain on the region’s healthcare systems. THE SEVEN DIMENSIONS OF HEALTHCARE QUALITY ARE: EFFECTIVENESS growing burden of NCDs have only exacerbated these challenges. Despite national autonomy, the SAFETY region’s countries are intertwined and deeply TIMELINESS connected. Citizens have an increasing choice in where to live, work and seek healthcare. PERSON-CENTERED CARE ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY COST-EFFICIENCY under serious pressure due to high costs, the growing burden of NCDs, and the extreme variation in care quality. The country’s inefficient payment model has led to healthcare costs that Yet still, the care received by many Americans is of a markedly lower quality than many of their Western counterparts. Such inefficiencies are compounded by the increasing problem of NCDs and the growing divide between wealthy and poor citizens. Progress is being made1, as Such interconnectedness has led the region recent healthcare reforms have been designed to adopt European-wide healthcare initiatives, to address some of these disparities and aimed at providing all of Europe with more challenges. 2 equitable, safe and person-centered care in the years to come. There remains, however, a long road ahead for the country in terms of equalizing access to care, The analysis is coupled with insights from the three roundtables conducted lowering healthcare spending, and cultivating in the regions, where professionals, patients, policy makers and researchers an all around more sustainable and efficient discussed the future of healthcare and pointed us towards challenges and PAGES 66-91 opportunities. healthcare system. PAGES 92-113 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The Affordable Care Act is Working. 2015. 1 44 The healthcare system of the United States is far outpace any other industrialized nation. Social factors such as aging populations and the EQUITY THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, 42 U.S.C. § 18001. 2010. 2 45 CHINA RECALIBRATING A SYSTEM FOR NEW DISEASE PATTERNS In 2009, the central government in China announced that a series of reforms would be implemented in an effort to provide safer, more convenient, and more affordable care to its population of 1.3 billion. The reforms affect nearly every aspect of healthcare, from insurance and primary care, to hospital management, medications, and public health. There are also some positive developments, as recent decades, serious challenges remain in programs are seeking to help balance healthcare The reforms underline the fact that the health- are more likely to live longer. In 2010, people the country’s approach to healthcare delivery. resources between rural and urban populations6, care sector has become an economic and aged 60 and over accounted for 13% of the total As explained in the analysis below, the divide and new reforms like the redesign of the Essen- strategic priority for China. Healthcare spending population and it is expected that this will further between wealthier urban residents and poor- tial Drug List have the potential to provide more in China is expected to near $890 billion a year increase to 24% by 2030. 2 er rural citizens is apparent in their respective equitable and safer access to pharmaceuticals.7 by 2017, growing by an average rate of 13.8% 46 While China has made remarkable progress in healthcare access. Corruption is a serious issue annually in local currency terms from 2013-2017. As the country’s demographics and citizen and person-centered care, while gaining traction, Total spending is forecast to reach the equivalent lifestyles have changed, so have the diseases remains almost entirely absent in some regions.4 of 5.9% of GDP by 2017, up from an estimated which afflict them. The rate of non-communica- 5.3% in 2012.1 ble diseases (NCDs) has increased dramatically in Due to major structural problems, safety for Deloitte. Global healthcare outlook: Shared challenges, shared opportunities. 2014. 1 China, and today more than 85% of the country’s both patients and doctors alike is a concern. 5 China has made impressive strides since the mid- mortality is attributed to NCDs. While NCDs have The healthcare sector is growing at a rapid pace, 20th century in terms of healthcare. Notably, life become the primary disease burden, communi- consuming more economic resources, but the expectancy at birth rose from 35 years before cable diseases remain a problem in some western allocation and use of such funds is, at times, 1949 to 75 years in 2010. This increase has also provinces, illustrating the often extreme divide wasteful and inefficient. resulted in a rapidly aging population, as people between urban and rural livelihoods in China. 3 WHO. Health sector reform in China. 2015. 2,3 Ministry of Health, China. “Counterpart Technical Support between Urban Tertiary Hospitals and Rural Hospitals in China.” WHO – Global Health Workforce Alliance. 2011. 6 IMS Consulting Group. New Game. New Opportunities. New Direction. 2013. 7 Yip W & Hsiao W. “The Chinese Health System At A Crossroads.” Health Affairs 2008; 460-468. 4 5 Hesketh T et al. “Violence against doctors in China.” BMJ 2012; 345. 47 CHINA / EQUITY DIVIDED BY PHYSICAL AND SOCIAL INEQUALITIES While more Chinese citizens than ever now have health insurance, ensuring equal access to high quality care is still a major challenge for China’s healthcare system. The country’s physical and social divides continue to lead to inequality in terms of access to healthcare. Third-level hospitals are more likely to be in large ruption has become extremely widespread in the cities, while first- and second-level hospitals are healthcare sector and exists at multiple levels. 20 more often located in local townships and smaller Patients offer bribes, or as it is called in Chinese cities.13 In 2011, China had 1,350 public third-level hongbao, to doctors in the hopes of getting the hospitals, 6,034 second-level hospitals and 2,908 best treatment possible. Drug companies and first-level hospitals.14 medical manufacturers are also complicit in these schemes, as seen in the high profile case of Brit- Rural China also has a drastically low supply of ish pharmaceutical giant GlaxoSmithKline’s 2013 doctors, due in large part to their hospitals’ less $488 million bribery fine for channeling nearly technologically advanced equipment, physicians’ that same amount of money through conduits to lower salaries, as well as lower prestige.15 As Law- physicians and other medical staff to prescribe ton Burns, a healthcare management professor at their drugs at inflated prices. 21 Such practices the Wharton Business School notes; “Why would worsen an inequitable system as access to care a doctor move from a class three urban hospital becomes a matter of wealth rather than respond- to the lower pay of a class one or two hospital in ing to a clinical need. a rural area? Doctors lose prestige and money by going outside the cities.” 16 Despite these challenges, rural hospitals have made substantial strides in providing better quality care in recent years. From 2005 to 2008, 5 KEY PRIORITIES OF THE CHINESE HEALTH REFORM OF 2009 as part of a WHO project, 10,000 physicians from well-respected urban third-level hospitals were Stark differences between rural and urban China have cultivated a system in which urban dwellers have greater access to care than rural residents. As China’s Ministry of Health reports through the WHO, while 70% of China’s population is located in rural areas, only 20% of total health resources are allocated to the rural population. 8 Physically separated from care, and often with low incomes that restrict travel abilities, rural Chinese tend to receive lower quality care. 9,10 Large, well equipped Chinese hospitals are typically only located in large cities, meaning rural residents must travel great distances or utilize lower quality health centers.11 THE URBAN/RURAL CHASM While healthcare in China has improved dramatically in recent years, it has not improved equally across the entire country. Where a Chinese citizen lives, particularly whether it is in a city or the countryside, impacts that person’s access to care. According to the WHO, at the end of 2011, China had an average of 3.5 medical institution beds per thousand residents – with a total of 877,727 medical institutions. However, there is a striking difference between urban and rural areas, with 6.24 medical beds per thousand people in urban areas, but only 2.80 in rural areas.12 The divide is also evident in the types of hospi- This section will focus on the division between urban and rural China and corruption as barriers for creating equitable healthcare. assigned to work at rural county-level hospitals and township health centers. These doctors agreed to work in rural areas for one year, also providing training for healthcare workers in these communities, in exchange for higher wages and guarantees of future promotion.17 Additionally, a World Bank project in the rural Henan Province restructured hospital payment schemes and subsequently discouraged over-prescription, increased patient satisfaction, and increased physician salaries.18 To read more about alleviating healthcare treatment gaps in rural China, head to depending on their size and capabilities, with first-level hospitals being the smallest and least well-equipped and third-level hospitals being the largest and best equipped. identified five priority areas and established a committee across ministries to coordinate their policy formulation and implementation. The five priorities are: • Accelerating the establishment of the basic medical security system • Establishing a national essential medicines system • Strengthening health services at grass roots level • Promoting the equalization of basic public health services • Promoting pilot projects for public hospital reform 22 page 148 of our Change Makers chapter to learn Pilot project in practice: In June 2014, about LifeSeeds. China announced that 17 new pilot cities will fully implement hospital tals that exist in a given region. Chinese hospitals are divided into three classification schemes The Chinese government’s 2009 reforms reforms, intended to strengthen policy interpretation, provide training for CORRUPTION IS A FACTOR relevant management personnel and Given the sensitivity of the subject, little data heads of pilot hospitals, and improve exists concerning corruption in China’s healthcare management. They will also work to system. But according to Transparency International’s annual corruption perception index, China publicize and communicate changes to the community. 23 ranks 117 out of 175 nations.19 By all accounts cor8 Ministry of Health, China. “Counterpart Technical Support between Urban Tertiary Hospitals and Rural Hospitals in China.” WHO – Global Health Workforce Alliance. 2011. 11 Yip W & Hsiao W. “The Chinese Health System At A Crossroads.” Health Affairs 2008; 460-468. 12 9 Lua W. “Universal Rural healthcare in China? Not So Fast.” The Atlantic. 2013. 10 48 Chen Y, Zhou Y & Xie Q. “Suggestions to ameliorate the inequity in urban/rural allocation of healthcare resources in China.” International Journal for Equity in Health 2014; 13:34. WHO. Health sector reform in China. 2015. WHO Western Pacific Region. Health Sector Reform in China. 2015. 13 The State Council of the People’s Republic of China. Guideline targets improving healthcare. 2015. 14 15 HIMA Research. Untitled.2013. Swedish Agency for Growth Policy and Analysis. China’s Healthcare System – Overview and Quality Improvements. 2013. 16 Wharton – University of Pennsylvania. Healthcare in China: Is There a Doctor in the House? 2013. 17, 18 19 WHO. Counterpart Technical Support between Urban Tertiary Hospitals and Rural Hospitals in China. 2011. 21 World Bank. Hospital Reforms in Rural China Increased Patient Satisfaction. 2013. 22, 23 20 Transparency International. Corruption Perceptions Index 2014: Results. 2014. Beech H. “How Corruption Blights China’s Healthcare System.” Time. 2013. 49 CHINA / SAFETY THE CASE OF LEE MEGNAN SAFETY AN ISSUE FOR PATIENTS AND PROFESSIONALS The case of Li Megnan, a 17-year old boy who attacked and killed hospital intern, Wang Hao, in 2012, drew national attention in China. Megnan’s story came to symbolize the collapse of doctor-patient and a fundamental dysfunction in China’s healthcare system, plagued by high costs, questionable diagnose, and poor care provision. Experiencing severe leg pain in his village, Megnan travelled 6 times over the course of 2 years to doctors in larger city hospitals, as those closer to home were unable to properly treat his condition. However, his care in Beijing and Harbin were hardly improvements. Faced with repeated bureaucratic hurdles, incorrect diagnoses, late detection of secondary ailments that necessitated pausing care for his leg pain and raising the cost of treatment through additional prescription drugs, Megnan reached a breaking point. While condemning his actions, many in China sympathized with Megnan’s utter Safety is perhaps the most basic component of any healthcare system, but it is one in which China still struggles. he have a history of violence. He was a man whom society had failed so completely that he was impelled to lash out.” 37 According to the limited information on the EDUCATION AND TRAINING LEVEL OF subject, the rate of hospital-acquired infections DOCTORS VARIES MORE DATA NEEDED ON HOSPITAL ACQUIRED WHEN THE SYSTEM ATTACKS appears to be relatively low in China. The educa- Having adequately educated and skilled care INFECTIONS When most of us think of safety in the healthcare tion and training of doctors, however, is a public providers is one of the most vital components of Generally speaking, little data exist on the issue sector, we think primarily of patient safety. Yet, health concern, particularly for lower-income pa- ensuring patient safety. China had about 2.3 mil- of healthcare associated infections in China. 30 in China, safety and treatment of patients has tients in rural communities. 24,25 Additionally, a re- lion doctors in 2010, 90% of whom are trained in Therefore, knowledge on this burden comes from become increasingly tied to the safety of doctors cent phenomenon of patient attacks on doctors Western medicine. However, the level and quality small scale studies in various regions and cannot and other healthcare providers. A survey by illuminates another side of the safety challenge of training varies a great deal. Many doctors have be regarded as representative of the country as the China Hospital Management Association in China, as frustrations with poor and danger- only a 3 year post-secondary certificate and the a whole. Still, the different studies can give the found that violence against medical personnel ously inefficient treatment has been blamed for a typical 8 year MD training of Western institutions reader an idea of the state of HAI’s in China. increased an average of 23% each year between drastic increase in the number of incidents where was, as of 2010, available only at two universi- patients attack doctors. 26 ties. 27 2002 and 2012. 33 By then, Chinese hospitals were One such study surveyed nearly 400,000 reporting an average of 27 attacks a year, per patients in 398 ICUs of 70 hospitals in Shanghai hospital. 34 Qualification of doctors and hospital acquired Additionally, lacking a history of primary care, from September 2004 to December 2009 and infections are highlighted below as indicators China has very few GPs. As such, most doctors determined that the rate of device-associated The survey identifies four primary contributing of the state of patient safety in Chinese health- working at Community Health Centers (CHCs) healthcare-associated infections was 5.3%. 31 factors to this phenomenon in China, name- care. In addition, the aspect of physician safety are not trained as GPs and are not necessarily Another report from 2014 – a one-day point ly a deteriorating doctor-patient relationship, is presented as a unique propensity in Chinese equipped to diagnose and treat common diseas- prevalence study of HAIs in the Yijishan Hospital caused by the shortcomings of the health system; healthcare. es and chronic ailments experienced by patients of Wannan Medical College – found that the seeking high level specialist care even for minor at those facilities. 28,29 prevalence rate of such infections was 3.53% conditions, leading to unrealistic expectations; among a survey of 2,434 patients. 32 While these physician unhappiness and low morale; and inef- studies act as examples of large and small fective and inefficient legal channels for handling scale surveillance of HAIs, the lack of a wider malpractice disputes. 35 Solving this problem will breadth of knowledge at a national scale results take structural changes, such as improved insur- Burkitt L. “Violence Against Doctors on the Rise in China.” Wall Street Journal. 2013. in a significant knowledge gap. More extensive ance coverage and lower out-of-pocket costs, a Hesketh T et al. “Violence against doctors in China.” BMJ 2012; 345. studies on HAIs in China would therefore be better system of legal redress, and an increase in needed before firm conclusions about their the use of primary care facilities. 36 Tao X et al. “Hospital-acquired infection rate in a tertiary care teaching hospital in China: a cross-sectional survey involving 2434 inpatients.” International Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2014; 27: 7-9. 24 Q & Lu Y. “Medical Education Reforms in China.” Asia Pacific Biotech News 2014; 10(15): 805-808. Wannian L & Chan D. “Community Healthcare Reform and General Practice Training in China – Lessons Learned.” Medical Education Online 2004; 9(10). 28 McKinsey & Company. China’s Healthcare Reforms. 2010. 29 25 Beam C. “Under the Knife.” The New Yorker. 2013. 26 McKinsey & Company. China’s Healthcare Reforms. 2010. 27 50 frustrations. As the New Yorker reported in 2014, “Li Mengnan wasn’t a lunatic, nor did Tao L et al. “Device-associated infection rates in 398 intensive care units in Shanghai, China: International Nosocomial Infection Control Consortium (INICC) findings.” International Journal of Infectious Diseases 2011; 15(11): 774-780. 31 Tao X et al. “Hospital-acquired infection rate in a tertiary care teaching hospital in China: a cross-sectional survey involving 2434 inpatients.” International Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2014; 27: 7-9. 32 Hu B et al. “Device-associated infection rates, device use, length of stay, and mortality in intensive care units of 4 Chinese hospitals: International Nosocomial control Consortium findings.” American Journal of Infection Control 2013; 41(4): 301-306. 30 Beam C. “Under the Knife.” The New Yorker. 2013. 33 34 35, 36 Beam C. “Under the Knife.” The New Yorker. 2013. prevalence and impact can be made. 37 51 CHINA / PERSON-CENTERED CARE tion exists in the Chinese hospital system. Appointment booking, for example, often includes bureaucratic hur- THE PATIENT IS A RESOURCE dles, with patients typically unable to book consultations over the phone, instead needing to appear in person at their hospital of choice to wait in line in order to receive an appointment time.42 Some great strides are being made in this area though, as explained in the Journey Toward Opportunities chapter on p. 133. A small, qualitative 2014 study on the care of older adults with chronic illness from two general hospitals, two nursing homes, China’s approach to person-centered care has made significant strides in recent years. Yet, while some mindsets have changed, many structural practices have not. Person-centered care, therefore, remains a goal rather than an achievement. one community hospital and one clinic in the city of Tianjin found that nurses may lack an understanding of continuity of care for patients.43 Though limited, there are some indications of efforts to improve coordination at some large, busy hospitals. An initiative began in 2013, piloted in several major municdepartments so that beds could be utilized in an inte- Person-centered care has been discussed in to create patient organizations. According to grated and coordinated manner, with greater efficiency China’s healthcare system since at least 1997, and the Stockholm Network’s report “Patient Power and exploitation.44 Currently, some hospital departments has, since the 2009 blueprint for future health- – what it takes for patient associations to help are at full capacity while others, in the same building, care, been an official consideration of the govern- shape public policy,” China is among the nations have vacant beds, but due to restrictions they cannot ment. 38 The approach to person-centered care least conducive to the inclusion of the patient share beds between divisions. This restructuring plan has been top down, with policy makers imposing voice in health policy, when compared with seven could potentially allow more patients to be admitted. new rules on practitioners, such as to improve other key emerging markets. There is no formal communication with patients, respect privacy, process of incorporating patients’ views.41 Although China’s constitution officially includes freedom of speech and of assembly, there are Studies at the University of Technology in Sydney certain barriers preventing patients from exer- and expert in Chinese healthcare, reports, the cising their rights. According to the Stockholm person-centered care reforms “provided some Network’s report, the existing legislation on the change in the way doctors and patients interact – rights of patients still suffers from inconsistencies and helped to create a culture that focuses more and there are difficulties in organizing patient on patients, but the Chinese healthcare sector is associations. Some patient groups also suffer not patient-centered through and through.”40 discrimination e.g. those that advocate for HIV/ AIDS awareness. As long as these structural As described below, person-centered care is barriers are in place, China will have tremendous beginning to be seen in coordination efforts difficulties in developing a truly patient-centered at certain hospitals, but in other areas, such as healthcare system. patient involvement and eHealth, it still has some contribute a great deal to person-centered care, as they make it easier for both patients and care providers to access and share health information. Both have been expanding in China since the early 2000s, but the systems have been afflicted by numerous problems preventing optimal use and coordination. These include insufficient funds to create a widespread and meaningful system; a lack of unification and coordination, resulting in the simultaneous creation of over 100 electronic record keeping systems in various regions and cities regulation; reluctance toward information sharing, particularly with large metropolitan hospitals not willing to share information with smaller Community Health Centers (CHCs), nor likely to recognize a diagnosis or test from such facilities due to concerns of personnel’s proficiency and the accuracy of their equipment.45 Additionally, access to eHealth material can be difficult for many Chinese – especially rural residents who are furthest from medical centers – due to low internet penetration throughout the country. While internet use has skyrocketed in recent years, from 10.5% in 2006 to 46% in 2014, over half of the country still remains without home- or mobile device-based access.46 See figure 1. treat patients with dignity, and smile more. 39 Jingqing Yang of the Institute for International eHealth and the use of electronic medical records without interoperability; a lack of legislation and ipal hospitals, to break down barriers between hospital Still, these reforms have yet to truly take hold. As E-HEALTH LANDSCAPE STILL FRAGMENTED FIGURE 1. 50 INTERNET IS SPREADING RAPIDLY 40 Percentage of internet users in China over time 30 In the last decade the number of Internet users has exploded – paving the way for a more widespread implementation of eHealth. 20 10 Source: Internet Live Stats. China Internet Users. 2014. 0 way to go. 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 SMALL STEPS TOWARDS CONTINUOUS CARE Ensuring smooth transitions between different NO TRADITION FOR INVOLVING PATIENTS stages of care and providing patients with a A strong indicator of patient engagement is the seamless experience between nurses, doctors opportunity for patients to be a part of health- and hospitals is a central aspect of person-cen- care policy development, as well as their ability tered care. As it stands now, very little coordina- 38 Yang J. The side-effects of China’s patient-centered healthcare reform. 2010. 42 Sustainia & DNV GL. Guide to Person-Centred Care. 2014. 43 39, 40 Stockholm Network. Patient Power – What it takes for patient associations to help shape public poilcy. 2013. 41 52 Huang E. “It Isn’t Getting Any Easier to Get a Doctor’s Appointment in China.” The Atlantic. 2013. Cheng S.L, Zhao JZ, Bai J & Zang XY. “Continuity of Care for Older Adults with Chronic Illness in China: An Exploratory Study.” Public Health Nursing 2014. Gao X, Xu J, Sorwar G & Croll P. “Implementation of E-Health Record Systems and E-Medical Record Systems in China.” The International Technology Management Review 2013; 3(2): 127-139. p131 45 46 Internet Live Stats. China Internet Users. 2014. China-Japan Friendship Hospital. Municipal Hospitals to Pilot Internal Beds Coordination. 2013. 44 53 CHINA / COST-EFFICIENCY THE ECONOMIC BURDEN OF NO GATE KEEPING Without an effective primary care system in ESSENTIAL DRUG LIST IS LOWERING COSTS AND IMPROVING ACCESS place, and without well-functioning CHCs, China’s hospitals are likely to remain overcrowded, with resources spent on minor, easily treatable conditions rather than on patients in the most need. Maintaining quality care while lowering costs is a difficult challenge for all healthcare systems. While China’s legacy of a lack of primary care exacerbates this burden, administrative problems are also to blame. The Essential Drug List (EDL) is a list of FRAGMENTATION IS WASTING RESOURCES drugs approved for use in China’s primary healthcare facilities and is one of 5 central The 2013 report, “China’s Healthcare System – components of the Chinese government’s Overview and Quality Improvements,” conducted 2009 healthcare reforms. The goal of by the Swedish Agency for Growth Policy Analy- the EDL is to establish a “comprehensive sis, found that China’s insurance system is deeply system which facilitates access and ensures fragmented, leading to inefficiencies and wasted affordable care for all citizens by 2020.” 51 resources. While the insurance schemes designed Hospitals are banned from applying their traditional 15% mark-ups on sales of EDL to serve urban residents are managed by the drugs to patients, ideally ensuring that low- Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, Keeping costs low while maintaining a high A LACK OF GATE KEEPING LEADS TO the plan meant for rural residents is operated by quality of treatment is a fundamental challenge CROWDED CITY HOSPITALS the Ministry of Health. Information on insured for healthcare systems across the world. In China, the concrete results of these efforts appear quite mixed. The country’s lack of gate keeping with use of primary care facilities places an enormous and unnecessary burden on hospitals, and thus overcrowding can lower the quality of care. Certain political reforms implemented in the last couple of years, such as the reform of the essential medicines system including the Essential Drug List, provide some hope that funds in the near future can and will be better managed from the top down. This section will hone in on the level of gate keeping in Chinese healthcare and the system’s administrative fragmentation. In healthcare, a gate keeper is “a primary-care provider... who coordinates patient care and provides referrals to specialists, hospitals, laboratories, and other medical services.” 47 This role is helpful in addressing conditions early on and deferring non-serious ailments from emergency rooms so hospitals can treat those in most urgent need. The lack of gate keeping and utilization of community health centers income patients can gain affordable access to these basic medicines. 52 While the initial 2009 EDL system was individuals in the different systems is not shared afflicted by inconsistencies and poor between departments and some people take part enforcement, the 2012 reincarnation shows in both urban and rural schemes, which increases great improvements. The number of the burden on both the government and the indi- Western drugs increased from 205 to 317 and coverage broadened to include more vidual. A report by the Central Auditing Bureau in treatments. 53 While the national list was 2011 showed that 5.47 million people take part in expanded to include more drug options, both resident medical insurance schemes, forcing greater restrictions were placed on regional the government to spend an additional nearly supplementations, thereby ensuring greater $150 million in subsidies. 50 consistency across geographic locations. 54 These new policies have the potential to contributes to overcrowded and inefficient care improve both safety and cost-efficiency, by at hospitals in large cities.48 Patients travel long balancing expanded coverage with restricted distances to these hospitals, unsatisfied with supplementations. the care they would receive closer to home, or they are referred to these facilities by their local Community Health Centers (CHCs). While the CHCs were designed and implemented to act as gate keepers, treating common ailments that require less intensive care and procedures, the poor quality of care they offer has prevented them from relieving the burden of overcrowding at the better respected city hospitals.49 The Free Dictionary by Farlex. Medical Dictionary. 2015. 47 WHO. Health insurance systems in China: A briefing note. 2010. 48 IMS Consulting Group. New Game. New Opportunities. New Direction. 2013. 51 Yang H et al. “Determinants of Initial Utilization of Community Healthcare Services among Patients with Major Non-Communicable Chronic Diseases in South China.” PLOS One 2014: 9(12). 49 54 Swedish Agency for Growth Policy and Analysis. China’s Healthcare System – Overview and Quality Improvements. 2013. 50 McKinsey & Company. An essential strategy for the essential drug list. 2013. 53 IMS Consulting Group. New Game. New Opportunities. New Direction. 2013. 54 McTiernan R. “China’s EDL release a positive for patients, pharma firms to face pricing pressure.” IHS Life Sciences Blog. 2013. 52 55 CHINA / EFFECTIVENESS EFFECTIVENESS IS IMPROVING, BUT IS NOT INCENTIVIZED 2% FIGURE 2. THE INCENTIVE TO OVERTREAT Hospital income structure in China 91% of hospital income comes from drug sales and medical treatments, thus incentivizing overtreatment and overprescription of medications. Sale of drugs Other POOR INCENTIVES PROMOTE INAPPROPRIATE This combined with a fee system, in which TREATMENT hospitals are reimbursed by the government for The double-edged challenge of over- and under-treatment contributes negatively to the effectiveness of healthcare in China. Since the and 80s, the central government has cut vast insurance. Total health expenditures were $156 billion and per capita costs were $119. By 2011, these numbers had dramatically changed, with 95% of the population now covered under some form of health insurance, and total health expenditures more than doubling to $357 billion. Per capita expenditures also more than doubled, to $261. 55 Despite these improvements, out-of-pocket healthcare costs remain very high due to the fact that insurance often does not cover the full amount of many treatments. Additionally, due to poor incentive structures and systemic corruption many patients pay for tests and procedures they do not need, thus increasing their bill and wasting resources. 56,57,58 Conversely, under-treatment is also a problem, with patients unable to receive needed care due to cost, insurance status, or hospital constraints. The current magnitude of underinsurance and status of over- and under-treatment are indicators of the challenges that the Chinese healthcare system is faced with in terms of providing effective care. UNDERINSURANCE IS WIDESPREAD The drastic increase in the number of insured amounts of public money for hospitals. As such, these facilities have had to fund themselves, ultimately redirecting costs to patients. citizens does not necessarily translate into better or less expensive care for patients. 59 Another method of obtaining revenue is by Hospital bills are enormously high in China, and increasing the cost of pharmaceuticals, and as insurance rarely covers the full amount, meaning such, hospitals can charge a 15% mark-up on the patients must pay a great deal out-of-pocket price non-EDL drugs, and sometimes higher, or forego care. Costs of care also vary a great which often encourages physicians to prescribe deal depending on both the type of insurance more expensive medicines and more of them. someone has and where they live. Ultimately, For example, 75% of patients suffering from a China has one of the highest ratios of out-of- common cold are prescribed antibiotics, as are pocket payments to total health expenditure 79% of hospital patients – over twice the inter- of any Asian country, and in 2012, 78% of all national average of 30%.62 Given the extremely private expenditures on health came in the form low salaries of Chinese doctors – officially about of out-of-pocket payments.60 Additionally, over $7,500 a year – this incentive to over-prescribe is one-third of households have reduced their particularly great.63 services performed, regardless of necessity or quality of care, provides doctors an incentive to perform unnecessary tests, prescribe unnecessary medicine and recommend unnecessary treatments.64 See figure 2. Under-treatment is an equally serious problem in Chinese healthcare, as patients are rushed through the system in order for doctors to see as many people as possible. The Economist reported in 2013 that budget caps at certain hospitals caused doctors to keep the cost of treating each patient under a certain amount. Should that amount be exceeded, the remainder would be deducted from the physician’s own paycheck.65 This misguided tactic incentivizes rushed care and early discharges, and can be extremely dangerous for patients. While over- and under-treating patients may at first glance appear to be opposing problems, they in fact operate in tandem and signify numerous flaws in the healthcare system. consumption or been impoverished by healthrelated expenditures.61 Such a high amount indicates that while a 95% insurance coverage rate is impressive, it may mask more systemic problems with the quality and depth of that coverage. McKinsey & Company. Healthcare in China: Entering ‘uncharted waters’. 2012. 55 Huang C. “Healthcare Is So Corrupt In China That Patients Have To Bribe Doctors For Proper Care.” Business Insider. 2014. 56 Beech H. “How Corruption Blights China’s Healthcare System.” Time. 2013. 57 56 7% Source: KPMG. “The changing face of healthcare in China”. 2010. Page 8. liberalization of China’s economy in the 1970s In 2006, only 45% of the population had health 42% Government subsidy Medical treatment income In many respects, China’s healthcare system has made immense strides in productivity and effectiveness in recent years, with reforms improving how healthcare operates and serves its citizens. Still, there exists a great deal of waste and poorly managed care, due in large part to distorted incentive structures. 49% Fan R. “Corrupt Practices in Chinese Medical Care: The Root in Public Policies and a Call for Confucian-Market Approach.” Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal. 2007; 111-131. 58 McKinsey & Company. Healthcare in China: Entering ‘uncharted waters’. 2012. The World Bank. “Out-of-pocket health expenditure (% of private expenditure on health)”. Data. 2015. 60 The Economist. “Feeling your pain.” The Economist. 2013. 64, 65 Yip W & Hsiao W. “The Chinese Health System At A Crossroads.” Health Affairs 2008; 460-468. 61, 62 59 Woodhead M. “How much does the average Chinese doctor earn?” Chinese Medical News. 2014. 63 57 CHINA / TIMELINESS FIGURE 3. WAITING TIMES AND PATIENT DISSATISFACTION WORTH THE WAIT? Long wait time Sources of dissatisfaction with hospital care in Beijing, Shanghai, and Chengdu hospitals Poor personnel attitude High price or overcharge Poor physical environment Qualification of physicians Other For patients in Beijing, Shanghai, and Chengdu that were dissatisfied with their hospital experience, long waiting times were the most common reason for this dissatisfaction. Long waiting times have been a wellknown aspect of the Chinese healthcare system. While many hospitals show no sign of change in this regard, others are taking strides to boost efficiency and cut waiting times in the process. Source: PricewaterhouseCoopers. Emerging Trends in Chinese Healthcare. 2010. BEIJING 7.3% 75.6% SHANGHAI 43.9% 7.3% 32.6% 64% 46.3% Crowded conditions in China’s largest and best Since the 2009 healthcare reforms, though, wait- hospitals – due in large to inadequate or per- ing times are beginning to go down in a handful ceived inadequate care at smaller, community of hospitals. In 2012, Beijing Friendship Hospital, hospitals – mean that long waiting times are a for instance, was part of a pilot program de- norm. Anecdotes abound of hours-long lines that signed to improve the patient experience. As part stretch outside just to receive a doctor’s appoint- of the program, patients would pay more to see a ment.66, 67, 68, 69 A 2010 PricewaterhouseCoopers doctor, but drugs sold by that hospital would be survey of Shanghai, Chengdu and Beijing found much cheaper, lowering the total bill.71 This also that while patients are generally satisfied with resulted in shorter waiting times. Such a program their choice of hospital, 75% of those dissatisfied indicates how small changes in hospital income with the service at their hospital of choice in models (paying more for doctors rather than Beijing indicated long waiting times as the pri- drugs) can serve to improve the patient experi- mary reason for dissatisfaction.70 This figure was ence, lower costs, curtail corruption, disincentiv- also high in Shanghai and Chengdu, at 64% and ize over-prescription, and reduce long waits. 35.5% 9.8% CHENGDU 54.1% 22.7% 86.7% 40% 11.6% 86.7%, respectively. See figure 3. 20% Huang E. “It Isn’t Getting Any Easier to Get a Doctor’s Appointment in China.” The Atlantic. 2013. 68 China Smack. “Waiting All Night Outside A Hospital Hoping to See A Doctor.” China Smack. 2009. 69 66 58 China Economic Review. “China’s healthcare reform needs to address hospital waiting times.” China Economic Review. 2009. 65 Lim L. “China’s Professional Queuers Paid to Stand Around.” NPR. 2011. 20% 53.3% PricewaterhouseCoopers. Emerging Trends in Chinese Healthcare. 2010 70 Einhorn B & Loo D. “China Raises Doctor Fees, Lowers Drug Bills to Ease Anger.” Bloomberg Business. 2012. 71 59 CHINA / ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN NEED OF A BREATH OF FRESH AIR ADDRESSING THE WASTE CHALLENGE Some regions are attempting to address the Air is not the only natural element in China being degraded by rapid industrial development. In medical waste problem, such as Guangxi’s 2014, Chinese state media reported that 60% Qinzhou City, which invested $3 million in a of the country’s underground water was pol- medical waste disposal center outside the city. luted.79 It was also reported in 2013 that about Results, however, are not meeting expectations, one-third of China’s water resources are ground- as particularly rural hospitals still choose to burn their hazardous waste rather than recycle The relationship between healthcare and environmental sustainability is an often-discussed issue in China. While the impact of the environment on healthcare is well documented and discussed, the healthcare industry’s impact on the environment is less so. ...NOT A DROP TO DRINK water-based, and that only 3% of the country’s and process it properly.72 It remains to be seen urban groundwater can be classified as “clean”. 80 whether these efforts can make an impact on the Some regions are worse than others, with the actions of hospitals and medical centers in terms land ministry reporting that 70% of groundwa- of their medical waste disposal protocols. ter in the north China plain – an area that covers approximately 400,000 sq km and is some of the world’s most densely populated land is unfit for human touch, let alone consumption. 81 In 2007 The World Bank estimated that the health cost of cancers and diarrhea associated with water pol- An increasingly important aspect of the health- without compliance with national or international of Europe and the United States. This reflects lution reached approximately $8 billion in 2003 in care system in China is its environmental impact. standards of pollution control.72 According to a their inability to reach what is elsewhere consid- rural areas of China. 82 Medical waste is a serious concern in China, recent study in the Shandong Province, a great ered safe and healthy pollution levels. and as the world’s largest developing country it deal of disparity exists between urban and rural produces a lot of it. Another connection between hospitals in terms of generation of medical waste. Pollution has drastic consequences for China’s source from which they are coming. The fact healthcare and the environment in China is the In second- and third-level hospitals, for example, healthcare system. The OECD reported that in that Chinese state media are voluntarily produc- impact that pollution – of both air and water – has the average waste generation rate was 0.74kg 2010 the health impact of air pollution in China ing such alarming information about their own on the health of Chinese citizens. This leads to a and 0.56kg per bed per day, whereas in first-level was approximately $1.4 trillion.76 With data from pollution habits appears to be a sign of increasing less healthy population with greater healthcare rural community hospitals this rate rose to 1.53 kg a Global Burden of Disease study, the New York transparency and accountability. Additionally, in needs and higher healthcare costs. per bed per day.73 Times reports that air pollution contributed to 1.2 2013 the government announced plans to invest million premature deaths in China in 2010, nearly $277 billion to curb air pollution, aiming to reduce 40% of the global total that year. Nationally, this air emissions by 25% by 2017 compared with 2012 In the following, medical waste, air and water pol- One positive element of these reports is the lution are presented as primary indicators of the AIR POLLUTION IS OFF THE CHARTS means China lost 25 million healthy years of life levels. 83 Such transparency and financial invest- current status of sustainability and the environ- Pollution is undoubtedly an enormous concern from the population.77 Beijing’s Center for Disease ment are positive signs that the Chinese govern- mental challenges the Chinese healthcare sector of China’s, and one that severely impacts both Control and Prevention recently reported that an ment is serious about addressing its pollution is faced with today. its health and environmental sustainability. Air average 18 year old living in the city can expect problems. pollution is particularly apparent, with stories of to spend as much as 40% of their remaining life China’s dense, grey air making headlines around in less than full health, suffering from cancer, car- MEDICAL WASTE IS PILING UP the world. Typically, air pollution is measured by diovascular disease, arthritis, and other ailments While most of the discussion around sustainabil- the concentration of particulates in the atmo- related to the city’s extremely poor environmen- ity in China’s healthcare sector revolves around sphere, and WHO guidelines state that anything tal conditions.78 environmental hazards that impact public health, over 10 micrograms per cubic meter (PM2.5) of another serious concern is the negative effect these particulates is considered dangerous to that the healthcare industry has on the environ- human health. To put in perspective how bad Chi- ment. As a rapidly growing developing country, na’s pollution problem is, we can compare notori- safe and efficient disposal of medical waste is ously smog-filled Los Angeles, which averages an of serious challenge in China. In 2007, the State 16.2 PM2.5, with the Chinese city of Xingtai, with Environment Protection Administration reported a population of over 7 million, which averages a that China produces about 1,800 tons of med- truly astounding 155.2 PM2.5.75 China has even ical waste a day, much of which is disposed of 60 adapted its own air quality scale, relative to that International Finance Corporation – World Bank Group. IFC Investment in Medical Waste Treatment Plants in China is Expected to Benefit 120 million people. 2007. 72 Gai R et al. “Hospital medical waste management in Shandong Province, China.” Waste Management & Research 2009; 27(4): 336-42. China Daily. “China’s medical waste piles up.” China Daily. 2013. Minter A. “Why Living in Beijing Could Ruin Your Life.” Bloomberg View. 2014. Kan H. ”Environment and Health in China: Challenges and Opportunities.” Environmental Health Perspectives 2009; 117(2): 530-531. 74 78 82 Washington Post. “Worst air pollution in China and the U.S.” Washington Post. 2014. 79, 80 Kaiman J. “China says more than half of its groundwater is polluted.” The Guardian. 2014. 83 75 73 OECD. The Cost of Air Pollution. 2014. 76 Wong E. “Air Pollution Linked to 1.2 Million Premature Deaths in China.” New York Times. 2013. 77 China Water Risk. North China Plain Groundwater: >70% Unfit for Human Touch. 2013. 81 Reuters. “China to invest $227 billion to curb air pollution: state media.” Reuters. 2013. 61 SHANGHAI ROUNDTABLE The first of three roundtables on our global journey to co-create better healthcare systems took place in Shanghai, China. The discussions and active participation of stake holders from all parts of the Chinese healthcare system resulted in co-created outcomes in the form of identified challenges and opportunities for how we can change the system for the better. CHALLENGES FOR HEALTHCARE IN CHINA OPPORTUNITIES FOR CHANGE There is a lack of financing and long-term Involve patients in their treatment plan and establish feedback systems planning to support the Chinese healthcare reform Doctors are concentrated in urban areas, limiting access to care for rural populations Improve measurement of quality of care Establish incentives that improve quality of care for all Incentives and hospital payment structures lead to over- and under-treatment of patients Focus less on check-lists and more on the patient’s needs Scandals in the healthcare system have resulted in a lack of trust between patients and Establish trust throughout the system healthcare professionals The healthcare professionals are overworked, compromising safety and quality To spur discussions, Dr. Duan Tao, President of Shanghai First Maternity of care & Infant Hospital and Mr. Alex Lam, Vice Chairman of Hong Kong Alliance of Patients’ Organizations (profiled in an interview on page 64) gave inspirational presentations and summarized the conclusions of the day. THREE GLOBAL ROUNDTABLES 62 In late 2014 and early 2015, DNV GL and Monday Morning Sustainia traveled to The roundtables were in the format of one-day interactive workshops that gathered key Shanghai, Brussels, and Washington DC to gain insights for this publication and start stakeholders from across the healthcare system, including patients, professionals, providers, a conversation on challenges and opportunities for improving the quality of care in policy makers and researchers, with the aim of identifying possible trajectories for change the healthcare systems of China, the EU and the USA. The guiding question for the by spurring dialogue and discussions based on the various perspectives from the different roundtables was: HOW DO WE IMPROVE THE QUALITY OF CARE? stakeholders. 63 CHINA / EXPERT INSIGHT one example: there have been sever- within healthcare. We have to see al cases of patients or family mem- the patient as the starting point of bers hurting hospital professionals healthcare and have their interests at because they have not received the center of all we do. correct or timely treatment. There is no way of expressing Participant at the Shanghai roundtable HOW CAN THE CHINESE HEALTH- CHALLENGE FACING THE CHINESE CARE SYSTEM OVERCOME THE HEALTHCARE SYSTEM? CHALLENGES OF AN AGEING China’s large population is a big POPULATION? Patients should be willing to receive care outside of their home because it is in their own best interest, both socially and physically. In the future, when the Chinese challenge but it is also an oppor- Ageing is stressing the system anger or dissatisfaction within the views and have a say in choice of tunity, as fixing the problems that and there is a need for a new mind- care is provided in other parts of the system as the formal channels for treatment through dialogue before afflict the healthcare system has the set from patients and their families. world, I believe that we will see the complaints are not working. and after treatment. Currently the potential to improve the lives of a lot In China, it is part of the culture that needed mindset shift. approach of the Chinese healthcare of people. families take care of their elderly WHAT IS TO COME IN THE FUTURE FOR PATIENT ORGANIZATIONS IN CHINA? professionals is more paternalistic, portunities for patient organziations Another challenge we are seeing members. This is, in many instances, with doctors telling patients what is that the Chinese population is age- not a good solution because the care treatment they will be given without ing, which will change the healthcare puts great strains on families and listening to patients’ needs. system considerably in the future. in some cases means that elderly Today, we are already seeing more patients do not receive the right patients with diseases related to treatment. Currently there are limited opto champion the voice of patients WHAT ARE SOME TANGIBLE WAYS HOW CAN PATIENT ORGANIZATIONS INFLUENCE THE POLITICAL DECISION-MAKING PROCESS IN CHINA? My organization has good access to the government, but we are not change the mindset of families and a large group and have problems in patients to accept that nursing regards to resources. We are trying homes and other facilities that can our best to push for a mindset where deliver care to the elderly are op- patients and families are at the complaint committee within the tions that benefit all parties involved. center of care. We have suggested is that Chinese people are becoming Hospital Authority. The commit- The government will have to show that the government sets up more are small scale and not yet seen as more aware of their rights. When tee includes a representative from leadership and establish health- healthcare facilities that can provide important institutions in the Chinese they pay their taxes, they also want patient organizations, making the care facilities that can provide care the care that is needed for the healthcare system. It is very difficult to receive high quality services in committee more representative and to elderly patients and treat their elderly. to form patient organizations be- the healthcare system. This push impartial in terms of considering diseases. cause they are seen as challenging may result in service providers within complaints. the system, and we do not have a healthcare becoming more aware strong history of service users ques- of patients’ needs. In the future, I established for patients to express tioning the way in which healthcare think the government may be more their views and it is important to is delivered or being involved in the willing to accept the existence of stress that these views will include co-design of services. The result is patient organization but they would both complaints and appreciation. probably still ask for a high degree Patients are very grateful when they of monitoring of activities. receive the right treatment. HOW DO YOU SEE THE ROLE OF PATIENT ORGANIZATIONS IN CHINA? Currently patient organizations “Without patients, healthcare professionals don’t have a job to do.” providers like hospitals and doctors as working against the interest of the system. What could change the situation spected or recognized as it could be. The lack of focus on their inter- COME MORE ACTIVELY INVOLVED HOW CAN THE MINDSETS OF CHINESE HEALTH PROFESSIONALS BE CHANGED TO FOCUS MORE ON THE PATIENT AS AN ACTIVE PARTICIPANT OF THEIR OWN dementia. IN THEIR HEALTHCARE? In Hong Kong we have a public the number of people expressing gratitude is four times higher than Professor Weiwei Zhang Board Member of the Beijing Association of Alzheimer’s Disease Participant at the Shanghai roundtable HOW CAN PATIENTS AND FAMILIES BE INVOLVED IN THE TREAT- that focus solely on providing care to Alzheimer’s and dementia patients. MENT OF ALZHEIMER’S? Alzheimer’s patients are mostly elderly. The Government provides their medicine for free, but patients have to stay in their homes and be cared for by their families. There are no specialized nursing homes for complaints. That is also why it is patients with Alzheimer’s, which is a important to find a balance between risk factor because their treatment the negative and positive feedback. and medicine are not managed by We need to not only focus on com- health professionals. plaints but also start to integrate ap- Alzheimer’s is on the rise in proaches where patient appreciation China. We must think of new ways professionals don’t have a job to is used actively to improve quality in of treating the disease, but it is very do. A mindset has to be devel- the Chinese healthcare system. important that the patients and their Without patients, healthcare This could also be done by establishing departments within hospitals I hope that more platforms will be In Hong Kong, for instance, CARE? that the patient voice is not as re- THAT CHINESE PATIENTS CAN BE- age, such as Alzheimer’s disease and have become aware of how health- My organization is working to as they are seen by medical service 64 WHAT IS THE BIGGEST allow for patients to express their Mr. Alex Lam Vice Chairman of the Hong Kong Alliance of Patients Organizations The healthcare system needs to ests has resulted in a lot of anger oped where the patient’s interest is families are involved in this process and frustration from patients. Take seen as pivotal for all professionals and that we respect their culture. “Patients should be willing to receive care outside of their home because it is in their own best interest, both socially and physically.” 65 EUROPE SHARING A HEALTHCARE GOAL The 53 countries that make up the WHO European Region represent healthcare systems that are located within different social, economic, political and cultural contexts. Even though it is easy to view Europe as a fragmented region, 28 states are already coordinating health and healthcare policy through their participation in the European Union. Common challenges, such as ageing populations, increases in chronic diseases, and greater demand for healthcare for less money call for more coordination in the future – not less. Recent years have been has characterized by The healthcare challenges and solutions of tomor- a growing body of common guidelines and row are not staying within country borders but cross-border healthcare initiatives in Europe. demand transnational collaborations and knowledge sharing. One concrete example is the “Communication on Effective, Accessible and Resilient Health Systems,” Although the policies, organization, and delivery of which came from the European Commission in healthcare remain the responsibilities of individual 2014. It advocates the use of performance assess- governments, the EU plays a role in helping to set ment results, improved patient safety and develop- new standards, promoting change, and exchanging ment of integrated care. best practice across borders. Another cross border initiative is the European Through the seven dimensions of quality in health- health policy framework, Health2020, which was ini- care, this chapter gives you an insight to the chal- tiated by the WHO and adopted by the 53 member lenges that the European healthcare systems face. states of the Region in 2012. It urges governments to cooperate in fulfilling two strategic objectives: 1) improving health for all and reducing health inequalities, and 2) improving leadership and participatory governance for health. 66 67 EUROPE / EQUITY PROTECTING UNIVERSAL CARE According to sociological monitoring carried out in Russia for problems with the nations’ health systems, ROMANIA IS STRUGGLING TO PROVIDE EQUAL ACCESS high drug prices and out-of-pocket payments are two of the most crucial problems facing the country’s healthcare system, according to In Romania, access to healthcare is a serious concern, especially for low income groups. Despite the economic crisis, access to healthcare is still considered a fundamental right in European countries. This does not mean that all healthcare needs in the region are met – especially for low income groups. 70% and 35% of respondents, respectively. According to a review of the Romanian Health Additionally, nearly half of the respondents men- Sector by The World Bank from 2011, many poor tioned that they would have to limit their food individuals who are in need of healthcare do not spending and purchase of staple goods to pay for seek care. medical services.12 High healthcare costs are there- This is the case for almost 10% of the population. 8 fore having a significant impact on the quality of life This gap is particularly large in the treatment of many Russian citizens. of chronic disease, as 42% of the poor with a chronic condition do not seek care, compared with 17% of the rich. CRISIS CREATES VULNURABILITY IN The true gap is likely even larger, as, according Access to healthcare constitutes a basic right UNMET CARE – PARTICULARLY FOR according to the Charter of Fundamental Rights THOSE MOST IN NEED of the European Union.¹ This right, however, has been challenged by the recent economic crisis where health expenditures fell in half of the EU countries and growth significantly slowed in the other half. The crisis meant cuts in health workforce and salaries, reductions in fees paid to health providers, lower pharmaceutical prices, and increased patient co-payments.² These measures have had a negative effect on patients’ abilities to access the health system.³ Universal (or near universal) health coverage in most EU countries has remained the norm during and after the crisis.⁴ Still, The Euro Health Consumer Index from 2014 states that the financial crisis has resulted in a “slight but noticeable increase in inequity of healthcare services across Europe” and detects the biggest equity gap between wealthy and less wealthy European countries in the nine year history of the index.⁵ In all European countries, the large majority of the population does not experience unmet care needs, according to the 2012 EU Statistics on Income and Living Conditions Survey.⁶ However, in Latvia, Poland, Romania and Bulgaria, for to the World Bank’s report, many low income individuals with chronic conditions are not aware Most European countries have universal or near-uni- 9 of their need for care. Simulations that assume versal coverage for a core set of healthcare services that the need for care for chronic conditions – exceptions are Bulgaria, Greece and Cyprus where is similar between wealthy and poor people a significant proportion of the population is unin- estimate that a whopping 85% of the poor who need medical care are not getting it. In March 2014, the World Bank approved a loan to Romania of $338.8 million for the objective of example, more than 10% of the respondents had improving access to, and quality and efficiency of unmet needs for a medical examination, and this public health services in Romania.10 burden fell unevenly on low income groups. The reforms include the streamlining of hospital services; enhancing primary care services, On average across EU member states, more than twice as many people in low income groups reported unmet needs as did people in high income groups. HEALTHCARE sured. In Bulgaria, public insurance is not automatic for the unemployed and self-employed. Instead, they have the option to buy it. In Greece, coverage is reduced after 24 months of particularly at the community level; and unemployment. Both systems, and the people they increasing sector governance and stewardship serve, are very vulnerable to economic crises that in order to improve management, strengthen cause high unemployment rates. departmental communication and better incentivize primary care. The main reason for people in low income groups to report unmet healthcare needs was that care These reforms are expected to improve the performance of the health system as a whole and reduce existing inequities in terms of access to was too expensive. The proportion of people quality care amongst the population. The World in low income groups reporting unmet needs Bank program will run until 2020.11 for financial reasons is two times greater than that of the population as a whole and over four times greater than among people in high-income groups on average across EU countries.⁷ ⁶ European University Institute. EU Statistics on Income and Living Conditions. 2015. ⁷ OECD & European Commission. Health at a Glance: Europe 2014. 2014. ⁸ The World Bank Europe and Central Asia Region. Romania Functional Overview – Health Sector. 2011. The World Bank. Romania – Health Sector Reform – Improving Health System Quality and Efficiency Project. 2015. 10 The World Bank. Project appraisal document on a proposed Loan in the amount of Euro 250 million to Romania for a health sector reform – improving health system quality and efficiency project. 2014. 11 European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies. Health Systems in Transition – Russian Federation: Health system review. 2011. 12 This section will hone in on coverage of healthcare costs, unmet care needs and doctor consultations examining the overall question: How equitable are the European healthcare systems? The World Bank Europe and Central Asia Region. Romania Functional Overview – Health Sector. 2011. Page ix. 9 ¹ European Parliament. Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union. 2000. ⁴ European Commission. Health at a Glance: Europe 2014 Executive Summary. 2014. ² European Commission. Health at a Glance: Europe 2014 Executive Summary. 2014. ⁵ Health Consumer Powerhouse. Euro Health Consumer Index. 2014. ³ Health Consumer Powerhouse. Euro Health Consumer Index. 2014. 68 69 EUROPE / SAFETY FIGURE 4. COUNTRIES INTRODUCING COSTS FOR ACCESS TO HEALTHCARE Greece In 2011 copayments increased from approximately $3 to $5 for outpatient hospital care and health centers. Ireland Portugal In 2008, it cost about $65 to access emergency care and $65 per day for hospital care, capped at 10 days per year ($650). By 2013, this was increased to over $100 to access emergency care and $80 per day for hospital care, capped at 10 days per year ($800). These fees are waived for people with a medical card (40% of the population in 2013). The 2014 Eurofund report, “Access to healthcare in times of crisis,” which explores the impacts of the financial crisis on access to public healthcare services, also found that economic crises are contributing to the emergence of new types of vulnerable groups which have difficulties accessing healthcare.13 Job loss – and the loss of work-associated health insurance – is creating new groups of Europeans that struggle to access quality healthcare. At the same time, though, several countries have recently introduced measures that increase the cost of healthcare or restrict access to it. Spain, for instance, passed a measure in 2012 denying universal healthcare entitlements to nearly From 2007 to 2013, copayments for both inpatient and outpatient care were raised, with the largest increase occurring in 2012. Exemptions for chronically ill patients were restricted to consultations/ treatments for their specific condition. Source: European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions. Access to healthcare in times of crisis. 2014. CREATING A CULTURE OF PATIENT SAFETY Over the last decades patient safety has moved far up the political agenda in Europe. But despite a line of common guidelines aimed at improving patient safety, fragmentation still rules. Some countries have made patient safety a top priority while others remain reluctant to take on the challenge. UNEQUAL USE OF HEALTHCARE SERVICES Throughout the region, there are income-related differences in the use of healthcare services. According to the OECD report, “Health at a Glance” from 2012, there is evidence of inequity in terms of doctor consultations by income group in European counties. Looking at the EU in general, patient safety remains an unresolved issue in healthcare. An estimated 8-12% of patients admitted to hospitals in the EU suffer from adverse events while receiving healthcare. 25% of these adverse events are healthcare-associated infec- The probability of a generalist visit is equal in most countries and lower income individuals actually consult a GP more frequently. In regard to specialist visits, however, a different story emerges. In nearly all countries, high income individuals are more likely to see a specialist than those with low incomes and also do so more frequently.15 tions (HAIs), but adverse events also include medication-related errors, surgical errors, medical device failures, errors in diagnosis, or •The establishment and development of national policies and programs on patient safety • Making patients part of the process • Education and training of healthcare workers failure to act on the results of tests.16 •Sharing knowledge, experience and best practice at community level In 2009, the European Council put forward 13 • Prevention of healthcare associated infections recommendations for patient safety measures, including the prevention and control of Variation in the implementation of the EU 900,000 non-registered residents and intro- HAIs, and invited the Commission to report recommendations, the state of HAIs, and a duced copayments for drugs on the grounds of on progress and further action. lack of healthcare professionals are discussed austerity.14 These simultaneous phenomena are below as indicators of the development of placing a double burden on vulnerable Europeans seeking healthcare. Figure 4 shows three examples. patient safety in the Europe. European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions. Access to healthcare in times of crisis. 2014. 13 14 Legido-Quigley H. Erosion of universal health coverage in Spain. The Lancet 2013; 382(9909): 1977. 70 The overall recommendations include: 15 OECD & European Commission. Health at a Glance: Europe 2012. 2012. 16 European Commission. Special Eurobarometer 411: Patient Safety and Quality of Care. 2014. 71 FIGURE 5. HARMED BY HEALTHCARE WHAT IS STANDING IN THE WAY OF PATIENT SAFETY RECOMMENDATIONS? ECONOMIC CRISIS AND RESULTING CONFLICTING PRIORITIES LACK OF POLITICAL WILL Every year an estimated 4.1 million patients acquire There is still room to improve information provided a HAI in the EU, and at least 37,000 die as a result. to patients and their involvement in HAI prevention. The financial cost of HAIs in Europe is approximately According to the Eurobarometer survey on patient $6.2 billion annually.20 safety and quality of care from 2014, only 39% of the respondents that had been hospitalized or admitted Economic strain, technology and fragmentation are among the main reasons for the lack of implementing patient safety recommendations among the EU countries Source: European Commission. Report on the Public Consultation on Patient Safety and Quality of Care. Undated. FRAGMENTATION OF PROVISIONS AND ORGANIZATION BARRIERS DOMINATING “BLAME CULTURE” LACK OF PATIENT SAFETY CULTURE Although HAIs are a challenge, the solutions are to a long term facility in the past 12 months report- within reach. It is thus estimated that 20-30% of ed that they had received information on the risk of HAIs can be prevented by intensive hygiene and HAI – the majority of those who did came from the control programs.21 western and northern areas of the EU.23 The Eurobarometer report also notes that there has been an According to a report from the European Com- increase in how many adverse events are reported, mission based on member states’ reports on the from 28% in 2009 to 46% in 2014. At the national implementation of the Council Recommendation on level there have been even more dramatic changes, patient safety, about two out of three EU countries for instance in France (+61% points), Spain (+40) and had defined a national strategy and/or action plan Luxembourg (+32). for the prevention and control of HAIs in 2011: Sadly, 37% of the respondents report that the most •More than 80% of national action plans included likely outcome of reporting an adverse event was hospital implementation of: infection prevention that nothing happened. 20% received an apology and control programs; appropriate organizational from the professional and only 17% received an ex- PUSHING SHARED PATIENT governance arrangements and qualified infection planation for the error. SAFETY GUIDELINES FORWARD control staff; surveillance of targeted HAIs; surveil- The report from the European Commission from Over the last couple of years, some progress has lance of particular events for timely detection of During the past few years, the EU has funded further 2012, which analyzes Member countries’ imple- been made in regards to the 13 recommenda- alert microorganisms or HAIs; and high quality mi- projects aimed at improving the state of HAIs, such mentation of the 13 recommendations, indicates tions. crobiological documentation and patient records. as the Third Health Programme 2014-20, which aims that while some countries focus intently on pa- to improve patient safety and reduce HAIs in Euro- tient rights, patient safety strategies, and patient An evaluation from 2014 shows that most •14 out of 17 countries with an action plan at the na- inclusion policies, others take a more passive pean countries.24 This program focuses specifically countries have implemented at least half of the tional level had set up mechanisms to encourage on the control of healthcare-associated infections stance and place the burden on individual hospi- Council’s 13 measures. Ireland, with 12 out of 13 its implementation. through exchanging good practices on quality tals to introduce patient safety measures. actions in place, is near completion, followed closely by the UK and Germany, each with 10 assurance systems, developing guidelines and tools •15 countries had considered nursing homes and to promote quality and patient safety, increasing Similarly, some EU member states have instituted actions implemented. On the other end of the healthcare institutions other than acute care hos- the availability of information to patients on safety official legislation on these strategies, while oth- scale, Romania and Slovenia only have 3 out of 13 pitals when designing their action plans.22 and quality, and improving feedback and interaction ers rely on less formal networks and platforms.17 actions implemented.19 between health providers and patients.25 Despite this development, the latest evaluation from From 2013-2014 the European Commission con- EU “Patient safety and Health-Associated Infections” ducted an online survey on patient safety in the from 2014 concludes that HAIs continue to be a EU, particularly in order to highlight the barriers problem in Europe. to implementing the 13 Council Recommendations for patient safety measures. Economic strain, lack of political will, limited technology and fragmentation were among the primary barriers.18 See figure 5. 17 European Commission. Detailed analysis of countries’ reports on the implementation of the Council Recommendation (2009/C 151/01) on patient safety, including the prevention and control of healthcare associated infections. 2012. 18 European Commission. Report on the Public Consultation on Patient Safety and Quality of Care. Undated. 72 19 European Commission. Patient Safety and Healthcare-Associated Infections. 2014. 20 Cilag GmbH International. Healthcare Associated Infections – Fact & figures. 2015. 21 European Center for Disease Prevention and Control. Healthcare-associated infections. 2015. 22 European Commission. Detailed analysis of countries’ reports on the implementation of the Council Recommendation (2009/C 151/01) on patient safety, including the prevention and control of healthcare associated infections. 2012. 24 European Commission. Patient Safety and Healthcare-Associated Infections. 2014. 25 Official Journal of the European Union. Regulation (EU) No 282/2014 of the European Parliament and of the Council. 2014. 23 European Commission. Special Eurobarometer 411: Patient Safety and Quality of Care. 2014. 73 EUROPE / PERSON-CENTERED CARE DOCTORS WITHOUT BORDERS All across Europe, the shortage of healthcare professionals is a reality. In 2012, on average across EU countries, one in three doctors was over 55 years of age, up from one in six in 2000. This aging workforce, combined with other factors, SHORTAGE OF HEALTHCARE PROFESSIONALS IN FINLAND In Finland, the demand for healthcare services is increasing, while there are not enough applicants will likely cause an estimated shortage of 1 million for the vacant positions. The primary reason for health workers in Europe by 2020.26 this shortage is not a lack of sufficient training at educational institutions, but rather that a The healthcare sector is clearly affected by these shortages and the 2014 Care Quality Commission significant proportion of the qualified labor works in sectors other than healthcare. For example, there are 20,000 qualified practical report assessing the UK’s National Health Service nurses working outside the healthcare sector, (NHS) and social care services stated that short- meaning that their skills and training are not ages of doctors and nurses posed safety risks for being properly utilized. Partly to blame for this patients.27 TOWARDS CO-CREATION AT DIFFERENT SPEEDS The idea of putting the patient in the center of healthcare is gaining momentum – and becoming an integrated part of care delivery in European countries. Still, a shared understanding of the term is missing. The focus on and interpretation of personcentered care varies within the region of Europe. is the fact that salaries in the healthcare sector are fairly low, the work physically and mentally demanding and the working conditions often According to the Euro Health Consumer Index study also identified different levels of The 2014 European Commission report, “Map- unfavorable.31 Reconciling this challenge will patient rights legislation and involvement in person-centered care in what they define as ping and Analysing Bottleneck Vacancies in be critical if Finland is to fulfill its demand for policy-making became standard in Europe Eastern and Western Europe. EU Labour Markets,” examines the occupations healthcare workers in the coming years. by 2013, and only 2 countries have not yet where there is evidence of recruitment difficul- introduced healthcare legislation based on In Russia, patient rights, as outlined in the ties. In total, 21 of 29 European countries reported patient rights.32 WHO’s “Declaration of Patients’ Rights in vacancies in their healthcare workforce. Europe,” have not been actively implemented Despite the positive development, Europe and patients typically lack the information The findings show different reasons for the short- still faces challenges in terms of delivering needed to fully understand their illness or age of healthcare professionals. For instance, in person-centered care. The “Eurobarometer potential treatment options. Without such most EU1528 countries not enough people are Projects and organizations are being developed qualitative study” conducted for the Europe- information, it is hard for patients to make training as health professionals, whereas the in an effort to alleviate the problems caused by an Commission in 2012, which was based on informed choices about their medical care. challenge in newer EU states is that healthcare cross border migration of professionals. The interviews in 15 EU member states33, revealed professionals seek employment in other coun- European Joint Action on Health Workforce that the meaning of the term “patient involve- In the following dimension, we examine the tries, where the salary and the working condi- Planning and Forecasting, for instance, gathers ment” was not clearly understood by either state of integrated care, eHealth and health tions are better. experiences and best practices in planning and practitioners or patients.34 literacy as three indicators of person-cen- assessing health workforce needs. Their work tered care in Europe, as they help to gauge Furthermore, mitigation strategies used by seeks to uncover sustainable solutions to the In fact, it was often perceived by both groups how well patients understand their involve- some countries to actively fill the gaps in their challenge of the growing demand for healthcare “as medical compliance and following doc- ment in their own health and healthcare recruitment of healthcare professionals can have workers throughout Europe.30 tors’ orders,” which is quite the opposite of system. a detrimental impact on other countries in the the co-creation approach that person-cen- region. For example, Norway is attracting labor tered care is meant to evoke.35 The same from neighboring countries, which consequently further depletes the supply of labor in those nations.29 26Joint Action Health Workforce Planning and Forecasting. Leaflet. Undated. 74 27 Campbell D. “NHS staff shortages pose risk to patients, warns watchdog.” The Guardian. 2014. 28 Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Sweden and the United Kingdom 29 European Commission. Mapping and Analysing Bottleneck Vacancies in EU Labour Markets. 2014. 30 Joint Action Health Workforce Planning and Forecasting. Welcome page. Undated. 31 European Commission. Mapping and Analysing Bottleneck Vacancies in EU Labour Markets. 2014. 32 Health Consumer Powerhouse. Euro Health Consumer Index. 2014. 33 Austria (AT), Belgium (BE), Czech Republic (CZ), Finland (FI), France (FR), Germany (DE), Greece (EL), Hungary (HU), Italy (IT), Latvia (LV), Poland (PL), Romania (RO), Spain (ES), Slovakia (SK) and the United Kingdom (UK). 36 WHO Regional Office for Europe. Roadmap: Strengthening people-centred health systems in the WHO European Region. 2013. European Commission. Eurobarometer Qualitative Study – Patient Involvement. 2012. 37,38 34,35 Center for Strategy and Evaluation Services & Oxford Research. Final Evaluation of the Lead Market Initiative. 2011. 75 FIGURE 6. DIFFERENT APPROACHES TOWARDS MORE INTEGRATED CARE From E-health records in Estonia to integrated HIV treatments programs in Ukraine, integrated care is unfolding in different settings FIGURE 7. ESTONIA UKRAINE GERMANY HEALTH LITERACY IS STILL A GREAT CHALLENGE Percentage distributions of general health literacy for each country and the 7,795 respondents AIM OUTCOMES To fully integrate communication through National Electronic Health Records, hosting over 3,000 e-services and health insurance systems for claims, reimbursement and prescriptions. Efficiency gains via the direct communication between institutions and providers. More patient empowerment via personal health records, virtual medical centers and mobile patient applications. To implement integrated care pathways for selected treatments through an integrated contracting model designed to improve coordination between managers, doctors, psychiatrists and psychotherapists. Patients treated through integrated networks able to return to work 72 days earlier than those treated via conventional care pathways. To develop integrated services for people with a history of injection drug use through innovations including pharmacy-based needle exchanges, overdose prevention services and improved case management services. Improved HIV treatment outcomes, as well as reduced drug use through improved adherence to treatment and retention in care. Inadequate health literacy Sufficient health literacy Problematic health literacy Excellent health literacy AUSTRIA BULGARIA GERMANY GREECE Across countries in Europe, health literacy continues to pose a great challenge in healthcare. The results vary significantly between countries. For example, inadequate health literacy was present in 2% of the population of the Netherlands, but 27% in Bulgaria. SPAIN IRELAND NETHERLANDS POLAND TOTAL Source: European Health Literacy Project. Final Report – Executive summary (D17) – The European Health Literacy Project (HLS-EU). 2012. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Improved user satisfaction. TREMENDOUS POTENTIAL FOR EHEALTH Source: WHO Regional Office for Europe. Roadmap: Strengthening people-centred health systems in the WHO European Region. 2013. In 2007, the European Commission selected eHealth Aside from a promising economic potential, eHealth as one of six promising lead markets, meaning that can empower patients through greater transparen- it is innovative, responds to customers’ needs, has a cy, access to services and information, and the use strong technological and industrial base in Europe of social media for health.39 Furthermore, patient A EUROPEAN VISION FOR INTEGRATED CARE To help address some of these barriers, WHO and depends on public policy actions to create empowerment is mentioned as part of the vision in In the common policy framework – Health 2020 – launched “Framework for Action towards Coor- favorable framework conditions. the eHealth Action Plan 2012-2020, put forward by that the 53 member states in the WHO European dinated/Integrated Health Services Delivery" in Region have agreed on, people-centered health 2013, which supports countries with policy options The European Commission was proven right in their systems are defined as a shared goal. Figure 6 and recommendations that target key areas for prediction, since the market potential of eHealth has However, eHealth is still not a common standard shows a selection of different nations’ integration strengthening the coordination/integration of remained strong, despite the economic crisis. in the region. The study, “Overview of the national initiatives. While they are very different cases, they health services. do illustrate that steps towards more integrated the European Commission. laws on electronic health records in the EU member The global telemedicine market, for example, has states and their interaction with the provision of The framework focuses on ensuring the participa- grown from $9.8 billion in 2010 to $11.6 billion in cross-border eHealth services,” from 2013 concludes tion of partners, including a network of focal points 2011, and is expected to continue to expand to $27.3 that, “there are major disparities between countries One of the barriers standing in the way of further in member states, external experts and leading billion in 2016.38 This increase indicates a growing on the deployment of EHRs40 [as] part of an interop- expanding people-centered initiatives is that ad- organizations in the field, such as the International potential for the use of eHealth measures through- erable infrastructure that allows different healthcare vocating coordination and integration of services Foundation for Integrated Care. out the world, including Europe. providers to access and update health data in order health systems are being taken. takes a backseat to other political priorities in to ensure the continuity of care of the patient”.41 times of economic crisis.36 76 77 EUROPE / COST-EFFICIENCY Another disconcerting finding from the study is Unfortunately, according to WHO’s Health Litera- the fact that EHR systems use very different ter- cy Survey, nearly half of all Europeans have inad- minology and coding methods depending on the equate and problematic health literacy skills, and country in which they operate, and this semantic as such have difficulties in accessing, understand- diversity is considered one of the main barriers ing, appraising and applying information to make to the transfer of health data making it difficult to healthcare decisions.43 See figure 7. This poses ensure continuity in care. a threat to the future of person-centered care in Europe, as low health literacy makes it difficult for LOST IN TRANSLATION patients to take their health in their own hands, Health literacy is a key dimension of Health 2020 thereby leaving professionals as the only experts – the European health policy framework adopted in health. by member states in 2012 – and it remains a chal- GROWING DEMAND AND SHRINKING BUDGETS Economic strain is the reality and the future for healthcare systems throughout the European region. These constraints will hopefully pave the way for a delivery of healthcare where cost-efficiency is named king – not through reductions in healthcare, but through new models, new priorities and new incentives. lenge in the region. According to WHO, low health literacy is strongly The healthcare sector accounts for 8% of associated with more hospitalization and less the total EU workforce and 10% of the GDP. self-management. An individual’s level of literacy According to the 2013 report, “Investing in directly affects his or her ability to access health Health,” from the European Commission, information, learn about disease prevention and the high healthcare costs in the EU pose the health promotion, follow healthcare regimens and question of “cost efficiency and the finan- communicate about health messages with other cial sustainability of the region’s healthcare people.42 systems.”44 The pressure for finding a sustainable healthcare model is rising. On one hand, the economic crisis caused enormous reductions in public health spending. In Iceland, Ireland and Greece public expenditure on health was reduced by 9.3%, 9.9% and 10.8%, respectively, between 2009 and 2010. On the other hand, 39 Center for Strategy and Evaluation Services & Oxford Research. Final Evaluation of the Lead Market Initiative. 2011. 40 Electronic Health Records 41 Health Programme of the European Union. Overview of the national laws on electronic health records in the EU member states and their interaction with the provision of cross-border eHealth services – Final report and recommendations. 2014. Page 7. 78 42 WHO. Working document for discussion at the 7th Global Conference on Health Promotion, “Promoting Health and Development: Closing the Implementation Gap”, Nairobi, Kenya, 26-30 October 2009. Focusing on disease prevention can reduce high long-term treatment costs and improve health outcomes by avoiding tens of thousands of premature deaths.46 However, little relative importance is currently given to health promotion in budgetary terms. Between 70% and 80% of healthcare budgets across the EU is currently spent on treating chronic diseases, and 97% is spent on treating patients with both acute and chronic conditions. But only 3% is spent on prevention, with chronic diseases being among the most preventable illnesses.47 See figure 8. ageing populations and the prevalence of chronic diseases are also stressing the need for better quality care for less money.45 In the following, healthcare promotion and 43 European Health Literacy Project. Final Report – Executive summary (D17) – The European Health Literacy Project (HLS-EU). 2012. PRESCRIBING PREVENTION costs of pharmaceuticals will serve as measurements of cost efficiency within European healthcare. European Commission. Investing in Health. 2013. 44,45,46 47 Spongenberg H. “Chronic diseases: forcing change in EU healthcare management.” EU Observer. 2014. 48 Friends of Europe. Healthcare in Times of Austerity: Boosting Cost-Effective Prevention. 2013. 79 EUROPE / EFFECTIVENESS FIGURE 8. PREVENTION IS NOT TOP PRIORITY Current health expenditure by function, 2012 (or nearest year) In-patient care Outpatient care Medical goods Prevention and adminstration 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 Prevention efforts are taking 20 10 One example of the benefits of prevention is EFFORTS TO CUT the flu vaccine. According to the WHO, season- PHARMACEUTICAL SPENDING al influenza can cost $6.5 million per 100,000 residents each year in countries like France and Germany. If vaccination rates in Europe went up to 75%, 1.7 million more cases of flu could be prevented. In addition, achieving this target would reduce the number of visits to GPs by approximately 770,000 annually.48 Between 2000 and 2009, pharmaceutical expenditure grew by 3.2% annually in EU member states, an increase that exceeded GDP growth.49 As the economic crises hit Europe, this picture changed and the pharmaceutical sector was targeted by governments seeking to cut costs without harming patient outcomes. A range of measures has been introduced across the EU member countries, including price cuts, centralized public procurement of pharmaceuticals, promoting the use of generics, reduction of package sizes, 50 OECD & European Commission. Health at a Glance: Europe 2014. 2014. 51 Deloitte Center for Health Solutions. Impact of austerity on European pharmaceutical policy and pricing: Staying competitive in a challenging environment. 2013.52 OECD & European Commission. Health at a Glance: Europe 2014. 2014. 53 European Federation of Pharmaceutical Industries and Associations. Annual Review of 2011 and Outlook for 2012. Undated. reduction in coverage, and increases in co-payments by households.50 In terms of the increasing use of generics, Germany has introduced systems to benchmark prices and started to link reimbursements to the lowest available price of the drug as a way to reduce public spending.51 The result of these initiatives has been falling annual growth rates of spending on pharmaceuticals of 2.7% in 2011-2012 across EU member states.52,53 ICELAND SWITZERLAND NORWAY SPAIN SLOVAK REPUBLIC HUNGARY PORTUGAL SWEDEN LUXEMBOURG DENMARK LATVIA CROATIA GERMANY ESTONIA FINLAND SLOVENIA NETHERLANDS EU23 CZECH REPUBLIC CYPRUS LITHUANIA POLAND Source: OECD & European Commission. Health at a Glance: Europe 2014. 2014. AUSTRIA 0 GREECE Region. ROMANIA spending across the European FRANCE up a small part of the overall 49 Deloitte Center for Health Solutions. Impact of austerity on European pharmaceutical policy and pricing: Staying competitive in a challenging environment. 2013. EU GUIDES THE WAY TO MORE EFFECTIVE CARE Long-term care Policy recommendations from the EU are trying to promote effectiveness in healthcare in the region. In recent years, a line of improvements has taken place, but there are still shared challenges and great variations when it comes to effectiveness between established EU countries and new additions to the Union. In 2014, the European Commission issued the “Communication on Effective, Accessible and Resilient Health Systems” which addresses the effectiveness of EU healthcare systems by calling for member states to apply performance assessment results, improve patient safety and develop integration of care.54 The Communication also acknowledges that assessing the effectiveness of health systems is a complex process and states that, “healthcare measures may only show their effects after a long period, and comparability and reliability of data is a challenge.”55 From 2000 to 2010 virtually all EU member states have succeeded in reducing the rate of ‘amenable mortality. However, the distribution of the rate of amenable mortality across the EU member countries shows a clear divide between the ‘old’ Western member countries and the ‘new’ Eastern member countries and highlights a trend towards large variations in the effectiveness of healthcare systems in the EU28. See figure 9. While it can take many years to collect the data needed to assess a healthcare system’s effectiveness, this section examines two indicators that offer more immediate feedback on a system’s effectiveness, namely the rate of premature deaths (deaths that should not have occurred if timely and effective healthcare was provided) and the underuse and overuse of healthcare.56, 57 These indicators give insight into how well a healthcare system is performing its primary job: properly and safely treating those in need. 80 STATE OF AMENABLE MORTALITY 54 European Commission. On effective, accessible and resilient health systems. 2014. 55 European Commission. On effective, accessible and resilient health systems. 2014. Page 7. 56 European Commission. On effective, accessible and resilient health systems. 2014. 57 Amenable mortality combines the standardized mortality rates for a selected set of diseases on which healthcare is estimated to have a direct impact. 58 Measuring the effectiveness of EU healthcare systems is challenged by the lack comparable data across the 28 member countries of the union. 59 EU Health & Consumer Protection Directorate-General. European guidelines for quality assurance in breast cancer screening and diagnosis. 2006. 60 European Commission. European guidelines for quality assurance in breast cancer screening and diagnosis. 2006. 81 Amenable mortality, standardized death rates per 100,000 inhabitants, 2010 FIGURE 9. BIG DIFFERENCES IN AMENABLE MORTALITY Despite improvements in all EU countries, there are still great differences in the amenable mortality in the region. France and the EU GUIDELINES FOR THE FUTURE ACTION ON HEALTH SYSTEMS ACCORDING TO MARIA IGLESIA GOMEZ FROM DG SANTE Netherlands are at the top, while Latvia and Lithuania are at the bottom. Data for Greece not available. 600 Female Source: Eurostat (2010) Males 500 400 In April 2014, the Commission adopted the “Communication ACCESSIBILITY on effective, accessible and resilient health systems,” which “Access to healthcare is a multidimensional phenomenon; we presents some overall guidelines for the future action on can identify at least four dimensions of it: share of the popu- health systems. Ms. Maria Iglesia-Gomez from DG Sante lation that is covered, the basket of care, the affordability of explains key elements of the recommendations: care and the availability of care. Measuring access to health- EFFECTIVENESS “Health systems should improve the health of the population. 300 The challenge is to measure improvements in the health status that are due to the health system, and not for instance 200 to better nutritional habits, or safer roads and cars. The 100 0 Commission is currently supporting member states with using health system performance assessment, through an expert FR NL IT ES LU BE DK SE PT FI CY DE MT AT IE SI UK PL CZ HR BG EE SK HU RO LT LV group that started in the framework of the reflection process on modern, responsive and sustainable health systems, initiated by the Council in 2011. The goal of this process is to improve the coordination on health systems performance CHALLENGE: ENSURING APPROPRIATE CARE assessment at EU level.” care encompasses significant difficulties. Available indicators allow for the measurement of self-perception of unmet needs for care but not for objective measurement of access; indicators for coverage, waiting times and affordability are either non-existent or inadequate." RESILIENCE “Resilience is the ability to adapt effectively to changing environments, tackling significant challenges with limited resources. member states’ future ability to provide high quality care to all will depend on making health systems more resilient, more capable of coping with the challenges that lie ahead. And they must achieve this while remaining cost-effective Overall figures for comparing under- and overuse Antibiotic use is an ideal indicator of medication of treatments and medicines across the European overuse, as the volume of antibiotics prescribed be cost-effective; we give a great importance to increasing Union are hard to come by, and instead breast at a community level and prevalence of resistant co-operation on Health Technology Assessment.” cancer screenings and the use of antibiotics will bacterial strains are linked. Infections caused by serve as examples of under- and overuse re- resistant microorganisms often fail to respond to spectively. All though not drawing the complete conventional treatment, resulting in prolonged picture, these two cases will serve as inspiration illness, greater risk of death, and higher costs.62 for further comparisons. Hence, it is essential that antibiotics are prescribed based on evidence-based needs and not In the case of breast cancer screening, a num- for viral conditions like a mild throat infection.63 ber of European countries are underusing and fiscally sustainable. Clearly, innovation in health must AVOIDING HOSPITALIZATION THROUGH EFFECTIVE PRIMARY CARE Healthcare systems can avoid unnecessary hospitaliza- However, variations across countries are prevalent. certain treatments and thus not living up to The volume of antibiotic use varies substantially tion through an effective primary care system. Looking Asthma-related admissions in the Slovak Republic and EU guidelines.58, 59 The European Commission across EU member countries with the Nether- at chronic diseases such as asthma, chronic obstruc- Latvia were more than double the EU average, where- has established the “European guidelines for lands and Estonia reporting the lowest volumes tive pulmonary disease (COPD), and diabetes, a high as Italy, Portugal, Germany, Sweden and Luxembourg quality assurance in breast cancer screening and and Greece, Cyprus and Belgium reporting performing primary care system could, to a significant report rates that were less than half the EU average. diagnosis”, which promotes a desirable breast volumes around 1.5 times the European Union extent, avoid acute deterioration for people living with Hospital admission rates for uncontrolled diabetes cancer screening target of at least 75% of eligible average.64 According to “Health at a Glance”, these diseases and prevent admission to hospital.66 vary 8-fold across the EU member countries with Italy, women in European member states.60 Despite all reducing antibiotic use is a pressing, yet complex countries having uniformly established programs problem in the European Union. Improvement These are all conditions that affect EU healthcare and Austria and Hungary reporting rates that are near- according to the guidelines, only six countries of this issue should involve multiple coordinated systems substantially with e.g. COPD accounting for ly double the OECD average.69 had reached the target of 75% in 2010. initiatives that include surveillance, regulation and approximately 3% of total deaths in the European education of professionals and patients.65 Union and diabetes resulting in an estimated 10% of Participation in the programs also varied consid- United Kingdom and Spain showing the lowest rates, total adult deaths in Europe.67, 68 erably across EU member countries, ranging from 8% in Romania and 16% in the Slovak Republic, to over 80% in Finland, Denmark, Austria and the Netherlands.61 61 OECD & European Commission. Health at a Glance: Europe 2014. 2014. EU member countries have reported a reduction in admission rates for each of the three aforementioned conditions over recent years. 62 OECD & European Commission. Health at a Glance: Europe 2014. 2014. 68 International Diabetes Federation. IDF Diabetes Atlas, Sixth Edition.2013. 63 Cochrane Collaboration. The Cochrane Acute Respiratory Infections Group.2013. 69 OECD & European Commission. Health at a Glance: Europe2014. 2014. OECD & European Commission. Health at a Glance: Europe 2014. 2014. 64,65,66 67 World Health Organization. Background Paper 6.13: Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD). 2013. 82 83 EUROPE / TIMELINESS TIMING IS EVERYTHING Bringing down waiting lists has been a main target in European countries in recent years. But there are still challenges when it comes improving the timeliness of healthcare in Europe, and with strains on the healthcare budgets they do not seem to be overcome just yet. An efficient way to measure crowdedness is through the number of hospital beds per citizen. If the demand for care outpaces the resources to handle patients, long wait times can ensue. Over the past 10 years, the number of hospital beds per population has decreased in all European countries except Greece. On average across EU member states, the number fell by close to 2% per year, coming down from 6.5 beds per 1,000 people in 2000 to 5.2 beds in 2012.73 In the survey Eurobarometer “Patient Safety and Quality of Care” from 2013, one in five of the respondents point to the waiting time to be seen and treated as crucial in their evaluation of a hospital.70 LOST IN THE CROWD Overcrowded hospitals are an important hindrance to the provision of timely and high quality care. An array of issues are identified as reasons for crowding: increased patient Improving the timeliness of care – reducing waiting times, avoiding crowding and ensuring the right treatment in due time – demands resources, but it also calls for great changes in areas such as hospital processes, culture, technology use. In the following, hospital crowding and wait times for elective procedures are presented as indicators for the state of timeliness in European healthcare. acuity, hospital bed shortage, increasing ED volume, radiology delays, insufficient ED space, laboratory delays, consultation delays, nursing shortage, physician shortage, and managed care issues. International studies have also shown that delays caused by overcrowded EDs can lead to adverse effects on patient care.71 A Danish study from 2014 found that high bed occupancy rates were associated with a significant 9% increase in rates of in-hospital mortality and thirty-day mortality, compared to low bed occupancy rates.72 70 European Commission. Special Eurobarometer 411: Patient Safety and Quality of Care. 2014. 71 Jayaprakash N, et al. “Crowding and Delivery of Healthcare in Emergency Departments: The European Perspective.” Western Journal of Emergency Medicine 2009; 10(4): 233-239. 84 72 Madsen F, Ladelund S & Linneberg A. “High Levels of Bed Occupancy Associated With Increased Inpatient And Thirty-Day Hospital Mortality In Denmark.” Health Affairs 2014; 33(7): 1236-1244. 73 OECD & European Commission. Health at a Glance: Europe 2014. 2014. 74 The NHS defines major incidents as any occurrence that presents serious threat to the health of the community, disruption to the service or causes (or is likely to cause) such numbers or types of casualties as to require special arrangements to be implemented by hospitals, ambulance trusts or other acute or community provider organizations”. Although the reduction in beds could signify that more patients are seeking care at primary care facilities rather than hospitals, it can also be a safety hazard if the number of patients seeking care in hospitals does not decline alongside the number of beds. Illustrating the latter, in December 2014, 15 hospitals in England declared major incidents74 because of pressures on A&E department bed capacity.75, 76 PUTTING A PRICE ON TIME Elective – but often very necessary – procedures are also prone to long wait times, and these vary a great deal between European countries. For example, in 2012-13, the average waiting time for cataract surgery was just over 30 days in the Netherlands, but about three-times longer (100 days) in Spain and Finland.78 Over the past decade, waiting time guarantees have become the most common policy tool to tackle long waiting times in several European countries. This has been the case in Finland, for example, where a National Healthcare Guarantee was introduced in 2005 and led to a reduction in waiting times for elective surgery. In Denmark, a key policy is the “free choice” of hospital provider for patients. If a hospital can foresee that the maximum time cannot be Long wait times can also discourage people from utilizing hospital services, as a 2007 study in Ireland reported that out of 45,000 surveyed fulfilled, the patient can choose another public or private hospital, either within or outside Denmark – and the money follows the patient.79 ED patients, 35% said that the prospect of a prolonged stay affected their willingness to come to the ED or to return.77 75 The Guardian. Eight more hospitals declare critical incidents as demand surges. 2015. European Perspective.” Western Journal of Emergency Medicine 2009; 10(4): 233-239. 76 The Independent. NHS in critical condition as A & E waiting times are worst in a decade. 2015. 78 OECD & European Commission. Health at a Glance: Europe 2014. 2014. 77 Jayaprakash N, et al. “Crowding and Delivery of Healthcare in Emergency Departments: The 79 Siciliani L, Moran V & Borowitz M. “Measuring and comparing health care waiting times in EOCD countries.” Health Policy 2014; 118(3): 292-303. 85 EUROPE / ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY A HEALTHY ENVIRONMENT Sustainability is moving up the agenda in all European countries – not only as an economic phrase, but also in terms of the effects of climate change on the region’s healthcare sector and vice versa. DIAGNOSIS: CLIMATE CHANGE INNOVATIVE THINKING CAN SAVE ENERGY Not only does the healthcare sector affect the environment, but the reverse is also true. Climate change has an enormous impact on health and At the Royal Free Hospital in the UK, the healthcare in Europe, in terms of public health, implementation of a Combined Heat and Power safety, and the associated healthcare costs plant and the installation of three new boilers – of both. It affects human health both directly In the coming years the European healthcare sector will be forced to reduce its own negative effect on the environment and also be prepared for meeting and coping with a new pathological picture created by climate change. Within the EU, sustainability in the healthcare sector is becoming a focus area and an important element of the region’s ambitious green targets for the coming years. One example is the EU Green Public Procurement Policy aimed at making public authorities go green and push the market towards a more sustainable production, in which a main focus area is green procurement of medical devices – currently one of the top five of most energy intensive products in Europe.80 HEALTHCARE IS HEATING UP The healthcare sector is a contributing factor to the climate change experienced in Europe. The healthcare sector is a major energy user, as European hospitals consume on average 300 Kw of thermal and over 100 Kw of electrical energy per square meter per hour. Considering that there are approximately 15,000 hospitals in Europe, this represents an expense of 10% of the GDP and accounts for 5% of CO2 emissions.81 The NHS Sustainable Development Unit in the UK has calculated its carbon footprint at more than plus a number of smaller adjustments such as low through extreme heat and damage to health voltage distribution boards and lighting updates service delivery infrastructure in times of envi- – resulted in annual energy savings of $1.9 million. The project provided a return on investment after ronmental disaster and indirectly through forced just seven years and allowed the site to increase migration, flooding, and lifestyle changes.83 its energy security and meet its sustainability targets. Additionally, temperature-sensitive infectious diseases, such as food borne infections are likely to grow. Recent studies show that the disease burden caused by climate change in Europe could be significant, with 20,000 potential extra cases of The European Commission has outlined that the food borne diseases per year by the 2030s, and greatest concern in terms of climate change and 25,000 to 40,000 extra cases per year by the its effect on health is heat-related mortality and 2080s.84 morbidity due to increases in annual temperature. In EU countries, it is estimated that mortality 18 million tons of CO2 each year — 25% of total increases by 1–4% for each one-degree rise in public spending.82 temperature, meaning that heat related mortality could rise by 30,000 deaths per year by the Despite initiatives like this, there is still a long 2030s and by 50,000 to 110,000 deaths per year way for a common green goal within healthcare by the 2080s.85 in the European region. Great challenges remain, and the healthcare sector in general continues to be a ‘black industry’. Energy use and the effect of climate change on healthcare are outlined as primary challenges when it comes to sustainability and climate change in regard to the healthcare sector in Europe. 80 Swedish Competition Authority. The EU GPP criteria for medical devices. 2014. Healthcare Without Harm. Climate change and Health. Undated. 81,82 86 83 European Commission. Commission Staff Working Document – Accompanying document to the White Paper: “Adapting to climate change: Towards a European framework for action.” 2009. 84 European Commission. Commission Staff Working Document – Accompanying document to the White Paper: “Adapting to climate change: Towards a European framework for action.” 2009. 85 European Commission. Commission Staff Working Document – Accompanying document to the White Paper: “Adapting to climate change: Towards a European framework for action.” 2009. 86 KPMG International. Improving energy and resource efficiency. 2012. 87 BRUSSELS ROUNDTABLE The roundtable discussion in the European Parliament in Brussels marked the second stop on our journey to co-create better healthcare systems worldwide. The roundtable participants represented a broad range of European healthcare stakeholders and provided their insights concerning the common challenges and opportunities across the healthcare systems in the 28 member countries of the EU. To inspire the discussion, the Danish Member of the European Parliament, CHALLENGES FOR HEALTHCARE IN EUROPE OPPORTUNITIES FOR CHANGE There is much variation in the quality of healthcare services and access to treatment Change the mindset of health professionals to see themselves as guests in patients’ lives, not the hosts Increased demand for healthcare services and strained budgets are stretching healthcare systems at both ends Demographic change with an ageing population Make organizational data public in order in most EU countries is increasing the need for to increase learning across the member integrated long-term care countries There is an inability to properly manage long term and chronic illnesses Enhance coordination and incentivize collaboration on all levels Improve quality of care for chronic diseases Empower patients to self-care and harvest the There is a lack of focus on how to manage the benefits of a more efficient use of healthcare “mobile patient” that is moving across the open professionals’ time EU borders Ms. Christel Schaldemose (profiled in an interview on page 90), presented her perspective on what the political priorities for healthcare in the EU should be; Dr. Francesco De Lorenzo, President of the European Cancer Patient Coalition (profiled in an interview on page 91), provided a status update on the European healthcare systems from a patient perspective with a special emphasis on the role of accreditation and Ms. Maria Iglesia Gomez, Head of the Strategy and Analysis Unit in DG SANTE (profiled on page 83), outlined the European Commission’s priorities and policy initiatives for healthcare. THREE GLOBAL ROUNDTABLES 88 In late 2014 and early 2015, DNV GL and Monday Morning Sustainia traveled to The roundtables were in the format of one-day interactive workshops that gathered key Shanghai, Brussels, and Washington DC to gain insights for this publication and start stakeholders from across the healthcare system, including patients, professionals, providers, a conversation on challenges and opportunities for improving the quality of care in policy makers and researchers, with the aim of identifying possible trajectories for change the healthcare systems of China, the EU and the USA. The guiding question for the by spurring dialogue and discussions based on the various perspectives from the different roundtables was: HOW DO WE IMPROVE THE QUALITY OF CARE? stakeholders. 89 EUROPE / EXPERT INSIGHT though a lot of work is still needed tunities for patients to take greater to reach the full potential of better control of their own health is a bar- prevention. rier to greater patient involvement. HOW DO YOU SEE THE ROLE OF THE EUROPEAN UNION IN OVERCOMING THE CHALLENGES FACED BY ITS COUNTRIES’ HEALTHCARE SYSTEMS? Ms. Christel Schaldemose Member of the European Parliament Participant at the Brussels roundtable I sincerely hope that the new Commission is serious about taking responsibility for the healthcare agenda instead of just leaving it to the member states alone. Obviously, it is the responsibility of the individual countries to design their own healthcare systems, but I WHAT CHALLENGES DO YOU SEE FOR HEALTHCARE SYSTEMS IN THE EU? tions and the economic crisis. These issues have resulted in countries not being willing to invest a larger share more on patient involvement both in terms of changing organizations and introducing new technologies. HOW SHOULD HEALTHCARE ORGANIZATIONS ENGAGE WITH OTHER SECTORS TO IMPROVE THE DELIVERY OF SAFER, SMARTER AND MORE PERSON-CENTERED CARE? Civil society and local communi- problems, but I believe patients shall prevention means avoiding the be formally involved in the very pro- recurrence of cancer or preventing cess of implementing the Directive, other chronic diseases. Effective hence ensuring a more concrete screening is also the only reliable application of the European norm. instrument we have to effectively WHAT ARE SOME TANGIBLE WAYS HOW DO YOU SEE THE THAT PATIENTS CAN BECOME ROLE OF THE PATIENT IN THE EU MORE ACTIVELY INVOLVED IN TODAY? THEIR HEALTHCARE? Nowadays, patients are crucial I strongly believe in the power TUNITY FOR IMPROVING HEALTH- policies, but also in their design. needs and true experience. From Within a Europe Union with 28 mem- this standpoint it is very difficult for cancer patients face are related to ber states and growing harmonised policymakers not to take our voice the sharp decrease of resources al- institutions, patients need strong, into consideration. The European located to healthcare. ECPC believes CARE IN THE EU? Many of the problems European ties can play a crucial part in keeping specialised and professional advo- Parliament demonstrated to be a that a sustainable solution would be edge sharing within the EU holds citizens healthy and these kinds of cates to push on the crucial common formidable partner in advocating pa- to better integrate the promising great promise in terms of addressing efforts need to be scaled up. But problems faced by all patients and tients’ rights. The European Cancer eHealth and mHealth technologies some of the similar challenges we just as with patient engagement, raise awareness on the unbearable Patient’s Bill of Rights, ECPC Call to into European citizens’ lives, hence are all facing. it is essential that we don’t frame national and local situations existing. Action and several other advocacy lowering the costs of several tradi- community involvement as a way to efforts are finally bearing practical tional care services. We are actively simply cut budgets or as a last resort fruit. The European Commission has working to demonstrate this through demonstrated a high level of sensi- eSMART, an EU funded project tivity towards patients’ perspective, investigating the use of mobiles to establishing the Expert Group on monitor cancer treatment. HOW CAN PATIENTS TAKE PART IN ENHANCING THE QUALITY OF CARE IN THE EU? to save ailing healthcare systems. Companies also have an important role to play. By encouraging and facilitating employees to live healthier WHAT IS THE BIGGEST CHALLENGE FACING PATIENTS IN THE EU TODAY? to contribute more and be more ac- lives, companies can also benefit ities in the way EU’s 500 million tients’ representatives in the CanCon tive in the healthcare system of the financially with greater employee citizens access healthcare. Inequal- Joint Action. future. This could include measuring satisfaction and fewer sick days. ities in access to healthcare have There are still unbearable inequal- their own blood pressure or taking different and varied faces: drugs greater personal responsibility by are not evenly priced in all member living healthier lifestyles with better states, and in several countries es- diets and more physical activity. The EU countries will essentially have spending in all EU countries will to develop healthcare systems that hopefully help drive the develop- empower patients to take control ment of better treatments and of their own health. This would also increase the focus on prevention. serve to involve patients more in the This is a positive development consequences of their own choices. because the result is a clear focus on how to enhance the quality of life WHAT IS THE GREATEST OPPOR- advocacy efforts are based on real opportunity. The efforts to lower healthcare saving billions of euros. tation and evaluation of healthcare ly a challenge but it could also be an IN THE EU? therefore help our health systems of patient’s advocacy. ECPC’s I think patients are going to have OPPORTUNITY FOR HEALTHCARE reduce the incidence of cancer and partners not only in the implemen- of GDP in healthcare. This is certain- HOW IS THE ECONOMIC CRISIS AN 90 for EU healthcare systems to focus believe that collaboration and knowl- Across the EU countries, I see two overall challenges: aging popula- Moreover, it is a great challenge “it is unacceptable not to grant access to the best care available to all European citizens” EU healthcare systems will have “I believe that collaboration and knowledge sharing within the EU holds great promise in terms of addressing some of the similar challenges we are all facing” sential drugs are not available at all. Cancer Control and including pa- WHAT ROLE DOES PREVENTATIVE CARE PLAY IN AN EFFECTIVE HEALTHCARE SYSTEM? Patients’ freedom to seek healthcare The European Union has been outside their country is declared by very vocal on the role of prevention, EU law, but cross-border health- particularly through the promotion care remains complex, bureaucratic of healthy lifestyles. This is laudable to obtain and in several cases too and ECPC strongly encourages expensive for the patient. Consid- equilibrate nutrition, physical activity ering the overall high standards and screenings. However, preven- and effectiveness in curing cancer tion has many faces. In many cases, in Europe, it is unacceptable not to early diagnosis represents the most grant access to the best care avail- reliable weapon a cancer patient for patients. By improving efforts to become more focused on keeping to prevent rather than treat illness, patients out of the hospital, as this Europeans will live better and longer. benefits both patients and strained able to all European citizens. The has to successfully beat his/her The economic crisis could therefore national budgets. Unfortunately, the Cross Border Healthcare Directive disease. For a cancer patient, either be seen as an advantage for patients fact that these changes are framed can provide a partial solution to the in remission or facing the treatment, and healthcare systems alike, even as service cuts rather than oppor- Dr. Francesco De Lorenzo President of The Italian Federation of Cancer Patients Organizations (FAVO) Participant at the Brussels roundtable 91 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA BALANCING THE SCALES The United States’ healthcare system has been under increasing stress in recent years. High spending costs, combined with the growing burden of chronic and non-communicable diseases has created a fractured and unsustainable healthcare model. Seven of the top ten causes of death in 2010 were but some progress has already been made – chronic diseases, and by 2012 nearly half of all namely in terms of lowering the uninsured rate American adults – 117 million people – had one through the implementation of the Affordable or more chronic health conditions. This growth Care Act. By the end of 2014, the uninsured rate in chronic illnesses affects not only the country’s among American adults was down to 12.9% – health, but also its pocketbook, as these diseas- compared to 17.1% just one year earlier.4 es cost individuals and the government a great deal. In 2009, for example, 84% of all healthcare This chapter offers a look at the American health- spending went toward the treatment and man- care system today, through the lens of the seven agement of chronic conditions.3 dimensions of quality of care. By understanding the challenges that exist in terms of equitable ac- The structure of the American healthcare system, cess, patient safety, appropriate use of treatment particularly its fee for service model, is also and medicine, and cost-efficient service, we can important to consider when discussing how develop solutions to address these weaknesses In 2013, the USA spent $2.9 trillion on healthcare, capita spent on healthcare.2 The costs are caused healthcare delivery in the country can improve. and create a more sustainable, person-centered amounting to $9,255 per person and 17.4% of the by multiple factors: insurance, specialist visits, As it stands now, the country is unable to provide system for the entire country. GDP.1 The country outspends all others when numerous expensive treatments, and overpriced low cost, high quality care for all its citizens, even it comes to healthcare and by a considerable pharmaceutical drugs. those unable or unwilling to purchase private margin – the second highest-spending country is the Netherlands with 12% of GDP and $4,710 per insurance. Reaching this goal is a daunting task, 1 Centers for Medicaid and Medicare Services. National Health Expenditures 2013 Highlights. 2014. 2 OECD. StatExtracts – Health expenditure and financing, main indicators. 2013. 92 3 Robert Wood Johnson Foundation & Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health. Chronic Care: Making the Case for Ongoing Care. 2010. 4 Joszt L. Uninsured Rate Fell to 12.9% by the End of 2014. American Journal of Managed Care. 2015. 93 USA / EQUITY FIGURE 10. RANKING SCORES (FROM 1-11 ) COSTS ARE KEEPING PEOPLE AWAY FROM HEALTHCARE WATCH THE ACCESS GAP AUS CAN FRA GER NETH NZ NOR SWE SWIZ UK 7 1 US COST-RELATED ACCESS PROBLEMS 9 5 10 4 8 6 3 1 11 Access Measures DID NOT FILL A PRESCRIPTION More than one-third of the Americans went Skipped recommended medical test, treatment, or follow-up; or had a medical problem but did not visit doctor or clinic in the past year because of cost without healthcare because of costs in 2014. This puts the USA in the bottom in terms 7 4 8 6 10 9 3 2 4 1 11 9 1 11 cost-related access problems. Equitable access to healthcare regardless of income, race and ethnicity, gender, education, or geographic location is an area in which the USA still struggles. In the report “Mirror mirror on the Wall: How the U.S. Healthcare System Compares Internationally,” from 2014, the private foundation, The Commonwealth Fund, found that the USA came in last in terms of providing equitable care, when compared with 10 other developed countries.5 Setting it apart from some of the other care dimensions, the issue of inequality permeates all sectors of American society, and healthcare is just one of the areas it touches. It is therefore difficult to separate inequality in healthcare from inequality in every other aspect of life. With that in mind, rather than discussing the larger issue of socio- QUALITY BY ZIP CODE... An American’s place of residence plays an integral role in the equity of access and quality Source: Commonwealth Fund. Mirror, Mirror on the Wall: How the Performance of the U.S. Health Care System Compares Internationally. 2014. Page 21. Patient’s insurance denied payment for medical care or did not pay as much as expected 8 6 in certain states, such as Minnesota, receive better care than higher income populations in other states, like Louisiana.6 In Massachusetts, 9% of adults went without care last year because of cost, while further south in Mississippi that portion skyrocketed to 22%.7 This disparity exists throughout the country and is often caused by historic patterns of racial and ethnic discrimination. economic disparity, this section will focus more 5 4 1 1 not expand coverage, however, only an average of costs, putting them at risk of delaying or forgoing 31% of adults are Medicaid eligible, meaning huge needed care and contributing to the disparity of numbers of residents remain uninsured and with healthcare access. As a nation, over 50% of people little access to quality care.12 In these states, many with low incomes and 20% of those with middle now fall into what is known as a “coverage gap” in incomes were either underinsured or uninsured in which they earn too high an income to be eligible 2012.10 for Medicaid, but not high enough to qualify for tax credits which would have made other insurance plans affordable.13 In some states, such as Texas, TRYING TO BRIDGE THE GAP this gap is enormous, leaving about one million low WITH MEDICAID AND MEDICARE income people who could otherwise be covered, Medicaid and Medicare are two government uninsured.14 Thus, while some states move toward funded insurance programs designed to provide greater equity under this provision, others are healthcare for low-income and elderly Americans, widening the access gap between the haves and respectively. Both are intended to ensure that the have-nots. vulnerable populations still receive quality medical care. Medicare is operated at the national level, and Medicaid is a state-run program. Both have been affected by recent healthcare reforms, but the narrowly on how entrenched inequality manifests …AND BY PAYCHECK changes to Medicaid coverage, in particular, have in the healthcare system, particularly in terms of 37% of Americans went without care in 2013 an enormous impact on equitable care distribution location, income, and insurance coverage. because of cost, meaning that they did not visit in the United States. LEARNING FROM THE BEST While the American healthcare system’s inequitable access is truly astounding on an international a physician when sick, did not get a prescrip- scale a great deal can be done to alleviate some tion filled, or did not get a recommended test On June 28, 2012, the USA Supreme Court issued or treatment. See figure 10. Adults with lower a ruling that states can decide whether or not to socioeconomic status are more likely to experi- expand Medicaid to cover individuals with incomes ence high blood pressure, obesity, heart disease, up to 138% of the poverty line.11 This ruling has had meet the benchmarks of the highest performing infectious diseases and mental illness.8 Due to the a mixed effect on the alleviation of inequality of American states, massive strides could be made incredibly high cost of care, access is often de- access to care for low-income individuals. At the across the board. Over 30 million more low-in- positive end, in states that chose to expand cover- 6 Commonwealth Fund. Healthcare in the Two Americas. 2013. 10 Commonwealth Fund. America’s Underinsured: A State-by-State Look at Health Insurance Affordability Prior to the New Coverage Expansions. 2014. termined by whether or not someone is insured, and it has been well-established that low income age, an average of 77% of uninsured adults are now adults are more likely to be uninsured than high- eligible for Medicaid insurance. In states that did 7 Commonwealth Fund. Aiming Higher: Results from a Scorecard on State Health System Performance. 2014. 11 Kaiser Family Foundation. A Guide to the Supreme Court’s Decision on the ACA’s Medicaid Expansion. 2012. er-income individuals, leading to income-based 8 Weir K. “Closing the healthwealth gap.” American Psychological Association. 2013; 44(9): 36. 12 Kaiser Family Foundation. Number of Uninsured Eligible for Medicaid Under the ACA. 2015. 5 Commonwealth Fund. Mirror, Mirror on the Wall: How the Performance of the U.S. Health Care System Compares Internationally. 2014. 94 6 financial protection from out-of-pocket healthcare of care they receive, as state by state disparities are quite large. In fact, low income populations 10 9 Kaiser Family Foundation. Medicaid and the Uninsured. 2009. “underinsured” with coverage that fails to provide be found without leaving the country. As the Commonwealth Fund reports, if all states could come adults and children would have health insurance – reducing the number of uninsured by more than half. Additionally, an estimated 86,000 fewer people would die prematurely and about 21 million fewer low-income adults would go without needed care because of cost.15 inequalities.9 In addition, when low-income people do have insurance, they are more likely to be of these disparities, and many solutions can Kaiser Family Foundation. The Coverage Gap: Uninsured Poor Adults in States that Do Not Expand Medicaid – An Update. 2014. 13, 14 15 Commonwealth Fund. Healthcare in the Two Americas. 2013. 95 USA / SAFETY HOSPITAL ACQUIRED INFECTIONS ARE DECREASING There is currently no system in place that can estimate THE FIGHT TO IMPROVE PATIENT SAFETY the extent of all types of hospital acquired infections (HAIs) – but a prevalence study from the Center for Disease Control provides an estimate of the overall challenge of HAIs in American hospitals. The latest survey found that on any given day, about 1 in 25 hospital patients has at least one HAI.21 There were an estimated 722,000 HAIs in American acute care hospitals in 2011 budgets. HAIs alone are responsible for $28 billion to In 2009 the USA Department of Health and Human rors, healthcare acquired infections, and prevent- each year due to preventable medical errors.16 able drug events. lance resources and data to assess the health burden and rates of ADEs. 2) Prevention—Share existing evidence-based prevention tools across Federal Agencies and with non-Federal healthcare providers and patients. 3) Incentives and Oversight—Explore opportunities, including financial incentives and oversight authorities, to promote ADE prevention. HAIs: Road Map to Elimination” and each year the progress towards this goal is measured and captured in “The HAI Progress Report”. The Report shows that 4) Research—Identify current knowledge gaps and future research needs (unanswered questions) for ADE prevention. all infections. A main driver in this progress is, in part, the third leading cause of death in America, behind heart disease and cancer. In 2008, medical DIAGNOSTIC ERRORS POSE A SERIOUS errors cost the United States $19.5 billion.17 THREAT A correct diagnosis is a key element in increasing Patient safety in the USA has improved in the patient safety. Each year in the USA, approx- last couple of years. According to the Agency for imately 12 million adults who seek outpatient Healthcare Research and Quality, hospital-ac- medical care are misdiagnosed. This figure quired conditions (HACs) in the USA have de- amounts to 1 out of 20 adult patients, and in half creased from 2010 to 2013 with 1.3 million fewer of those cases, the diagnostic error has the po- patient harms. As a result 50,000 fewer patients tential to result in severe harm.19 in healthcare costs were saved.18 See figure 11. the Medicare rule that took effect October 2008, which prevents hospitals from receiving payment for the costs of treating certain HAIs.25, 26 A study reporting results of a survey of 317 infection-control professionals published in The American Journal of Infection Control in May 2012 shows that Misdiagnosis also strains budgets with diagnos- targeted under the Medicare rule.27 tic errors accounting for the largest fraction of malpractice claim payouts, totaling $38.8 billion PREVENTABLE MEDICATION ERRORS COST LIVES the challenges that compromise patient safety in between 1986 and 2010.20 AND MONEY Each year in the USA, serious preventable medication errors occur in 3.8 million inpatient admissions and 3.3 million outpatient visits. Inpatient and outpatient preventable medication errors cost approximately $21 16 17% 12 billion annually.28 Medication errors typically occur because of prescription error, fragmentation of care, and lack of information technology infrastructure, such 8 as Electronic Medical Records and electronic prescrib- 9% ing. Studies show that improved communication among 7% 4 physicians, pharmacists and nurses prevented 85% of 2% Change in HACs, 2010 to 2011 serious medication errors and that including a pharmaChange in HACs, 2011 to 2012 Change in HACs, 2012 to 2013 Change in HACs, 2010 to 2013 document the same measurable results as the “National Action Plan to Prevent HAIs”, which was released in 2009 and showed measurable reductions by 2012.30 Results are not yet available for the ADE Action Plan. for Medicare and Medicaid Services policy has led to In the following section, we will look at some of 20 The ambition for the ADE Action Plan is that it will more than 80% of the respondents believe the Centers greater focus on the healthcare-associated infections died in the hospital and approximately $12 billion 96 1) Surveillance—Coordinate existing Federal surveil- significant reductions were reported in 2012 for nearly The study places preventable medical errors as 0 prevention, incentives and oversight, and research: Services set out the “National Action Plan to Prevent Safety estimates that up to 400,000 people die Source: AHRQ. Interim Update on 2013 Annual Hospital-Acquired Condition Rate and Estimates of Cost Savings and Deaths Averted from 2010 to 2013. The four pillars in the ADE Action Plan are surveillance, ditures annually.24 the American healthcare system: diagnostic er- The national HAC rate declined by 9% from 2012 to 2013 and was 17% lower in 2013 than in 2010 of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. $33 billion in potentially preventable healthcare expen- A study released in 2013 by the Journal of Patient Annual and cumulative decrease in HACs, 2010-2013 the Department of Health and Human Services Office died during their hospitalizations.22, 23 In addition to The USA has made some notable progress in recent years in regard to ensuring safer environments and safer treatment for all patients, but is still lagging behind when compared internationally. HACS ARE DECREASING SIGNIFICANTLY prevention – “The ADE Action Plan“ – was released by and approximately 75,000 hospital patients with HAIs costing human lives, HAIs also put a strain on healthcare FIGURE 11. In August 2014, the first national action plan for ADE cist on routine medical rounds led to a 78% reduction in medication errors.29 16 James J. “A New, Evidence-Based Estimate of Patient Harms Associated with Hospital Care.” Journal of Patient Safety. 2113; 9(3): 122-128. 17 Andel C, Davidow SL, Hollander M & Moreno DA. “The economics of health care quality and medical errors.” Journal of Health Care Finance 2012; 39(1): 39-50. 18 AHRQ. Interim Update on 2013 Annual Hospital-Acquired Condition Rate and Estimates of Cost Savings and Deaths Averted from 2010 to 2013. 2013. 19 Singh H, Meyer A & Thomas E. “The frequency of diagnostic errors in outpatient care: estimations from three large observational studies involving US adult populations.” BMJ Quality and Safety 2014; 23(9). 20 Johns Hopkins Medicine. Diagnostic Errors More Common, Costly And Harmful Than Treatment Mistakes. 2013. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Health-associated Infections (HAIs) – Data and Statistics. 2015. 24 Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. National Action Plan to Prevent Health Care-Associated Infections: Road Map to Elimination. 2013. 25 US Department of Health and Human Services. Testimony on U.S. Efforts to Reduce Healthcare-Associated Infections. 2013. 26 Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services. Hospital-Acquired Conditions. 2014. 27 Lee G et al. “Perceived impact of the Medicare policy to adjust payment for health care-associated infections.” American Journal of Infection Control 2012; 40(4): 314-319. 28,29 New England Health Institute. Preventing Medication Errors: A $21 Billion Opportunity. 2010. 30 American Society of Health-System Pharmacists. Federal Plan Aims to Reduce Adverse Drug Events. 2014. 21,22 23 Magill S et al. ”Multistate Point-Prevalence Survey of Health Care-Associated Infections.” New England Journal of Medicine. 2014; 370: 1198-1208. 97 USA / PERSON-CENTERED CARE IMPROVING PERSONCENTERED CARE THROUGH POLITICAL INITIATIVES TOWARDS HEALTHCARE OF, BY AND FOR THE PEOPLE • An Accountable Care Organization is an entity Poor continuity of care increases the risk of medication errors, unnecessary tests and emergency room visits, and preventable hospital admissions, all of which lead to costly and lower quality of that consists of healthcare providers across care.36 In 2011, the economic burden of inade- the continuum of care (including acute care, quate care coordination in the United States was long-term care, and behavioral and mental estimated to be between $25 billion and $45 healthcare) that agrees to be held accountable billion.37 for improving the health of patients receiving Medicare. If patients’ healthcare costs end up Putting the patient at the center of care is not a new ambition in the USA. Since the early 2000s the Institute of Medicine and the Physician Charter have both defined person-centeredness as an essential component of high-quality healthcare. While the concept is well-known, its adoption into the overall healthcare system remains less widespread. CONTINUITY OF CARE IS A PROBLEM being less than would otherwise be expected According to The Agency for Healthcare Re- while healthcare quality is maintained or search and Quality (AHRQ) poor communica- improved, the providers get to keep a share of tion exchange between primary care physicians that savings. Since passage of the Affordable and specialists and information lost in referral Care Act, more than 360 Medicare ACOs have been established, serving over 5.6 million Americans with Medicare.33 • A health home is a provider or group of providers who coordinate care for all the processes are two of the most crucial areas of coordination to improve.38 These findings are mirrored in the 2011 “Survey of Public Views of the U.S. Health System” from the Commonwealth medical and non-medical needs of Medicaid Fund, where 47% of the respondents reported at patients with two or more chronic conditions. least one failure of care coordination.39 The Affordable Care Act created this option as a way to allow states to use Medicaid funding to better coordinate care for high-need, high-risk populations.34 As of June 2014, 15 states have opened health homes and more HEALTH INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IS MOVING FORWARD In its Declaration on Patient-Centred Healthcare these issues are the Accountable Care Organi- than one million Medicaid beneficiaries have Health information technology has become a key from 2006, The International Alliance of Patients' zations (ACO) for Medicare recipients, health been enrolled. Nearly a dozen other states are element of person-centered care as it encom- Organizations states that the essence of per- homes for Medicaid recipients and a reward sys- planning health home models.35 passes a wide range of products and services son-centered healthcare is that the “healthcare tem for person-centered care in hospitals.32 See system is designed and delivered to address the textbox on page 99. healthcare needs and preferences of patients so • The reward system for hospitals focuses on designed to collect, store, and exchange patient quality of care, and maintenance of high levels data throughout the healthcare experience. The of patient satisfaction. To measure how satisfied core feature of health IT is electronic patient patients are with the care they experienced, that healthcare is appropriate and cost-effective.” The following section discusses three elements of The Declaration sets out five principles of per- person-centered care in order to point to some of about various aspects of their experience. In forth legislation to make electronic health records son-centered healthcare: respect; choice and em- the challenges standing in the way of the scaling October 2012, Medicare began rewarding the a national goal.40 This could explain why the powerment; patient involvement in health policy; of person-centered care in the USA. These ele- best performing hospitals with bonuses based proportion of hospitals having electronic records access and support; and information.31 ments are continuity of care, health information on the evaluations. has tripled since 2010 and why 38% of physicians patients are surveyed randomly and asked technology, and health literacy, records. The USA federal government has put report having adopted basic digitization in 2012. American frontrunners such as Planetree, The Institute of Medicine and Kaiser Permanente have Although the numbers point towards an increase focused on promoting and implementing per- in the adoption of electronic records overall, son-centered care, but still there is a long way to there is still room for improvement. A study from go for person-centered care to become common practice in the USA. The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA) repeatedly refers to patient centeredness, patient satisfaction, patient experience of care, patient engagement, and shared decision-making in its provisions. Three initiatives that address 98 31 International Alliance of Patients’ Organizations. Declaration on Patient-Centred Healthcare. 2006. 34 Families USA. The Promise of Care Coordination: Transforming Health Care Delivery. 2013. 32 Center for Health Care Strategies, Inc. Health Literacy Implications of the Affordable Care Act. 2010. 35 Centers for Medicaid and Medicare Services. Medicaid Health Homes: An Overview. 2014. 33 Centers for Medicaid and Medicare Services. Medicare ACOs continue to succeed in improving care, lowering cost growth. 2014. 36,37 Families USA. The Promise of Care Coordination: Transforming Health Care Delivery. 2013. 38 AHRQ. Care Coordination. 2014. 39 Commonwealth Fund. A Call for Change: The 2011 Commonwealth Fund Survey of Public Views of the U.S. Health System. 2011. 40 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Meaningful Use. 2012. 41 American Medical Association. Quality of Patient Care Drives Physician Satisfaction; Doctors Have Concerns About Electronic Health Records, Study Finds. 2013. 42 George Washington University. Low Health Literacy: Implications for National Health Policy. 2007. 2013 found that digital recordkeeping negatively affected physicians’ satisfaction. Those surveyed expressed concern that current electronic health record technology interferes with face-to-face discussions with patients, requires too much clerical work, and degrades the accuracy of medical records by encouraging template-generated notes.41 99 USA THE NATION SUFFERS FROM POOR •GOAL 2: Promote changes in the healthcare HEALTH LITERACY delivery system that improve health informa- When the health literacy of the American people tion, communication, informed decision-mak- was reviewed by the National Assessment of ing, and access to health services Adult Literacy, it showed that a mere 12% had proficient health literacy. At the other end of the •GOAL 3: Incorporate accurate, stan- spectrum, 14% had below basic health literacy, dards-based, and developmentally appropriate and would not, for example, be able to recognize health and science information and curricula in a medical appointment on a hospital appoint- child care and education through the university ment form.42 level Low health literacy is associated with reduced use •GOAL 4: Support and expand local efforts of preventive services and management of chron- to provide adult education, English language ic conditions, and higher mortality. Furthermore, instruction, and culturally and linguistically it also results in medication errors, misdiagnosis appropriate health information services in the due to poor communication between providers community and patients, low rates of treatment compliance, hospital readmissions, unnecessary emergency room visits, longer hospital stays, and poor re- / COST-EFFICIENCY GETTING YOUR MONEY'S WORTH? Given the ever increasing cost of healthcare throughout the world, maximizing efficiency is of the utmost importance for every country. Unfortunately in the USA, more expensive healthcare does not translate to better quality. •GOAL 5: Build partnerships, develop guidance, and change policies sponsiveness to public health emergencies. Since 1980, the USA has increased its health•GOAL 6: Increase basic research and the de- care spending from around 9% of its GDP to The economic repercussions of low health liter- velopment, implementation, and evaluation of 17.7% in 2012.45 From 2007-2012, a period that acy have been estimated to cost the American practices and interventions to improve health encompassed the Great Recession, health- economy between $106 billion and $236 billion literacy care spending rose $491 billion, reaching $2.8 annually.43 trillion nationally according to government •GOAL 7: Increase the dissemination and use of estimates.46 Spending increased in all states Several provisions in the Affordable Care Act evidence-based health literacy practices and on both a per capita basis and as a share of directly acknowledge the need for greater atten- interventions total state income. And still, the Common- tion to health literacy, and many others imply it. wealth Fund’s 2014 “Scorecard on State Moreover, the Plain Writing Act of 2010, requires Health Performance” points to deteriorating Furthermore, the Department of Health and Hu- all new publications, forms, and publicly distrib- access to care for adults, stagnant or worsen- man Services developed the National Action Plan uted documents from the federal government ing performance on other key measures such to Improve Health Literacy in 2010. The National to be written in a “clear, concise, well-organized” as preventive care for adults, and widespread Action Plan provides a framework for consistent manner.44 disparities in peoples’ healthcare experience across and within states.47, 48, 49 action to address health literacy and proposes coordinated societal action across seven different The provisions in the ACA, in the national action areas to improve systems, information communi- plan to improve health literacy and the Plain The American healthcare system therefore cation and education. Writing Act all point towards a positive focus on provides the lowest quality of care at the empowering the patients to become a more ac- highest price tag – the definition of cost-inef- tive part of their care. Whether they have helped ficiency. Hence, gearing the system towards produce positive results is too soon to tell. providing better quality care for less money The seven goals in the plan are listed below: •GOAL 1: Develop and disseminate health and is one of the great challenges that this region safety information that is accurate, accessible, and actionable is up against. While the others sectors ex43 Center for Health Care Strategies. Health Literacy Implications of the Affordable Care Act. 2010. 44 Plain Writing Act. 5 U.S.C. 301. 2010. plored the quality of the American healthcare system, this section will look at some of the features that makes this system so expensive. COSTLY PAYMENT MODEL With the fee-for-service (FFS) model, physicians are reimbursed for all services they provide and pay is not necessarily linked to outcomes.50 In 2008, 78% of employer-sponsored health insurance used this model.51 This means that there is little or no incentive to discourage the delivery of unnecessary services in this system.52 According to the American think-tank, Center for American Progress, the FFS model has multiple disadvantages: it encourages wasteful use, especially of high cost items and services, and it does not align financial incentives between different providers.53 45 Commonwealth Fund. Mirror, Mirror on the Wall: How the Performance of the U.S. Health Care System Compares Internationally. 2014. 46 Commonwealth Fund. Aiming Higher: Results from a Scorecard on State Health System Performance. 2014. 47 Center for Medicaid and Medicare Services. National Health Expenditures – Table 1. Undated. 48 Center for Medicaid and Medicare Services. Total All Payers State Estimates by State of Residence. 2011. 100 49 Commonwealth Fund. Aiming Higher: Results from a Scorecard on State Health System Performance. 2014. 50 National Commission on Physician Payment Reform. Report on The National Commission on Physician Payment Reform. 2013. 51 Center for American Progress. Alternatives to Fee-for-Service Payments in Health Care. 2012. 52 Barnes J. “Moving Away from Fee-for Service.” The Atlantic. 2012. 101 USA Furthermore, FFS does not encourage preven- Administrative costs account for 25% of hospital tive care and patient education, which results in spending in the USA, and the 2014 Common- conditions that could have been managed with wealth Fund report, “A Comparison of Hospital better preventive disease management being Administrative Costs in Eight Nations,” found that managed in acute care instead.54 there is no link between higher administrative costs and better quality care.57 The study attri- However, the need for alternative payment mod- butes the high administrative costs in the USA to els is well recognized and small shifts in payment two factors: models are emerging. In September 2013, the National Commission on Physician Payment Reform EFFECTIVENESS TOO MUCH AND NOT ENOUGH 1) The complexity of billing a multiplicity of issued its recommendations on how to reform the insurers with varying payment rates, rules and physician payment system. The first recommen- documentation requirements; dation reads: “Over time, payers should largely eliminate stand-alone fee-for-service payment to / 2) The imperative for hospitals to generate profits medical practices because of its inherent ineffi- or, for nonprofit hospitals, surpluses. The re- ciencies and problematic financial incentives.”55 searchers found that within the USA, administrative costs were highest (27.2% of spending) Other alternative payment models were intro- at for-profit hospitals. duced with the Affordable Care Act with the aim of paying for quality instead of quantity of Reducing USA per capita spending on hospital care. These payment models include bundled administration to Scottish or Canadian levels payments, patient-centered medical homes and would have saved more than $150 billion in 2011.58 The dual problem of over- and under-use use of healthcare services is a significant concern in the USA. Overuse of medications and tests puts a severe financial burden on the system. However, underuse of certain services is still a great challenge, especially for low-income groups. accountable care organizations. See text box. DOCTORS ON THE DEFENSIVE Applying the appropriate measures based This section will provide a status on the devel- SKY HIGH ADMINISTRATIVE COSTS In a 2009 national survey of physicians, 75% of on science, and thus ensuring the effective- opment of underuse and overuse of treat- The money spent on healthcare administration doctors said that they order more tests, proce- ness of the healthcare system, has proven a ment in the American healthcare system and is more than twice the total spending on heart dures and medicines than are medically nec- difficult task.60 Appropriate measures refer highlight key developments within promoting disease and three times the spending on cancer.56 essary in an attempt to avoid lawsuits.59 About to the avoidance of both underuse – like not the use of evidence based medicine. $650 billion are spent annually on defensive med- receiving a vaccine despite its proven effec- icine, which, aside from the high cost also results tiveness – and overuse, e.g. treating a child’s in other consequences: simple ear infection with antibiotics.61 1) Limiting access to care for high-risk patients Overuse and underuse of treatment are both NEW PAYMENT MODELS TO PROMOTE QUALITY CARE far too common in the USA. Overuse has 2) Over- and under-treating patients with life-threatening illnesses •B undled payments, which are fixed amounts paid to healthcare providers for a bundle of services or all the care a patient is expected to need during a period of time more on preventive care, patient education, and care coordination between different healthcare providers •A ccountable care organizations, which are groups of healthcare providers who agree to share responsibility for coordinating lower-cost, higher-quality care for a group of patients ‘healthcare for all’ discussion. A trend away physicians, which has resulted in lowered from employing evidence based medicine physician morale and manpower also contributes to improper and ineffective treatment. 53 Center for American Progress. Alternatives to Fee-for-Service Payments in Health Care. 2012. and Improving the Health Care System.” New England Journal of Medicine 2012; 367: 1875-1878. 54 Gillies S & Gretch S. “Coping with Medicare Advantage fee-for-service plans.” American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. 2008. 57,58 55 National Commission on Physician Payment Reform. Report on The National Commission on Physician Payment Reform. 2013. 56 Cutler D, Wikler E & Basch P. “Reducing Administrative Costs 102 the skyrocketing healthcare expenses, and underuse remains a challenge feeding into the 3) F ostering distrust among patients and their •P atient-centered medical homes, which are redesigned primary care practices that focus been named one of the main contributors to Himmelstein D et al. ”A Comparison Of Hospital Administrative Costs In Eight Nations: US Costs Exceed All Others By Far.” Health Affairs 2014; 33(9): 1586-1594. Page 1586 59 Jackson Healthcare. Quantifying the Cost of Defensive Medicine. 2010. 60 Institute for Healthcare Improvement. Across the Chasm: Six Aims for Changing the Health Care System. 2015. 61 Commonwealth Fund. Mirror, Mirror on the Wall: How the Performance of the U.S. Health Care System Compares Internationally. 2014. 103 STATUS QUO OF OVERUSE UNDERUSE STEMS FROM INEQUALITY Overuse in America’s healthcare system is a sub- A 2007 study by the National Committee for stantial problem that may account for as much as Quality Assurance reports that 91,000 Americans 30% of healthcare spending.62 Antibiotic overuse die each year because they don’t receive the EVIDENCE VS. EXPERIENCE is perhaps the most well-known issue, and it is right evidence-based care for chronic conditions In the USA, the lack of integration of evidence This is in part due to evidence-based med- particularly apparent in the USA. For instance, like high blood pressure, diabetes and heart based medicine (EMB) into the healthcare icine being derived from averaged global 60-90% of patients with acute bronchitis who disease.69 system has had severe impacts with as many evidence gathered from exogenous popu- as 57,000 Americans dying each year due to lations, which may not be relevant to local seek care are given antibiotics, despite the fact that they will recover without them.63, 64, 65 Some An important indicator of effectiveness in terms care not being based on the best available circumstances. As Trish Greenhalgh explains, positive news on this front has emerged recently, of underuse is the degree to which a healthcare evidence.73 Thus the USA will, in the coming there are some additional crises in the EMB though; the NCQA's 2014 “State of Healthcare system manages the care of patients with chronic years, be forced to reflect on how to better movement, namely: Quality Report” found that avoidance of antibi- illnesses and prevents future illnesses through integrate EBM as a way to develop more otic treatment in adults with acute bronchitis had targeted interventions.70 The 2014 “Mirror Mirror scientifically valid and smart ways to care for its first gain in the measure's seven-year history. on the Wall” report from the Commonwealth Fund patients. This is a substantial development, since aside places the USA in third place on effective care from being harmful to individual and communal overall – performing relatively well on prevention Not surprisingly, a lack of EBM – and health- • The volume of evidence, especially clinical health, antibiotic-resistant bacteria costs ap- but average in comparison to other Western coun- care professionals’ reliance on tradition and guidelines, has become unmanageable proximately $55 billion in health services and lost tries on quality of chronic care management.71 anecdotal personal experience when making productivity.66 been misappropriated by vested interests decisions – contributes to the aforementioned • Statistically significant benefits may be Underuse in the American healthcare system problems of inappropriately- and over-used The overuse of tests and procedures is also a has traditionally been linked to equity with many medical services.74 It has been estimated that problem. The NCQA's 2014 State of Healthcare patients not getting the care they need due to about half of all physicians rely on clinical ex- Quality Report concludes that the USA is either lack of insurance or ability to pay out of pocket. perience rather than evidence to make deci- en prompts may produce care that is stagnant in or overusing a range of medical By expanding access to insurance, the Affordable sions. This happens despite physicians rarely management driven rather than patient procedures. More than a quarter of all wasteful Care Act has the potential to address underuse seeing enough cases of the same conditions centered spending in healthcare— $210 billion out of the due to lack of insurance and ensure that more to draw scientifically valid conclusions about estimated $765 billion in wasteful spending in Americans get the appropriate treatment.72 treatment.75 marginal in clinical practice • Inflexible rules and technology driv- • Evidence based guidelines often map 2009—is attributed to overuse of services.67 poorly to complex multimobidity77 This is due, in large part, to the fact healthcare On the flip side, though, the evidence based providers are paid in a way that rewards doing medicine movement is struggling to narrow more, rather than being efficient. Alternative the gap between EBM and physician clinical Greenhalgh continues that these problems payment models exist, such as prior authorization practice.76 don’t signify the end of EBM, but rather point for approval to run certain tests; episode-based payments; and value-based benefit design. These alternatives, however, present three respective challenges, namely increasing excessive bureaucratic steps, incentivizing numerous doctors’ visits, and the fact that most services are not uniformly appropriate or inappropriate.68 Therefore, more research must be conducted to identify the best possible way to structure payments that reduce the incentive to overuse medical services. 104 • The evidence based “quality mark” has toward a need to return to “real” evidence 62 Overuse Accounts for Up to 30% of Healthcare Spending. Medscape. 2012. 66 Smith R & Coast J. “The True Cost of Antimicrobial Resistance.” BMJ 2013; 346. 63 WebMD. Acute Bronchitis—Topic Overview. 2015. 67,68 64 Kroening-Roche JC, Soroudi A, Castillo EM, Vilke GM. “Antibiotic and bronchodilator prescribing for acute bronchitis in the emergency department.” The Journal of Emergency Medicine 2012; 43:221. 65 Evertsen J, Baumgardner DJ, Regnery A, Banerjee I. “Diagnosis and management of pneumonia and bronchitis in outpatient primary care practices.” Primary Care Respiratory Journal 2010; 19:237. based medicine, that values individual patient care and sound, supported judgment rather than strict rules.78 Robert Wood Johnson Foundation. Doing Better by Doing Less: Approaches to Tackle Overuse of Services. 2013. 69 National Committee for Quality Assurance. The Essential Guide to Healthcare Quality. 2007. 1 Commonwealth Fund. Mirror, Mirror on the Wall: How the Performance of the U.S. Health Care System Compares Internationally. 2014. 70,7 72 Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, 42 U.S.C. § 18001. 2010. 73 National Committee of Quality Assurance. The State of Healthcare Quality: 2003. 2003. 74 Institute for Healthcare Improvement. Across the Chasm Aim #2: Health Care Must Be Effective. 2015. Hay MC et al. ”Harnessing experience: exploring the gap between evidence-based medicine and clinical practice.” Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice 2008; 14(5): 707-713. 75, 76 Greenhalgh T. “Evidence based medicine: a movement in crisis?” BMJ 2014; 348. 77,78 105 USA / TIMELINESS HEALTHCARE ON TIME... SOMETIMES The timeliness of healthcare delivery in the USA is highly dependent on the type of care being sought. While specialist visits are typically quick and easy to schedule, primary care visits tend to come with long waiting times. INCREASINGLY CROWDED EMERGENCY ROOMS Waiting times in emergency departments are often used as central indicators of timeliness in healthcare systems. In 2003, American patients arriving at emergency departments had to wait for an average of 46 minutes before receiving A SOLUTION: OPEN ACCESS SCHEDULING One way to better manage waiting times in healthcare is through smarter appointment scheduling. In an open access schedule – also treatment. Six years later, this increased by 25% known as advanced access and same-day to almost an hour.86 This development is due, schedule – almost all patients are seen on the in part, to the fact that there has been a 32% day they call for an appointment regardless of increase in visits to emergency departments from 1999 to 2009.87 the reason for their visit. Instead of booking a physician’s time weeks in advance, this model leaves a specific number of appointments kept open in each clinic session. Open access The overuse of EDs for conditions that could be scheduling has proven able to eliminate seen in a non-emergency setting is one of several backlogs of appointments in many healthcare contributors to ED overcrowding and delays in care and is often caused by a lack of primary care organizations – covering primary care facilities, medical centers and specialists clinics. At the Kaiser Permanente facility in Roseville, California, It has been shown that a lack of timely GREAT VARIATION IN TIMELINESS utilization. For instance, the WHO’s European Ob- where the open access strategy originated, treatment may result in emotional dis- FOR PRIMARY CARE AND SPECIALISTS servatory on Health Systems and Policies found average waiting times for routine appointments that in 2008, a regular doctor could have handled were lowered from 55 days to one day in less tress, physical harm, frustration for service users and professionals alike and higher treatment costs.79, 80 If all American states improved their performance to the level of the best-performing state in terms of timely care delivery, the benefits would mean a reduction in premature deaths by as much as 84,777 per year from causes that are potentially treatable or preventable.81 Additionally, timely outpatient care has the potential to reduce admissions for pediatric asthma, which costs $1.25 billion in hospitalization charges annually.82, 83 When compared internationally, the USA performs poorly on waiting times for primary care, as the Commonwealth Fund’s “Mirror Mirror on the Wall” survey from 2014 ranks the USA 8th of 11 high-income nations.84 This picture changes when examining how the USA performs on specialist and elective surgery waiting times. Here the 19% of ED visits, had one been available.88 care, specialists and emergency wards are discussed as primary indicators for the state implementation of open access scheduling include e.g. The Mayo Clinic’s Primary Care A survey of emergency department users in Cal- Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine Team and The ifornia shows that 46% of the users themselves Alaska Native Medical Center.90,91 indicated that their problem could have been handled by a primary care physician. See figure 12. country ranks 3rd and 6th, respectively, on questions regarding waiting. 1% FIGURE 12. The results correspond with the fact that IS THIS AN EMERGENCY? the healthcare system in the USA puts less In the following, waiting times for primary than a year. Other examples of successful emphasis than most countries on primary 27% Urgency of emergency room visits care and has a greater proportion of specialists than general physicians.85 of timeliness in the American healthcare Recent ED users’ responses to whether their problem could have been handled by a primary care physician sector. Yes No N/A (Visit Was Prearranged) Not Sure 46% 25% Source: California Health Care Foundation. Overuse of Emergency Departments Among Insured Californians. 2006. 79 Boudreau RM et al. “Improving the timeliness of written patient notification of mammography results by mammography centers.” The Breast Journal 2004;10(1):10-9. 80 Institute for Healthcare Improvement. Across the Chasm: Six Aims for changing the Health Care System. 2015. 106 81 Commonwealth Fund. Aiming Higher: Results from a Scorecard on State Health System Performance. 2014. 82 Schatz M, Rachelefsky G, Krishnan JA. “Follow-up after acute asthma episodes: what improves future outcomes?” Proceedings of the American Thoracic Society 2009;6: 386-93. 83 Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. Calculated from Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project. Kids’ Inpatient Database. Undated. 84 Commonwealth Fund. Mirror, Mirror on the Wall: How the Performance of the U.S. Health Care System Compares Internationally. 2014. 85 WHO European Observatory of Health Systems and Policies. Health Systems in Transition: United States. 2013. 88 WHO European Observatory of Health Systems and Policies. Health Systems in Transition: United States. 2013. 90 Murray M and Tantau C. “Must patients wait?” Joint Commission Journal on Quality Improvement 1998; 24(8): 423-5. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Wait Time for Treatment in Hospital Emergency Departments: 2009. 2012. 89 California Health Care Foundation. Overuse of Emergency Departments Among Insured Californians. 2006. 91 Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. Open Access Scheduling for Routine and Urgent Appointments. Undated. 86,87 107 USA / ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY GREENING THE HEALTHCARE AGENDA ...AND RESOURCES The majority of the materials procured by a hospital ultimately become waste, resulting in nearly 7,000 tons of waste every day and $10 billion annually in disposal costs across the healthcare industry.93 Most of that waste—as much as 8085%—consists of materials that typically end up in ordinary landfills: paper files, cardboard packing materials, glass, plastics, and other types GREEN FRONTRUNNERS ARE LEADING THE WAY of commercial trash.94 The potential for reducing In December 2014, the Obama administration declared climate change a public health hazard, highlighting the shared challenges of healthcare and environmental sustainability. These challenges are framing the ‘green’ healthcare agenda in the coming years. materials used and handling waste smarter could improve the environmental footprint of health- Kaiser Permanente has become widely care in the USA substantially. recognized as an environmental leader in the healthcare sector and over the past decade But healthcare waste is complex not only be- they have initiated a line of green initiatives. cause of its sheer volume, but also because a Among other implementations, they have small but significant amount of that waste, about created an Environmental Preference Program 15–20%, must be regulated by multiple agencies, and a Sustainability Scorecard for medical products, which helps the company evaluate including U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and select products without harmful chemicals. Occupational Safety and Health Administration, One month after hurricane Sandy hit New York City, four hospitals – together receiving 1.5 million patient visits per year – were still partially closed. Adapting healthcare practices and infrastructure to new conditions caused by climatic and environmental changes is a key element in a sustainable healthcare system. But sustainable healthcare should also reflect the environmental footprint of healthcare providers. In relation to environmental footprint, the substantial amounts of waste generated in the healthcare system is a major challenge. The following sheds light on the two main agendas within sustainability affecting the healthcare sector in the coming years: how climate change affects healthcare and how the healthcare sector in general responds to the fact that they have to work towards becoming more sustainable. A WASTE OF ENERGY... Energy consumption is another environmental and economic challenge for American healthcare systems. Currently, American healthcare facilities This Scorecard was the first of its kind in the Drug Enforcement Administration, and others.95 healthcare sector, and it helps encourage its The ever-growing healthcare industry in the USA suppliers to provide more sustainable products. means that the medical waste industry is also These dual benefits are estimated to save the company $26 million annually. growing rapidly, expected to reach $3.2 billion by 2017.96 spend $8.8 billion per year on energy. In 2013, USA Department of Energy's "Advanced Energy Retrofit Guide for Healthcare Facilities" outlined the opportunities of retrofitting healthcare facilities in order to improve energy efficiency. Along with reduced energy consumption, retrofitting also yields other benefits, ranging from improved equipment longevity to decreased patient recovery times to a more attractive brand. An example of the benefits of energy retrofitting is Connecticut's Greenwich Hospital. On the American government's 1-100 rating scale for Energy Star, Greenwich Hospital scored only 47, falling far short of the 75 required to garner an Energy Star designation. The hospital implement- EXTREME WEATHER WREAKS HAVOC ON HEALTHCARE Extreme weather events are associated with a The growing focus on how extreme weather range of health impacts, from immediate injuries impacts healthcare is a response to the USA and deaths, to chronic depression and post-trau- experiencing as much or more severe weather matic stress disorders seen in weather-related than any other country on Earth.99 Each year, disaster survivors.97 nearly 12,000 people are hospitalized as a result of extreme temperature conditions.100 This calls In the 2014 report "Primary Protection: Enhancing for adapting the healthcare infrastructure in the Healthcare Resilience for a Changing Climate," the country to mitigate new risk factors and enable Obama administration provides a guide and tool healthcare providers to tackle events such as hurri- kit that is designed to help healthcare providers canes, heat waves, droughts and floods. ensure quality care before, during and after extreme weather events.98 ed a deep energy retrofit, saving more than 1.7 million kWh and $303,000 of electricity per year. The hospital also doubled its Energy Star rating by 2010 to 88 in only six months, and reduced its overall energy consumption by 35% with a lessthan-six-month payback on the effort.92 108 92 Connecticut Energy Efficiency Fund. Energy Efficiency At Work – Case Study: Greenwich Hospital. 93 Sustainability Roadmap for Hospitals. Waste. 2015. 94 Ganju N & Walsh M. “Sustainable Computing: How Digital Healthcare can Help the Environment, Reduce Costs, and Improve Patient Service.” TechNet Magazine. 2009. 95 Sustainability Roadmap for Hospitals. Waste. 2015. 96 BCC Research. U.S. Market For Medical Waste Treatment, Containment, Management, and Disposal To Reach Nearly $3.2 Billion In 2017. 2012. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Primary Protection: Enhancing Health Care Resilience for a Changing Climate. 2014. 97,98 American Meteorological Society Policy Program. Under The Weather: Environmental Extremes and Health Care Delivery. 2010. 99,100 109 WASHINGTON DC ROUNDTABLE The Washington DC roundtable was the final destination on our global journey to co-create better healthcare systems. The keynote speaker, Ms. Susan Sheridan (profiled in an interview on page 144), became a passionate patient engagement advocate after her family suffered from no less than two major healthcare system failures. CHALLENGES FOR HEALTHCARE IN THE USA OPPORTUNITIES FOR CHANGE The quality of care varies greatly across the system Introduce a patient safety liaison outside the care team who can interact with patients and address concerns The current payment model is not cost-efficient There is a lack of involvement of patients and recognition of patient expertise as a valuable resource in treatment Use open health records to bring down waiting times Communication between professionals and patients is challenged by overly complex healthcare information Create strong, courageous leadership that can lay out common goals to change the healthcare culture Education and training of health professionals does not have a sufficient focus on patient engagement Break the “10 minute rule” to give physicians time for more meaningful conversations with patients Include patient centeredness in the training of healthcare professionals She is now Director of Patient Engagement at the Patient-Centered Outcomes Research Institute, fighting for the creation of a safer healthcare system. Her story greatly influenced discussions at the roundtable with all participants engaging actively in developing new ways to overcome the known challenges of the healthcare system in the USA and identify the opportunities at hand. THREE GLOBAL ROUNDTABLES 110 In late 2014 and early 2015, DNV GL and Monday Morning Sustainia traveled to The roundtables were in the format of one-day interactive workshops that gathered key Shanghai, Brussels, and Washington DC to gain insights for this publication and start stakeholders from across the healthcare system, including patients, professionals, providers, a conversation on challenges and opportunities for improving the quality of care in policy makers and researchers, with the aim of identifying possible trajectories for change the healthcare systems of China, the EU and the USA. The guiding question for the by spurring dialogue and discussions based on the various perspectives from the different roundtables was: HOW DO WE IMPROVE THE QUALITY OF CARE? stakeholders. 111 USA / EXPERT INSIGHT The idea was that psychiatry will to someone discovering a drug that take care of the mental health prob- cures 50% of people with depres- lems but it never worked because sion. The inventor of such a drug there have never been enough psy- would win the Nobel Prize, for sure. chiatrists. Mental health issues are Training for patient-centeredness the most common problem a doctor would be the equivalent of five or will see in their clinic every day. ten Nobel prizes in terms of the im- Therefore, doctors need to know pact it would have on mental health. more about mental health. Robert Smith Professor of Medicine and Psychiatry at Michigan State University Participant at Washington DC roundtable WHAT MAIN CHALLENG- ES DO YOU SEE FOR HEALTHCARE SYSTEMS IN THE USA? The biggest challenge is to take care of the most common, most WHAT MAIN CHALLENG- ES DO YOU SEE FOR HEALTHCARE SYSTEM IN THE USA? As a whole for the US healthcare WHAT ARE SOME TANGIBLE WAYS WHAT’S THE BIGGEST OPPORTU- OF IMPROVING PATIENT-CEN- NITY FOR IMPROVING THE QUALI- TERED CARE IN THE USA? TY OF CARE IN THE USA? “We really have the opportunity to change the way the US healthcare system is run.” government has capped graduate medical education funding since 1997, but the number of medical system, the fact that not every per- schools has grown since that time. son has access to quality healthcare The consequence is that we are is a great challenge. In the US we facing a bottleneck shortage. Today have a healthcare system that is we have around 26,000 residency reactionary instead of preventative positions available for first year – where we focus on treating people trainees and that will not be enough sionals a generic, patient-centered are negotiated. When faced with the instead of preventing people from to provide training for the students approach that includes a greater fo- difficult decisions regarding their getting sick. We do not focus on graduating from medical schools as cus on mental healthcare. Students healthcare, patients need assistance primary care, but on the myriad of early as 2016. and residents need to be trained in understanding what is happening sub-specialties. We usually try to intensively in the psychological and to them. This is a negotiated process shuffle patients off to those instead social dimensions of medicine as that is, in essence, bilateral between of allowing ourselves to really focus well as basic principles of doctor-pa- the healthcare professional and the on the patient and their needs. tient relationships where the patient patient. leads the way in their own treatment. Getting that done is the key However, patients can also learn to take a more active part in their HOW IS THE MINDSET OF THE FUTURE GENERATION OF DOCTORS DIFFERENT FROM THE CURRENT GENERATION? WHAT’S THE BIGGEST OPPORTUNITY FOR IMPROVING THE QUALI- Britani Kessler National President of the American Medical Student Association Participant at Washington DC roundtable take part in the delivery of healthcare. For them, providing healthcare is a dialogue with the patient and not just one way communication from the professional to the patient. We have a generation of young disabling and most ignored problem, task in solving the biggest problem treatment. In one study, patients in which is mental healthcare. It is more facing healthcare in the US. We have clinic waiting rooms were coached common than cancer and heart estimated that training students in on several factors in relation to com- disease combined. Psychiatrists see every medical school and residency municating with the doctor before time of change in the US healthcare for the status quo, but want to be a only 15% of the mentally ill, which in mental healthcare will cost some- they went in to their consultation. system. Politically the healthcare strong voice in improving the state We are fighting the status quo means that the remaining 85% are thing in the range of $300 million This was a randomized, controlled system is up for debate and political of the healthcare system. They are at the moment. We have a history seen entirely by medical doctors. over 10 years. That sounds like a lot trial and it was quite effective in initiatives such as the Affordable focused on patients, patient safety where care has been very paternal- Care is very poor because medical of money but we are losing more improving the dialogue between Care Act are changing the health- and on improving the quality of the istic. A majority of the older gen- doctors are not sufficiently trained in than that every year due to poor patients and doctors. care system. For the new generation healthcare system – both at hospitals eration are used to a culture where mental health. It is such an obvious mental healthcare. of professionals, but also for the but also at a political level. the doctor has the final say. This problem but nothing is being done about it. WHY DO YOU THINK THAT IS? The impact of teaching with a TY OF CARE IN THE USA? We are currently in a tremendous tion that this time of change gives ness would be dramatic. It would them the opportunity to make things take twenty years to train everyone better. We really have the opportunity but the impact would be comparable to change the way the US healthcare system is run. entirely on physical disease and omits anything to do with psychological or social factors. Medicine education has not changed for well over a hundred years in the US. physicians that really want to be active and to make things better in the healthcare system. They won’t settle patients, there is currently a realiza- greater focus on patient-centered- Medical education focuses almost “Doctors need to realize that treatments are not prescribed, they are negotiated.” WHAT IS THE BIGGEST CONCERN FOR MEDICAL STUDENTS AND RESIDENTS IN THE USA? age of more than 130,000 physicians WHAT ARE SOME OF THE OBSTACLES PREVENTING CARE FROM BEING MORE PATIENT CENTERED? means that moving towards a more DO YOU SEE THE MINDSET OF THE FUTURE GENERATION OF DOCTORS AS MORE ACCEPTING OF PATIENT-CENTERED CARE? The new generation is more We are facing a physician short- 112 medical education funding. The US treatments are not prescribed, they In short: teaching health profes- Doctors need to realize that by the year 2025 – due to graduate patient centered healthcare system will demand a cultural change. This is not something that is done overnight. Also there are currently no real incentives for professionals to include patients. On the contrary, we patient centered. They are taught to are faced with great time constraints listen to patients and to make sure and pressure for fast delivery of that the patient is involved through- diagnoses, plans and treatments, out their training at medical schools. which makes it difficult to provide They learn that patients have an care that is truly patient centered. active voice and expect patients to 113 ROADMAP TO CHANGING HEALTHCARE ON OUR JOURNEY THROUGH THIS PUBLICATION, WE HAVE NOW REACHED THE DESTINATION OF CHANGE. WHILE OUR PREVIOUS CHAPTERS HAVE DEALT WITH THE CHALLENGES THAT HEALTHCARE SYSTEMS AROUND THE WORLD ARE FORCED TO DEAL WITH, WE NOW WISH TO UNFOLD THE OPPORTUNITIES THAT EXIST AS DISRUPTIVE ELEMENTS IN OTHERWISE STATIC HEALTHCARE SYSTEMS. 114 115 QU AN A JOURNEY TOWARDS OPPORTUNITIES LEARN ABOUT... do it, at what price and with Measuring the impact of what specific outcome is vital Page 131 information that can help reduce the costs – and not the ensuring long-lasting and Page 128 quality – of healthcare. profound improvements to the effectiveness of healthcare delivery. Formalized patient in- From improving timeliness in China to value-based healthcare at the Schön Klinik in Germany to patients leading the way in improving patient safety in the USA – examples of new opportunities, new ways of thinking, and new models of healthcare are flourishing as tangible responses to the growing challenges that the healthcare sector faces. Knowing what we do, why we from the best are vital in ...PATIENT ENGAGEMENT PROGRAMS IN THE USA Y IT Y ...MEASURING HEALTHCARE’S TRUE VALUE IN GERMANY ...KNOWLEDGE SHARING IN THE UK healthcare and learning TIT AL QU volvement and creating a culture where tapping into patients’ thoughts, worries and experiences is the ‘new normal’ opens the door to effective improvements in patient safety. ...DIGITAL APPOINTMENT SCHEDULING IN CHINA Page 122 Technology targeted at improving the communication ‘gap’ can help bridge some of the main obstacles standing in the way of quality, timely healthcare. These innovations lay the groundwork for a more convenient, quicker and more person-centered interaction between patients and the Seven opportunities – each paired with a case that highlights how to move from idea to action – serve as examples of how to improve the healthcare sector. quality of healthcare in practice. They are framed around each of the Page 134 seven dimensions of healthcare quality: equity, safety, person-centered care, cost-efficiency, effectiveness, timeliness, and environmental sustainability and act as a roadmap for others who wish to effect change in healthcare from small to large-scale. These inspiring examples are not yet the new normal, but they tell the story that the current healthcare challenges can be turned into sector does not have to wait until tomorrow – it can and it does, in fact, ...SUSTAINABLE HOSPITAL PRACTICES IN THE USA happen today. The power of role ...MOBIL HEALTH APP IN KENYA model clusters and Convenient, accessible and opportunities – with the right mind-set. They are leading the way and can inspire us to see that changing and improving the healthcare specific guides on how to achieve change can spearhead new agendas and promote behavioral shifts throughout the healthcare sector. Page 125 Page 137 ...HEALTHCARE ALLIANCES IN NEW ZEELAND user-friendly technology A clear and binding con- can pave the way for more tract committing healthcare equitable and high quality healthcare – not just for the few, but for the masses. Page 119 providers to work towards a common goal – instead of working on the basis of individual interests – is crucial in creating a healthcare system that is person-centered. 116 117 FROM OPPORTUNITY... Mobile health apps open the door to universal healthcare Additionally the new technologies have also prov- through technological platforms opening the en to be a vehicle for reducing healthcare costs, door to new possibilities and new solutions in optimizing asset utilization and efficiency, deliver- healthcare provision. ing higher quality care, and improving the patient The challenge: 40 million people, but only 7,000 doctors. The solution: ... TO ACTION IN KENYA Healthcare is online and provided increasingly A doctor to the masses experience. This changing tide is not a small wave, but a tsunami of new communication platforms trans- the mHealth app, MedAfrica. In a country where doctors are in high demand, healthcare services are fragmented and the vast majority of healthcare consumers are poor. Additionally, access to healthcare is far from universal and there is a widespread need for services that can help bridge the gap between the supply of and demand for healthcare services. This is where the mHealth app, MedAfrica, steps in. MedAfrica was launched in 2011 by the Kenyan based mobile design and development company, Shimba Technologies. It is a free app that allows healthcare consumers to access relevant medical information and find reputable doctors and hospitals in their local area. 2 MedAfrica takes advantage of the fact that 25 million Kenyans have forming healthcare systems today and in the mobile phone subscriptions and makes it possible for all Kenyans with coming years. In terms of revenue, the mobile a mobile phone get access to healthcare and health information. 3 This health market is expected to grow to $21.5 billion allows for a whole new type of healthcare – one that is much more by 2018 with a compound annual growth rate of accessible for everyone. It helps dissolve the barriers between the rich 54.9%, according to a report from the market and poor, well educated and uneducated, and rural and urban – and research company, BCC Research.1 thus helps achieve a more equitable Kenya. The growth and innovation of new mobile The Kenyan healthcare system consists of a large number of fragment- healthcare technologies is a positive addition to ed and also fraudulent healthcare services, making it very difficult for the world of healthcare – as these innovations consumers to access and identify quality care. can lead to new services and higher quality of care. The application of mobile technologies, also called mHealth, has already sparked a revolution in the way healthcare is delivered – especially in developing regions such as Africa. It is currently becoming a key factor in democratizing healthcare, opening up the possibility to gain access to healthcare services on the individual level – and EQUITY thus helping to break down barriers of income, MEDAFRICA MHEALTH APP IN KENYA race, ethnicity, geographic location and educa- INITIATOR PRIMARY DRIVER tion. Private company with support from leading Mobile technology healthcare institutions SCALE INVOLVED ACTORS Kenya Primarily potential and current healthcare users, 2 BCC Research. Wireless Electronic Health Records: Technologies and Global Markets. 2014. 1 118 but also involves professionals and healthcare TYPE OF CHANGE institutions Increased access to healthcare Shimba Mobile. Medafrica. 2014. World Wide Web Foundation. Problem: 7,000 Doctors Serve a Nation of 40 Million People. Solution: MedAfrica. 2012. 3 119 The country struggles not only with scarce resources and insufficient 4 healthcare professionals, but also with providing safe and quality- 5 based healthcare. The MedAfrica app tries to respond to exactly this challenge by providing detailed contact information for 7,200 qualified doctors and 8,076 quality assured health facilities - all freely accessible for the app’s users. Medafrica. 2012. Pivot25 is an mlab initiative to bring focus on the Mobile developer and entrepreneur community in East Africa. mlab East Africa is a consortium of four organizations aiming to be a leader in identifying, nurturing and helping to build sustainable enterprises in the knowledge economy. Ericsson. Health care and painting apps win top prizes in 2012 Ericsson Application Awards. 2012. 6 The development and structure of the app are based on the idea of FROM OPPORTUNITY... The patient as the expert involving the individual patient as an active consumer of healthcare. Besides allowing the user to locate qualified healthcare providers, Since the 2000 Institute of Medicine report, “To The patient role in improving patient safety is MedAfrica also provides a diagnostic tool to identify the potential err is human – building a safer health system,” pa- widely recognized by the WHO. cause of illness and then link patients to specialists who can treat tient safety has gained an increasingly prominent them.4 Furthermore, it offers information on recommended drugs and place on the international health policy agenda.7 A main part of their “Patient Safety Program” and diets for specific medical conditions. By providing this kind of informa- Fifteen years on, the quest continues to find new work for promoting patient safety throughout the tion, the app is taking a great step towards closing the gap between models and new systems that can help improve world is initiatives that include and incorporate the supply of professionals and demand of the Kenyan people. It helps patient safety in healthcare. 8 patients as active players in this process. 9 remove some of the pressure on the healthcare system by serving as a first point of entry to the healthcare sector – helping to focus and One example from the WHO is the “Patients for guide healthcare consumers in the right direction. Safety” initiative that was launched in 2004. The app was developed in partnership between Samsung, Nokia, the The initiative aims to build a global network that Kenya Open Data Initiative, and others. The app is not publicly funded, champions patients as key change makers when but is rather a product based on a clear underlying business model. it comes to improving safety in the healthcare Thus, Shimba Technologies receive revenues for the free app through sector. Through the initiative, the WHO works ac- targeted ads and extended subscription services. tively for “a world in which patients are treated as partners in efforts to prevent all avoidable harm in healthcare.” 10 Since its launch in 2011, MedAfrica has been growing quickly. Today the app has more than 200,000 downloads, about 60% of which are active users and the app is currently one of the top 10 apps in Kenya. Looking to the future, patient involvement and These numbers clearly indicate that the app is an accessible and nec- engagement as a means of improving the culture essary tool for the average Kenyan; it’s a spot-on solution for meeting of safety are recognized as key components of the country’s healthcare demands. creating much safer healthcare systems. 11,12 The company behind the app is now focused on scaling and extending its reach. They are currently working on cross-border partnerships that will open the door for spreading the app to other countries. At the same time they are adding more user services, and listing more doctors by collaborating with one of the country’s doctors organizations. They are also developing a Ministry of Health feed with real-time information on disease outbreaks. The potential for this app is substantial TAKE AWAY because it offers a solution to a great healthcare problem – not only in Convenient, accessible and user-friendly technology can pave the way for more equitable and high quality healthcare – not just for the few, but for the masses. Kenya, but in many developing countries: safe and quality healthcare is not a commodity for all, but still reserved the few. The success of and future potential for the app has been widely recognized. In its short history, the app has won the Pivot25 award5 and the Ericsson Award, the latter “for the potential to bring important information to many people and give them the power and knowledge to take better care of their communities.”6 WHO. Exploring patient participation in reducing health-care-related safety risks. 2013. 7, 8, 9 WHO. Patients for Patient Safety. 2015. 10 120 AHRQ. The Role of Patients in Safety. 2015. 11 The bmj spotlight. Patient Centred Care. 2015. 12 121 Bringing the patient voice to the world of patient safety A key word in the patient involvement movement is “transparency,” meaning that patients are integrated into the system and have access to relevant information on their safety. They are even members of major committees across the Dana-Farber organization, ranging from Patient safety improvements do not happen to patients – but with board level committees to committees on quality improvement and ... TO ACTION IN THE USA them. Partnerships with patients and families are thus an essential risk management. One example is the Patient and Family Advisory SAFTEY aspect of improving patient safety and healthcare quality. But patients Council that serves as an important part of the organizational struc- and their families are not always engaged, and they do not automati- ture for quality improvement. Another is the Adult Oncology Clinical cally take on an active role in ensuring their own safety. They need to Services Quality Improvement Committee, where patients review pa- learn and become equipped to take on this role. tient falls and accidents, medication errors, and patient survey results. At the Dana-Farber Cancer Institute in Boston, USA, this is a primary Another initiative aimed at involving the patients at the Dana-Farber DANA-FARBER CANCER INSTITUTE IN THE USA goal. Dana-Farber/Harvard Cancer Center is the largest cancer center in the world and is funded by the National Cancer Institute, USA. The Cancer Institute is Patient Safety Rounds, which was implemented in 2004. Patient Safety Rounds help the institute identify and eliminate institute has incorporated patient-centered care as a key element of INITIATOR patient safety risks through two methods: internal staff communi- their healthcare services – and has used this approach to create a Healthcare provider cation about actual and potential safety problems,17 and interviews stronger culture of patient safety. They focus on collaboration, com- between former and current patients and families about their percepINVOLVED ACTORS munication, and engagement with the patients and their families in tion of safe care, with the ultimate goal of improving patient safety at Management, patients, a range of aspects in order to improve the quality and safety of their the institute.18,19 professionals care.13 Their work began in 1994 due to a heartbreaking incident. Betsy PRIMARY DRIVER Now, more than 20 years after the death of Betsy Lehman, the Da- Patient Involvement na-Farber Cancer Institute offers a free toolkit for other healthcare Lehman, a 39 year-old Boston Globe health reporter suffering from providers to become inspired and learn how to implement Patient SCALE breast cancer died at the Dana-Farber Cancer Institute because of Safety Rounds. The Institute has received a line of recognitions for its Dana-Farber Cancer Institute four overdoses of chemotherapy. Doctors apparently refused to hear work of improving patient safety through patient involvement. The her warnings that something was drastically wrong and ignored the TYPE OF CHANGE Leapfrog Group, for instance, recently named Dana-Farber Cancer results of tests indicating heart damage.14,15 This incident prompted the Improving patient safety by Institute to its annual list of Top Hospitals. The Leapfrog Top Hospi- hospital to engage in self-examination of the state of patient safety at involving patients tal Award is given to less than seven percent of all eligible hospitals the Institute. nationwide – based on their demonstration of excellence in hospital safety and quality. Additional recognition comes from News & World Setting out on this journey, the patients were given a pivotal role. In Report’s Best Hospitals 2010 Guide, which ranked Dana-Farber Cancer the Institute’s mission statement they state that patients and their fam- Institute the top Cancer Center in New England and 5th overall in the ilies have “experience; expertise; insights; and perspectives that can USA. 20 be invaluable to bringing about transformational change in healthcare and enhancing quality and safety.” 16 To walk the talk, the Institute has named patients and their family members “experts in quality improvement” and, as such, they are regarded as equals with hospitals management, doctors and nurses in terms of improving the safety of every patient. One of the specific tools used by the Dana-Farber Cancer Institute is education of patients on their role as key players on the healthcare team. Patients are encouraged to check their medication, ask providers to disinfect their hands and notify clinicians of last minute changes in their treatment. Institute for Patient- and Family-Centered Care. Partnering with Patients and Families to Design a Patient and Family-Centered Health Care System. 2008. 13 Aspden P, Wolcott J, Bootman JL, Cronenwett LR (eds.). The Betsy Lehman Case. Preventing Medication Errors: Quality Chasm Series. 2007. 14 Altman LK. Big Doses of Chemotherapy Drug Killed Patient, Hurt 2d. New York Times. 1995. 15 Dignified Person Centred Care - Learning from the USA. 2013. 16 This model has been positively evaluated both at the Schwartz Center for Compassionate Healthcare in Boston, USA and a pilot project at two UK hospitals. The Kings Fund. Evaluation of the UK Pilots. 2011. 17 AHRQ. Organizational Change in the Face of Highly Public Errors. The Dana-Farber Cancer Institute Experience. 2005. 18 Institute for Patient- and Family-Centered Care. Partnering with Patients and Families to Design a Patient and Family-Centered Health Care System. 2008. 19 TAKE AWAY Formalized patient involvement and creating a culture where tapping into patients’ thoughts, worries and experiences is the ‘new normal’ opens the door to effective improvements in patient safety. The Dana-Farber Cancer Institute. Paths of Progress Volume 2011; 20(2). 20 122 123 FROM OPPORTUNITY... Healthcare: more than the sum of its parts This approach can help break down borders and decision making are the headlines for healthcare bridge the gap between healthcare partners –and in the coming years. Today, person-centered thus facilitate a far more person-centered healthcare care is championed by the WHO and Healthcare system. 22 What can the healthcare sector learn from the world of construction? Looking at healthcare systems that are defined by fragmentation and authorities from the USA to the UK, Denmark to China, and Sweden to Singapore are supporting and exploring it as a precondition for delivering safe and quality healthcare. Despite the broad endorsement, the reality is that a transition to healthcare systems that are much more person-centered than those we know today is far from easily done. It demands radical change, where new partnerships and collaborations are valued over the status quo – and where each healthcare system is seen as a whole, rather than as individual and fragmented parts. 21 Creating more integrated and collaborative healthcare systems could be made possible by Ministry of Health. NZ Health Systems, Key Organizations, Health alliances. 2011. 23 Gauld R. NHS can learn a lot from New Zealand’s healthcare system. The Guardian. 2014. 24 Ministry of Health. Better, Sooner, More Convenient Health Care in the Community. 2011. 25 DNV GL and Monday Morning Sustainia. Guide to Person-Centred Care. 2014. 26 ... TO ACTION IN NEW ZEALAND Integrated care, patient involvement, and shared Strong alliances create integrated healthcare a lack of collaboration, the short answer is actually a great deal. In New Zealand the aim of improving the quality of the healthcare system has led to a new “alliancing” model based on how construction work is managed. The model is specifically inspired by the way in which contractors on large projects work collaboratively and share resources needed to get the job done on time and on budget. The primary objective of these new healthcare alliances is to get all actors in the healthcare sector to work toward a common, shared goal. Through these alliances and their joint incentive structure, healthcare stakeholders in New Zealand are encouraged to engage in new partnerships and cross-sector collaborations. This ensures that everyone is working towards the same goal. 23,24 Today the alliance model is a vital part of the government’s ‘Better, Sooner, More Convenient’ care initiative that aims to improve the quality and person-centeredness of the healthcare sector in New Zealand. 25 The motivation for working with and developing the alliance model is the conviction that strong collaborations between healthcare stakeholders are crucial in improving the quality of healthcare in areas such as equity, access, integration and prevention. 26 taking on a ‘whole system approach’. A healthcare system based on the whole system approach is one that recognizes and understands the wider system within which services are embedded, and any and all service improvements must take place within this broader context. Such a model values the contribution of all partners – including the patients – in ensuring the delivery of high quality care. PERSONCENTERED CARE THE ALLIANCE INITIATIVE IN NEW ZEALAND INITIATOR SCALE Policy makers New Zealand INVOLVED ACTORS TYPE OF CHANGE Professionals Creating more integrated and collaborative care for the patient PRIMARY DRIVER Whole system approach DNV GL and Monday Morning Sustainia. Person-Centred Care. 2014. 21 The bmj Spotlight. Patient Centred Care. 2014. 22 124 125 FROM OPPORTUNITY... Knowing the value of healthcare is key In 2013 the dream of having at least one alliance in each of New Zealand’s 20 healthcare districts became reality. This decision was based on the evaluation of nine alliancing pilots, which were initiated in 2010. The evaluation concluded that the alliance model had improved the position of primary care and increased opportunities for achieving integrated care in the nine piloted districts. 27,28 More specifically, the alliance model requires providers in each of the Rising costs, distorted incentive structures and errors The need for forward thinking and innovative mind- 20 healthcare districts to work collaboratively within a whole system in diagnosing and providing care are all great challeng- sets has never been greater, as new ideas are vital for approach to ensure that services are designed with what is best for es for healthcare systems across the globe. These chal- meeting the demands of more cost-efficient health- patients and the public in mind. Each alliance is a way to bring togeth- lenges threaten not only patient safety and well-be- care sectors of the future. This is precisely what the er a range of providers from across a healthcare district and encour- ing, but also the cost-efficiency and sustainability of concept of value based healthcare entails. Value based age them to work collaboratively on what the system should look like healthcare models. Overcoming these challenges and healthcare has emerged as a strategy for delivering from a patient perspective. 29 Alliance members are healthcare leaders making healthcare systems more cost-efficient is vital, healthcare at lower costs. It has been championed by from different service areas, such as GPs, nurses, and professionals as the demand of providing more healthcare for less Professor Micheal Porter 32, who believes value should in aged care, ambulance services, public health and different hospital money is projected to become a major challenge for define the framework for performance improvement in specialties. healthcare systems throughout the world. healthcare. As Porter notes, “rigorous, disciplined mea- Each alliance member signs a charter which binds them to work to- Cost-efficiency often is associated with layoffs, fund- gether and build trust in one another. The charter stipulates that they ing cuts and increasing the speed of operations. But focus on the whole system, and not the specific interests of the sector making a healthcare system more cost-efficient need Yet value in healthcare remains largely unmeasured they may work for, and that they agree to help one another to achieve not come at the expense of quality. On the contrary, and misunderstood. Value should always be de- the alliance’s goals. These goals include a wide range of elements it can lead to improved healthcare services, a much fined around the customer, and in a well-functioning focused on improving and redesigning healthcare services, such as needed freeing up of resources and new means of healthcare system, the creation of value for patients integrated services for older people with chronic care needs, or access delivering care. should determine the rewards for all other actors in the surement and improvement of value is the best way to drive system progress.” system. 33 A value based approach to healthcare has to GP-referred specialist service. 30 The evaluation of the first nine alliance model pilot projects indicates that one of the positive outcomes was that the alliances helped drive new initiatives to provide better support for patients with complex needs in primary care settings by enabling general practitioners to work together with hospital specialists and other providers. Furthermore there was also evidence of reductions in emergency department admissions and of more services traditionally provided in hospital settings now being delivered in the community, such as specialist outpatient consultations, older people’s health, and emergency response services that might otherwise require a hospital visit. Furthermore, the TAKE AWAY A clear and binding contract committing healthcare providers to work towards a common goal – instead of working on the basis of individual interests – is crucial in creating a healthcare system that is person-centered. This demands that healthcare systems make a change, been implemented by a few pioneering providers, such and focus on being leaner and smarter rather than just as Kaiser Permanente and Cleveland Clinic in the USA, slashing budgets. Martini-Klinik and Schön Klinik in Germany—discussed below—and Terveystalo, the largest private healthcare provider in Finland. QU AN TIT healthcare stakeholders that took part in the alliances considered it to be a model that helps steer the health system and service design in an important new direction. 31 Y Y T I L A QU In the future, the concept could very well become a common standard in healthcare systems throughout the world. The prospects of improving the costs of healthcare through the value based approach are substantial. According to Boston Consulting Group, a value-based approach to hospital operations could improve performance by up to 30%. 34 Porter ME. A Strategy for Health Care Reform — Toward a Value-Based System. The New England Journal of Medicine 2009; 361: 109-112. 32 Cumming J. Integrated care in New Zealand. International Journal of Integrated Care Special 10th Anniversary Edition 2011 e138. 27 Gauld R. What should governance for integrated care look like? New Zealand’s alliances provide some pointers. The Medical Journal of Australia. 2014. 28 126 Gauld R. New Zealand’s ‘integrated performance and incentive framework’: Will it drive a ‘whole of system’ approach to health service design? University of Birmingham. 2014. 29 Cumming J. Integrated care in New Zealand, International Journal of Integrated Care Special 10th Anniversary Edition: e138. 2011. 30 Gauld R. What should governance for integrated care look like? New Zealand’s alliances provide some pointers. The Medical Journal of Australia. 2014. 31 Porter ME. What Is Value in Health Care? The New England Journal of Medicine 2010; 363: 2477-2481. 33 Budryk Z. Value-based model could improve hospital performance 30%. Fierce Pharma. 2014. 34 127 Improving quality by measuring the true value of care “Measurable. Tangible. Better“. This is the motto for the Schön Klinik At that time the Schön Klinik, like other hospitals in Germany, had re- ... TO ACTION IN GERMANY – a hospital group consisting of 17 hospitals across Germany, special- duced the capacity of its knee replacement rehabilitation units in part COST-EFFICIENCY ized in orthopedics, neurology, and psychosomatic medicine. Over because the existing cost system portrayed them as less profitable the past years, the clinic has become one of the leading international than acute-care units. But during the Schön Klinik’s value based cost pioneers in value based healthcare as a new approach to healthcare. 35 measurement of the knee replacement process, they discovered that The Schön Klinik has made the approach standard in their healthcare the existing cost system allocated support-department costs largely delivery and services. on the basis of length of patient stay, not on the patient’s use of support resources. Since knee replacement patients at the Schön Klinik’s THE SCHÖN KLINIK IN GERMANY Their work is based on the idea that the direct costs of patient care, such as nurses, physicians, and consumable supplies can be assigned hospital units spent 75% of their stay in the rehab facility, rehab had been allocated about 75% of support department costs. INITIATOR directly to the individual patients – and that knowledge of the value Healthcare provider and costs of each step of a patient’s treatment and care is crucial to The analysis showed, however, that the demand for many support-unit continuous improvement of the clinic’s efficiency and performance INVOLVED ACTORS services, such as medical billing, is far higher during the days a patient in delivering healthcare. The basic idea is to know the value of their Management, professionals spends in the acute-care facility than during rehab days. With support healthcare – what they deliver, and at what costs. Therefore, the Schön costs properly assigned, the rehab facility showed improved profitPRIMARY DRIVER Klinik focuses intensely on measuring health outcomes of specific ability. Based on the value analysis, the Schön Klinik thus began to Measuring the price and quality patient groups and understanding resource requirements and costs in contemplate the expansion of its rehabilitation capacity—a complete of healthcare the context of these outcomes. The Schön Klinik’s goal is that the combination of accurate outcome reversal of common standard in Germany— and shifted its focus more SCALE intensively on reducing support costs incurred during the acute-care Schön Klinik’s 17 hospital units stay. 37 and cost measurements will empower the local personnel – physicians, TYPE OF CHANGE nurses, and administrators – at the Schön Klinik’s different sites to The Schön Klinik has received international recognition for the value Knowledge of specific value improve the value of care they deliver, but also to open the door to benchmarking across the 17 different hospitals in order to identify and improve the cost-efficiency of based approach to patient care – from, among others, Harvard Busi- healthcare ness School. share best practices. This focus has led the Klinik to develop 1,500 value indicators – a mixture of outcome and process measures as well as patient evaluations. The data is collected with a focus on the medical condition and not the department – underlining the idea of focusing on the direct costs of care. 36 One specific example of how the Schön Klinik’s is taking on the value based cost and outcome approach is an improvement initiative focused on the knee replacement process, which was implemented TAKE AWAY throughout the Klinik’s hospitals in 2009. Kaplan RS, Witkowski ML, & Hohman JA. “Schön Klinik: Measuring Cost and Value.” Harvard Business School Case 112-085, 2012. (Revised December 2014.) 35 Porter ME & Guth C. Redefining German Healthcare: Moving to a Value-Based System. 2012. 36 128 Kaplan RS & Porter ME. The Big Idea: How to Solve the Cost Crisis in Health Care. Harvard Business Review. 2011. 37 Knowing what we do, why we do it, at what price and with what specific outcome is vital information that can help reduce the costs – and not the quality – of healthcare. 129 FROM OPPORTUNITY... How do we ensure the right level of treatment Thus, relevant and effective models that can help and the right level of medication? How do we measure the quality of treatment procedures, patient measure and improve healthcare performance? experiences and operational performance are in high Simply put, how do we best ensure that health- demand within the healthcare sector. Such initiatives care systems do their job: provide the appropri- can help limit over- and under-use of services and ate care to the appropriate patients? These are realign incentive structures to best meet the needs some of the big questions countries around the of patients. improving and ensuring high quality standards in Innovative ways to ensure increased effectiveness by the healthcare sector. Answering these questions measuring and comparing performance mark a new will become an increasingly pressing concern in era in the delivery of healthcare. reforms through the National Healthcare System – the NHS. This has led to heated debate and negative cri- INITIATOR Policy makers and publicly tique of some of the resolutions. The report “The NHS funded healthcare system under the coalition government” from the UK-based INVOLVED ACTORS The Clinical Commissioning Groups PRIMARY DRIVER Measuring the value of health- world must ask themselves when it comes to Since 2010, the UK government has pushed a line of COMMISSIONING FOR VALUE IN THE UK’S NHS care – benchmarking the performance with the best SCALE England TYPE OF CHANGE Using performance measurement as a vehicle for improving healthcare ... TO ACTION IN ENGLAND Knowledge sharing helps healthcare do its job the years to come. Commissioning for Value increases effectiveness EFFECTIVENESS King’ Fund, published this year, concludes that the reforms “have resulted in top-down reorganization of the NHS and this has been distracting and damaging” and “new systems of governance and accountability resulting from the reforms are complex and confusing.” 38 Despite the clear downsides of the reforms, it is not all bad. The development of the NHS over the past few years also entails stories of success and improvements. One such story is the “Commissioning for Value Initiative,” in which knowledge about performance and the identification of specific possibilities for improvements are used as drivers for creating better outcomes, higher quality and more efficient healthcare. The Commissioning for Value initiative is a collaboration between NHS Right Care, NHS England and Public Health England. It is aimed directly at the 211 Clinical Commissioning Groups (CCG) in the NHS – which are groups of primarily general practitioners that work together to plan and design local health services throughout England. The initiative gathers and shares a series of information on each CCG’s performance and identifies a series of different areas and healthcare services that have unexploited potential in terms of improving the delivered healthcare. These results help each local CCG decide ‘where to look’ and ‘what to do’ in order to improve outcomes and increase the quality of their healthcare service. The King’s Fund. The NHS under the coalition government. 2015. 38 130 131 FROM OPPORTUNITY... Bridging time lags with better communication An important element in the initiative is the “Commissioning for Value Packs,” initiated with the goal of identifying “local opportunities for improvement in health outcomes, patient experience, or finance.” In 2013 the first packs were distributed, which triangulated data on spending, outcome, and quality and identified value opportunities where each of the specific CCG was an outlier compared to equivalent CCGs. A year later, a second round of packs provided in-depth data for the 13 patient conditions with the greatest potential for improvement. In recent years, a myriad of technologies has become Technology opens the door to a much more direct and vital in the delivery of healthcare. These technologies easy communication between healthcare providers There are a number of examples of CCGs that have used the numbers are currently transforming how healthcare is provided and patients, including, for instance, booking appoint- and recommendations from Commissioning for Value initiative to in regions all over the world – opening healthcare sys- ments online, communication on estimated waiting improve their performance and quality of healthcare. One example is tems up to new possibilities in healthcare services, new time in doctors’ offices and information on the interval the CCG in Warrington where the Commissioning for Value approach types of treatments, new healthcare monitoring, and between referrals and treatment. It also allows for was used to identify where savings could be made to help overcome ensuring new and improved communication channels. much more widespread, proactive and timely communication between healthcare providers, including a $38.3 million funding shortfall in 2011-12. 39 In the Commissioning for Value Packs, “respiratory services” were identified as one of the main The development and adaptation of technology can communication between departments or booking new improvement opportunities, but at the time, Warrington was spending not only improve the standard of healthcare, but can appointments with specialists. 41 $2.3 million more on these conditions than equivalent CCGs. also serve as an important driver for augmenting patient-provider relationships and supporting human As a response, the respiratory service in Warrington was redesigned. needs throughout the healthcare journey. Electronic The primary changes included: medical records and mHealth apps are two well-known examples of how technology is improving the speed • Extending the pul- • Targeting patients • Commissioning monary rehabili- with acute epi- consultant-led tation service to sodes of illness multi-disciplinary include a home- teams to carry out based program Hospital at Home visits Following the changes, quality, patient outcomes and pathway management all improved. Warrington also reduced its spending on respiratory services significantly, now spending $600,000 less than other TAKE AWAY Measuring the impact of healthcare and learning from the best are vital in ensuring long-lasting and profound improvements to the effectiveness of healthcare delivery. and ease of healthcare delivery, all while prioritizing patient needs. Nhavoto JA & Grönlund Å. Mobile Technologies and Geographic Information Systems to Improve Health Care Systems: A Literature Review. JMIR mHealth and uHealth 2014; 2(2). 41 CCGs providing the same service. 40 NHS Warrington CCG. Commissioning for Value Insight Pack. 2013. 39 Wellards. What is commissioning for value? 2014. 40 132 133 It’s time for a change in healthcare provision ... TO ACTION IN CHINA In recent years online healthcare platforms have become very popular Imagine a Chinese woman, 55 years old and suffering from a severe with Chinese consumers, allowing services like Gauhao to revolutionize case of osteoporosis. Her pains are worsening, so her family urges the interaction between users and providers and improve the quality her to go to the nearest hospital to see a specialist. Sick, tired and and timeliness of healthcare immensely. This type of online reservation in pain, she has to get up at one o’clock in the morning, drive three service also opens the door to a much more person-centered ap- hours by car to reach the nearest hospital, and then stand in a line proach to healthcare delivery. Furthermore, online scheduling provides in front of the hospital entrance. Eight hours later, she reaches the healthcare providers with the ability to better predict patient flow and reception desk and gets her appointment to see a specialist – in more efficiently allocate resources. 43 two weeks. Guahao was founded in Shanghai in 2010 as a collaboration between This kind of story is far from rare in China. On the contrary, long the Chinese Health Education Network, Fudan Hospital and Health- waiting times just to book an appointment are commonplace.42 care Management Co., and the Chinese Hospital Association, and later expanded nationally. Today the online platform has spread to all of Fortunately, this kind of healthcare experience could soon be in the country’s 23 provinces and boasts over 37 million verified users, China’s past, thanks to blossoming technological healthcare plat- around 120,000 registered doctors and covers more than 900 major forms, like Guahao. Guahao means scheduling a patient appoint- hospitals in China.44 The site has a team of 3,000 personnel that helps ment in Chinese, and this is exactly what the platform enables the patients who are new to internet usage make appointments with doc- Chinese healthcare consumer to do. Through Guahao, healthcare tors. Guanhao also launched a mobile phone app in 2013, making its consumers are able to schedule appointments with doctors online services even more convenient and user-friendly. based on location, medical specialties and other criteria. The Guahao platform lets patients assess their personal calendars, In late 2014, China’s internet giant, Tencent, invested $120 million in local hospitals, and physicians to make an appointment one day to the platform. The Tencent investment is expected to expand Guahao’s two weeks in advance. In addition, the healthcare consumers can user base as the health platform seeks to upgrade its WeChat payment read medical advice and suggestions for different kinds of medical service. WeChat is a mobile text and voice messaging communication treatments. service developed by Tencent.45 Hoath, B. Guahao: VC Fantasy. Online Appointment Registration System for China’s 700 Million Internet Users. The Health Care Blog. 2013. 43 44 Guahao. 2014. www.Guahao.com Asia First. Health platform Guahao gets USD120m Tencent investment. 2014. 45 TIMELINESS THE GAUHAO HEALTH TECHNOLOGY PLATFORM IN CHINA INITIATOR SCALE Providers, policy makers and private China TAKE AWAY company TYPE OF CHANGE INVOLVED ACTORS Improving timeliness through Patients, professionals communication technology PRIMARY DRIVER Communication technology See Health Systems in Focus – China chapter page 46. 42 134 Technology targeted at improving the communication ‘gap’ can help bridge some of the main obstacles standing in the way of quality, timely healthcare. These innovations lay the groundwork for a more convenient, quicker and more person-centered interaction between patients and the healthcare sector. 135 Hospitals are leading the green battle FROM OPPORTUNITY... Green thinking is becoming the new normal This tells a story of a healthcare system where for healthcare systems across the globe. Increas- sustainability is no longer an afterthought, but is ing pressure from rising costs in energy, water and becoming a necessary and integrated aspect of carbon are currently leading many governments the healthcare sector. group of progressive healthcare stakeholders in the USA are trying to make sustainability a reality in the American healthcare system. 12 healthcare providers are leading this charge and inspiring others to follow suit, with the ultimate goal of catapulting the nation into a future where green is the new black for the healthcare industry. ... TO ACTION IN THE USA Environmental sustainability is becoming reality A sustainable healthcare system – within reach or a distant utopia? A and healthcare providers to focus on the value of sustainability within the health system. Energy is a particularly difficult challenge; American hospitals spend roughly $8.5 billion per year on energy costs and consume almost twice the energy per square foot as traditional office Launched in 2012, the Healthier Hospitals Initiative (HHI) is a threeyear, national campaign that advocates for the improvement of environmental sustainability within the healthcare sector. This call-toaction to the entire healthcare sector was born out of a partnership between 12 of the largest, most influential American health organizations, comprising approximately 500 hospitals with more than $20 billion in purchasing power. These organizations, including many well-known healthcare institutions, such as Dignity Health, Kaiser Permanente and the Cleveland Clinic, collaborated with three leading environmental organizations focused on ‘greening’ healthcare to create HHI as a guide for hospitals to reduce energy and waste, choose safer and less toxic products, and purchase and serve healthier foods. space.46 Brazil’s hospitals are reported to account for 10.6% of the country’s commercial energy The goal of the initiative is to prove that implementing strategies to re- use.47 There is also a growing recognition of the duce costs, improve environmental performance and meet broad envi- effects of climate change on health and the fact ronmental health goals is, in fact, possible for hospitals and healthcare that these effects will continue to drive up the providers. The 12 healthcare providers are working to actively pool cost and the demand for health services around their collective sustainability experience, purchasing power and indus- the world. Among others, the National Institute try representation in order to accelerate the process of greening the of Environmental Health Sciences in the USA has concluded that climate change “stresses our healthcare infrastructure and delivery systems.” 48 entire healthcare system. Consequently, the initiative is not limited to Healthier Hospitals Initiative. What we do. 2012. 50 the 12 founding members, but invites healthcare organizations across the country to join and to become an active part of the initiative. 50 Environmental sustainability is quickly moving up the agenda of healthcare providers. A 2013 poll that surveyed top American and global representatives from hospitals and healthcare systems shows that more than 87% of American hospitals ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY HEALTHIER HOSPITALS INITIATIVE IN THE USA are incorporating sustainability into their decision-making processes and operations. 49 INITIATOR SCALE 12 healthcare systems The HHI campaign had more than 1,000 total enrollees nationally in 2014 INVOLVED ACTORS The American healthcare sector TYPE OF CHANGE Promoting sustainable healthcare care for PRIMARY DRIVER KPMG. Trends, risks and opportunities in healthcare. 2012. 46, 47 the patient Advocacy and campaigning National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. Climate Change & Human Health. 2014. 48 Greenbiz. Kaiser, Metro Health bet big on sustainability. 2013. 49 136 137 THE CHANGE MAKERS Two years into the initiative, one of the main outcomes has been the creation of six specific guides for hospitals and providers to reference when aiming to improve their sustainability. These how-to guides include strategies for handling six particular challenges: engaged leadership, healthier foods, leaner energy, less waste, safer chemicals, and smarter purchasing. When joining the HHI, hospitals and hospital systems are encouraged to adopt at least two of the above challenges in their commitment to sustainability. In this publication, we have journeyed from challenges to opportunities hoping that you will feel inspired to meet the challenges that are holding the quality of care back in your part of the world. Other than these guides, the HHI has also developed a range of different tools intended to make the fulfilment of this mission as easy as possible. These are: • Easy-to-use mechanisms • Interactive, content-focused for identifying metrics and webinars collecting data • Insight into how others have • Access to a broad-based achieved success – case We have established that healthcare systems are complex organisms. community through the HHI studies, success stories, They consist of various fields of expertise, a multitude of stakeholders network leadership insights 51 with different objectives and numerous terms for the same concept. However, the complexity of healthcare systems shouldn’t hold us back from • Hospital-to-hospital mentor- trying to change them for the better. ship programs To move from great ambitions to real change takes leadership, examples of success and people who dare to defy the norm. Therefore, we present The initiative has already had an impressive impact. In 2012, The White House Council on Environmental Quality hosted a discussion on “Greening America’s Hospitals” highlighting the importance of the HHI. 52 Evidence from the HHI’s 2013 Milestone Report backs up this recognition. The national HHI campaign has reached more than 1,000 total hospital enrollees in 2014. More than $45 million was saved as a result of single-use medical device reprocessing, a 33% increase from 2012. Additionally, the majority of the hospitals reported spending more to you three change makers in healthcare, from China, Europe and the TAKE AWAY The power of role model clusters and specific guides on how to achieve change can spearhead new agendas and promote behavioral shifts throughout the healthcare sector. USA, who dared to challenge the status quo and succeeded in creating a better tomorrow. than 15% of their food budget on local and sustainable food – amounting to $23.7 million. 53 These figures represent an increase of more than 350% in local and sustainable spending from the previous year. The aim of the HHI is to enroll at least 2,000 hospitals by the end of the three-year initiative. Healthier Hospitals Initiative. What we do. 2012. 51 The White House. Greening America’s Hospitals Part 1. 2012. 52 138 Health Care Without Harm. Healthier Hospitals Initiative’s 2013 Milestone Report Shows Sustainability Trends Catching on Among U.S. Hospitals. 2014. 53 139 CHANGE MAKER IN EUROPE JEFFREY V. LAZARUS CLOSING THE “KNOWING-DOING” GAP IS KEY TO IMPROVING THE STATE OF HEALTHCARE INTERVIEW WHAT SPARKED YOUR INVOLVEMENT WITH THE HIV IN EUROPE INITIATIVE? I am very much driven by the research-to-action gap. We know so much, the evidence is there, yet too often people remain unaware of this evidence and ‘what we know works’ does not get translated into healthcare standards. This was what led me to join four experts One of the greatest challenges within healthcare systems today is the “knowing-doing gap”: often we know what to do, but fail to do it. Overcoming this challenge is the primary driver for Jeffrey Lazarus, a leading figure in the fight against HIV in Europe. 140 and start the HIV in Europe Initiaactivities took place on the streets, in clinics, at universities, in gay clubs and saunas, and at other venues in 52 countries. tive, while I was at WHO. Back in the mid-2000s we had made immense progress in Another example of how the HIV in Europe Initiative has terms of treating HIV. We finally contributed to growing awareness of HIV testing is the 2012 had the biomedical tools to really publication, “HIV Indicator Conditions: Guidance for Imple- reduce the staggering number of menting HIV Testing in Adults in Healthcare Settings,” which HIV-related deaths in Europe and For years Jeffrey Lazarus has been on a quest lion people infected with HIV in the European translates scientific evidence into a practical approach to iden- around the world. But what kept to bridge the knowing-doing gap in HIV test- Region, one in three remains undiagnosed. tifying HIV-positive people who might not otherwise be tested. us from seizing this great opportu- ing and care through a series of research proj- This situation is resulting in significant levels The guide is targeted at healthcare providers in all relevant nity was the fact that not enough ects, initiatives and collaborations. This quest of late diagnosis, ill health, and HIV trans- specialties and settings, as well as at administrators and pol- people were testing for HIV. And is what motivated him to co-found the HIV in mission across the region. Furthermore, the icy-makers responsible for overseeing HIV testing programs not enough of those who did learn Europe Initiative – a platform for increasing region is characterized by large variations in at the national and local levels. Today it is increasingly used in they were HIV-positive went on to early diagnosis and timely care for people HIV testing recommendations and in access healthcare systems across the region. initiate treatment. living with HIV across Europe. to prevention, testing, care and treatment. Since its founding in 2007, the initiative has During its first eight years, the HIV in Europe brought together an independent group of Initiative has had a great impact. It has proven experts representing civil society, policy-mak- to be an effective vehicle for putting the issue ers, health professionals and European public of earlier diagnosis of HIV on the political health institutions – all working to create agenda at the highest levels in Europe. It also awareness of and improve the evidence base BIOGRAPHY Jeffrey V. Lazarus is a Senior at WHO’s Regional Office for Europe Researcher based at CHIP, the Centre was followed by a stint at the Global has promoted the sharing of knowledge and for Health and Infectious Disease Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis around the importance of providing earlier best practices across different European re- Research and WHO Collaborating and Malaria, where he led knowledge HIV testing and care. Considering the course gions and institutions – ultimately broadening Centre on HIV and Viral Hepatitis at translation and oversaw publication of the HIV epidemic in Europe over the last HIV awareness. A prominent example of this the University of Copenhagen. He of the Fund’s global and regional decade, this work is very much needed. is the European HIV testing week, initiated in is also a Professor at the Lithuanian impact reports. Upon his return to University of Health Sciences, Medical Copenhagen in 2012, he became the Despite the fact that there is now widespread 2013. The second European HIV testing week Academy, and an Affiliated Professor co-founding Secretariat Director of knowledge of preventive tools such as con- was held in November 2014 with more than at the Institute of Public Health, Health Systems Global, an international doms and access to life-saving antiretroviral 700 organizations across Europe hosting ac- University of Porto. health systems membership society. therapy in most European countries, the situ- tivities intended to make more people aware ation is still gloomy: of the estimated 2.5 mil- of their HIV status. HIV testing and awareness JEFFREY V. LAZARUS DIRECTOR OF HEALTH SYSTEMS GLOBAL His ten-year career as a health systems and communicable diseases expert 141 It was estimated that almost half WHAT WERE THE MAIN BAR- of all people living with HIV in Eu- RIERS AND HOW DID YOU OVER- rope were unaware of their status – a COME THEM? totally unacceptable figure, from my is being widely used by professionals think that we are successfully evolv- and specialists – this is clear proof ing in a way that will incorporate a that what we do is driving change focus on hepatitis into the HIV in and having an impact. I truly believe perspective, especially in a region The first barrier we faced was Europe Initiative’s long-term vision. that the guide was a major European with so many well-functioning and getting people involved. That was Several hepatitis experts have joined action to co-create healthcare. It well-resourced healthcare systems. actually a barrier that we were able our Steering Committee since the encompassed the key stakeholders, This was the impetus for founding to overcome quickly because the conference. including physicians, researchers, the HIV in Europe Initiative. people whom we were approaching were, in one way or another, already involved in the fight against HIV and WHAT WAS YOUR FIRST STEP? could clearly see the relevance of We started as five people who our initiative. came together from different fields. Our second barrier was funding. NGOs and the affected communities. HOW HAVE YOU MEASURED THE IMPACT OF THE HIV IN EUROPE INITIATIVE? CAN YOU ELABORATE ON THE POSITIVE CHANGES THAT IT HAS HAD? This is why it has gained prominence in healthcare systems across the region. Through the years we had a payoff in terms of Europeans’ growing In addition to myself there were This also proved to be surmountable two clinician-researchers and two thanks to support from the man- We have been measuring the situation has improved considerably representatives of HIV community ufacturers of HIV diagnostics and effects of our work since the begin- since the Initiative was launched, and medicines as well as from the Euro- ning. We evaluate our conferences I am excited to see what else we can pean Commission, which understood by getting feedback from attendees. accomplish as the HIV-related needs the added value of European-wide We also evaluate our project activ- of European populations continue to activities. ities and research activities on an evolve and as we engage in the field ongoing basis. of viral hepatitis. and nongovernmental organizations. at the highest political and expert At that time I was working for the technical levels in the region. One of WHO Regional Office for Europe. the primary outcomes of the confer- Our first step was to invite 15 experts ence was a call to action regarding and key stakeholders within the field what to do next. Since then we have of HIV in Europe to be part of the been arranging these conferences initiative. We also invited some 10 every two years – each with a man- organizations including WHO to join. ifesto for the coming years as an They all became part of the steering important take-away. committee, some as observers, guiding the initiative forward, identifying and launching new projects, and involving a broader constituency in the fight against HIV. HOW DID YOU GET RESOURCES TO CREATE THE CHANGE YOU WANTED? “We know so much, the evidence is there, yet too often people remain unaware of the evidence and ‘what we know works’ does not get translated into healthcare treatment standards.” Now, almost ten years later, we are confronted by other types of barriers. We are working on main- was the development of a consensus taining momentum and making sure on the definition of a ‘late presenter’ that we continue to be relevant. For for HIV treatment. This definition has instance, we are currently working been adopted across Europe. Also, on integrating viral hepatitis issues the response to HIV Testing Week into our work. Hepatitis looks like in 2013 and 2014 has confirmed that HIV did when we started: there is a our work has a positive impact on – whether it is our conferences, huge gap between knowledge and society. We received a lot of support We started with funding from advocacy activities, research or the action across Europe. We are clearly and made more people aware of increase awareness of our work, we industry. We also applied for and European HIV testing week. We do failing in terms of seeing that knowl- the Initiative. From the first to the arranged a major conference on received grants from the Europe- not just focus on reaching one type edge about testing and treating second year, the number of partners earlier diagnosis of HIV. It was held in an Commission. For example, we of stakeholder – we are trying to hepatitis is actually reflected in the and the number of people who got Brussels in 2007 and had more than recently initiated “Optimizing Testing engage everyone who is or should care Europeans receive. This is par- tested increased greatly. Here it is 300 participants from 27 countries and Linkage to Care for HIV across be invested in this issue. From the ticularly concerning now that there important to stress that the Initiative – including the European Commis- Europe,” where I sit on the advisory beginning, we have worked as a is an effective cure for hepatitis C. often functions as an umbrella sioner for Health and Consumer board. And there is a lot of volunteer multidisciplinary team because we Incorporating a focus on hepatitis organization that adds value to Protection. time from the Steering Committee, are convinced that broad action brings about some challenges for work already happening. For Testing not least from our co-chairs. is needed to meet this challenge. the HIV in Europe Initiative in terms Week there were thousands of to create a common understanding Participants at our conferences, for of our identity, which is very much people, including many people who of the role of HIV testing and coun- example, have diverse backgrounds. linked to our experience of working volunteered their time to provide on HIV for all of this time. on-the-ground testing and raise seling in optimizing diagnosis and of the need for earlier care. We chose Brussels as our kick-off location in HOW DID YOU INVOLVE OTHER PEOPLE, AND WHOM DID YOU INVITE? They include clinicians, researchers, policy-makers, community We made the first effort to put representatives, and NGO advocates hepatitis squarely on our agenda at awareness of their HIV status. The An early result of the initiative To introduce the initiative and With the conference we wanted 142 subsequent evaluation leads me to “Now, almost ten years later, we are confronted by other types of barriers. We are working on maintaining momentum and making sure that we continue to be relevant.” awareness. Also, we can see that our 2012 order to be close to the political We always have put a great deal – all in the same room to talk about the Initiative’s 2014 conference in guide, “HIV Indicator Conditions: epicenter of Europe, and we were of effort into involving a wide range how they can play an important part Barcelona. Interest from conference Guidance for Implementing HIV Test- successful in engaging stakeholders of people through our activities in overcoming this challenge. participants and feedback from the ing in Adults in Healthcare Settings,” 143 CHANGE MAKER IN USA SUSAN SHERIDAN defined as the “kind of mistake that should never occur” in the field of medical treatment. IMPROVING PATIENT SAFETY THROUGH ADVOCACY – A FIGHT TO RECTIFY A SYSTEM FAILURE From personal tragedy to national advocacy, Susan Sheridan’s story is one of patient empowerment. She and her organization, PICK, are tirelessly working to improve the awareness of kernicterus and elevate patient safety higher on the national healthcare agenda. In 2001 , PICK played an important role in getting the Center for Disease Control and the Joint Commission to issue alerts to all accredited hospitals and public health professionals in the USA saying that all healthy infants are at potential risk of kernicterus if their newborn jaundice is not monitored and not adequately treated. Furthermore, Susan Sheridan and the other mothers of PICK have played an important role spreading awareness of the risks of kernicterus among healthcare consumers. One of their initiatives was the parent education campaign, “Did you know that jaundice can sometimes lead to brain damto healthcare. PICK’s focus in these partnerships age in newborns?,” which was initiated in 2006. is to actively involve healthcare professionals as key players in the change process – working for The effect and significance in PICK in the fight for a system change to improve the monitoring and eradicating kernicterus has been widely recog- treatment of jaundice. nized. Susan Sheridan and the six other mothers of PICK were honored at the national Patient Through this work, Susan Sheridan and the six Safety Partnership Symposium as a success other moms have managed to put kernicterus on story of partnership between consumers and the the healthcare agenda and to push forward more healthcare system to initiate system-wide im- research and increased awareness of the prob- provements. And in 2009, Sheridan was named lem. In 2002, they successfully advocated for the to Modern Healthcare’s list of the Top 25 Women classification of kernicterus as a “Never Event” by in Healthcare. the National Quality Forum. ”Never Events” are No one is born with kernicterus. It is a brain cated to research, education, prevention and injury that occurs when jaundice is misman- outreach for individuals with kernicterus and aged in the first days and weeks of a baby’s their families, PICK’s mission is “passionately life. This happened to Susan Sheridan’s son, pursuing ways to make the future of individu- Cal. He suffered severe brain damage five als with kernicterus brighter.” BIOGRAPHY days after his birth in 1995 because his neo- organization that seeks a safe, in patient safety after her family compassionate and just healthcare experienced two serious medical system through proactive partnerships natal jaundice was untreated. A one dollar The story of PICK is a story of success built system failures. Her son, Cal, suffered between consumers and providers of bilirubin test could have prevented it. This upon Susan Sheridan’s and the six other severe brain damage called kernicterus care. Sheridan served at President of led Susan Sheridan to leave behind a career moms’ personal tragedies. Since its founding, five days after his birth in 1995 when CAPS from 2003-2010. as a banker in trade finance and to become a PICK has managed to mobilize great support leading activist in the patient advocacy battle and expand its activities in order to create his diagnosis of spinal cancer failed to – a battle to put the awareness and improve- awareness about kernicterus and strategies be communicated. ment of patient safety at the forefront of the for putting an end to this easily preventable healthcare agenda. patient injury. Throughout the last 15 years, many families and medical professionals have 144 Susan Sheridan became involved his neonatal jaundice was untreated. Her husband, Pat, died in 2002 after SUSAN SHERIDAN DIRECTOR OF PATIENT ENGAGEMENT FOR THE PATIENT- From 2004-2011 Sheridan lead the World Health Organization’s Patients for Patient Safety initiative, a program under the WHO Patient Safety Sheridan, MIM, MBA, DHL is currently Program that embraces the collective the Director of Patient Engagement wisdom of patients, and values patient for the Patient-Centered Outcomes empowerment and patient centered Research Institute. She is also care. One of her first steps was to found the become involved with PICK, forming a strong non-profit organization, Parents of Infants community of support. With Susan Sheridan and Children with Kernicterus, PICK, together as one of its leaders, PICK has also succeeded with six other moms and dedicated research- in developing strong partnerships with federal co-founded Consumers Advancing ers in October 2000. An organization dedi- and non-governmental organizations related Patient Safety (CAPS), a non-profit CENTERED OUTCOMES co-founder and past President of RESEARCH INSTITUTE Parents of Infants and Children with (PCORI) Kernicterus (PICK), and in 2003, she Sheridan received her BA from Albion College and her MIM and MBA from Thunderbird School of Global Management. 145 INTERVIEW WHAT SPARKED YOUR INVOLVEMENT WITH PICK? For me it was personally motivated. I – as the other moms who co-founded PICK – had a baby who ington. This led to a front page article in USA Today on kernicterus – where I got to share my story nationally. It got a lot of reactions from other families with similar stories. Ultimately this led to a meeting in “It was personal, it was passion and it was very healing for me to feel that my story could become part of a greater system-wide change.” HOW DID YOU INVOLVE OTHER PEOPLE, AND WHOM DID YOU INVITE? From day one we built our work ago, having moms setting this kind of agenda was almost unheard of in the healthcare sector. The healthcare system was not used to listening to patients – especially not those HOW DID YOU MEASURE THE EFFECT OF THE CHANGE? HOW DO YOU KNOW IT WORKED? The implementation the biliru- on a partnership strategy. We demanding radical change. This is bin test nationally has really been a did not want to leave anyone out, very different from today, where the great victory. We helped change the because the backing from all actors patient voice has become standard standards of care. I am not saying was crucial if we were to make this in our healthcare system. that it is perfect, but research shows suffered brain damage because of Chicago, where we – seven mothers newborn jaundice, which is prevent- to babies with kernicterus along with able. I wanted to prevent this from dedicated researchers – decided to happening to other babies and fam- form PICK as an NGO. We started ilies. It was personal, it was passion out by developing a structure, an and it was very healing for me to feel objective and a timeline for our ini- happening. Leading up to this, the for bringing the partners together. that my story could become part of tiative. One of our first decisions was mothers formulated a to-do-list for In terms of getting the right a greater system-wide change. to go big and to focus on the entire the healthcare system, researching people to attend our first round- there was will. We were complete- both in the healthcare system, where healthcare system. We did not want and identifying the responsibilities table, we had opened some doors ly mission driven – focused on our the previous misinformation about risks and consequences of the to stay local, because the mistreating and roles for each stakeholder in when I testified in Washington. At north star. We just had to look at our the seriousness of jaundice has been current protocol and improve the of newborn jaundice was happen- the healthcare system. We created a that summit there were a number of children, as they were a constant re- replaced by more fact-based discus- guidelines for practicing pedia- ing across the country. This also security blanket showing what could leading figures within the healthcare minder of the importance of pushing sions on the risks of not getting your tricians. I wanted to contribute to meant that our mission and what we and should be done to prevent this system, including the Joint Commis- through and making kernicterus a baby tested, as well as in families, getting kernicterus on the radar for worked for was a nationwide system from happening again. sion, who I reached out to when we phenomenon of the past. where parents now demand that the US healthcare authorities, which change. We wanted to implement a decided to have the first roundtable. it was not at that time. There was universal bilirubin test for the entire I picked up the phone and talked to We focused on consistency and a a perception that this disease was healthcare system for all newborns, their CEO, and he agreed to come to clear message that was not attack- based on the anecdotes we hear. simply not happening in the USA. to create awareness of the problem our event – the first one to step up. ing, but trying to engage and involve We get many personal stories from Thus, we parents needed to get and to push forward education of This opened the door to get other the system. This helped us get moms and dads that have just had a involved and to tell the story – that parents and professionals. At the beginning all we had was stakeholders involved, because we through and make a difference. We baby that had jaundice and was test- our own time, so we used a lot of our could say that the Joint Commission focused on speaking the healthcare ed with bilirubin. Those letters really was supporting it. language, being informed, know- matter and make us confident that we really made a difference. I wanted to tell the story of the this was a preventable patient injury Our basic idea was then, and still kind of radical change throughout the entire healthcare system. We saw our own role as being catalytic HOW DID YOU GET RESOURCES TO CREATE THE CHANGE YOU WANTED? that once the test was made a HOW DID YOU OVERCOME THESE BARRIERS? There was no silver bullet, but We were very true to our mission. that was, in fact, a reality in the USA. is, that if you want to drive change, time and resources. As the initia- We were the only ones who had you have to work in partnerships. tive grew, we also began working ing our partners as means of being the knowledge of what happened, So in the forming of PICK we more actively on getting funds for considered a serious and important we knew the history of healthcare reached out to nationally well-known research and specific activities. failures that led to our babies’ brain researchers, doctors and safety The Academic Institute helped damage. There was a profound goal experts and asked them to become fund some of the first steps. The healthcare professionals. So at first, by making the concept of partner- of making the patient voice count. a part of the initiative. Based on this, researchers that we partnered with in terms of eradicating Kenicterus, ships a very important aspect of our We wanted to advocate for the our first big step was to work with also received money from govern- we did not see the barriers, but work. We did not know it was a great importance of bringing patients, our lead researchers to organize ment agencies to conduct research. only the possibilities. But one of the strategy at first, but it was key for patient advocates and family mem- the roundtable, “Strategies for a One grant came from The Centers challenges when we started was our success as a vehicle for bridging bers to the table to help redesign the System-wide Change in the Manage- for Disease Control and Prevention that they asked us: where is the patients and professionals. In regard healthcare system and to improve ment of Neonatal Hyperbilirubinemia to conduct more research on a evidence? We lacked evidence of the to this, we also had immense help patient safety. to Prevent Kernicterus,” in February database of children with kernicter- extent of kernicterus and the treat- from some remarkable partners 2001. At this roundtable we brought us, and to create a public education ment failures. We had to take on the within the system. They were bold basically the entire healthcare sys- campaign. We also got some funding task of uncovering and making this and progressive enough to support tem to the table. Accreditors, regula- from parents through our fundrais- research available. us even though this meant support- tors, researchers, payers, healthcare ing events and advocacy. It was kind happened to my son at an Agency systems and government represen- of a grassroots effort. for Healthcare Quality & Research tatives sat down to discuss what was WHAT WAS YOUR FIRST STEP? In 2000, I testified about what 146 summit on patient safety in Wash- WHAT WERE THE MAIN BARRIERS First of all, we moms were not Another great barrier was to national standard, newborn readmissions decreased by 30%. We have also managed to change the way people talk about jaundice – their babies be tested. Success, for us, is also very much voice. We overcame a lot of the barriers ing a radical change. “We overcame a lot of the barriers by making the concept of partnerships a very important aspect of our work.” create a patient voice and make it count. When we started 16 years 147 CHANGE MAKER IN CHINA STEPHEN MACMAHON LIFESEEDS’ TWO PRIMARY ACTIVITIES: • Training of “village doctors” through the Healthcare BRIDGING THE GAP: LIFESEEDS AND CHRONIC DISEASE MANAGEMENT IN RURAL CHINA Steven MacMahon’s spearheading efforts at LifeSeeds are training village doctors and improving the treatment of cardiovascular disease in China’s “stroke belt”. Provider Program – a primary care-based program seeking to build up the capacity of village doctors in cardiovascular prevention and management and thus enhance the identification and medical management of individuals at high cardiovascular risk. • Educating the people through a Community Education Program seeking to improve blood pressure control in those already affected, and to prevent hypertension and reduce overall salt consumption in the population and provide recommendations of salt substitutes. A recent meta-study on hypertension in rural China This dual focus is motivated by the fact that the chal- deemed the overall hypertension prevalence rate to be lenge lies not only in the behavior of the people, but also 22.81%.1 Even more worrisome, a 2015 study in rural in the healthcare system. Rural China is characterized Northeast China concluded that 51% of the population by low awareness, poor disease management, limited was hypertensive. 31.2% were taking medication to ad- resources and a healthcare service without well estab- dress the problem but only 6% had their blood pressure lished evidence-based clinical guidelines for the man- under control. 2 These gloomy numbers are due both to agement of hypertension and cardiovascular disease. On the 2nd of June, 2011, the Salt Reduction and doctors, LifeSeeds is introducing effec- a lack of knowledge of healthy living among the Chinese and Health Education Campaign launched in tive, low-cost and sustainable interventions people, and to a healthcare system that is currently So far the success has been great. An evaluation of the Lianghu– a small village in the Shanxi prov- for cardiovascular disease that will enable not properly managing these health challenges. The first part of the project showed that the people in rural ince of Northern China. The launch was or- widespread prevention and management campaign launched in Lianghu marks a new beginning – northern China reduced their salt intake after participat- chestrated as a village celebration equipped programs to be implemented in rural China. confronting the lack of knowledge and action from both ing in a community-based sodium reduction program. with drummers and dancing. Healthcare LifeSeeds is thus addressing a greater health the healthcare consumers and providers. 120 villages from five of the Northern provinces of China experts gave inspirational speeches explain- challenge in China, one in which chronic ing the risk of high salt intake and told people diseases are growing by the minute and cur- how to reduce their salt consumption. As in rently account for more than three-quarters many other villages and towns in Northern of all deaths. - Hebei, Liaoning, Ningxia, Shanxi, and Shaanxi – are parChen X, Li L, Zhou T, Li Z. Prevalence of Hypertension in Rural Areas of China: A Meta-Analysis of Published Studies. PLOS One 2014; 9(12): e115462. 1 Li Z, Guo X, Zheng L, Yang H, Sun Y. Grim status of hypertension in rural China: Results from Northeast China Rural Cardiovascular Health Study 2013. Journal of the American Society of Hypertension 2015. 2 ticipating in and benefitting from the various elements of implementation of LifeSeeds. China, in Lianghu it is common to use a large amount of salt in everyday cooking. This high Cardiovascular diseases are, at present, the salt consumption is becoming a health risk leading cause of death in China, responsible and these small communities are seeing a for about 2.6 million deaths annually. And steady rise of hypertension and other cardio- predictions for the future assess that this vascular diseases. number will only grow in the coming years, BIOGRAPHY likely to reach 4 million deaths per year by The campaign is part of The China Rural 2020. In rural China, where access to basic Health Initiative – also called LifeSeeds – and health services is difficult, these problems are is a flagship project of the George Institute for particularly significant. Global Health. The project is designed to improve healthcare in China’s rural areas, home Cases of heart disease, stroke and diabe- to more than 700 million people. It involves tes are rising rapidly in rural China and the 120 townships in five provinces in Northern control and treatment of diseases are lagging China and is supported by the Ministry of behind. Health. By working with local governments 148 STEPHEN MACMAHON PRINCIPAL DIRECTOR OF Stephen MacMahon is one of the founders As Principal Director of The George of The George Institute for Global Health Institute, Professor MacMahon is and is currently its Principal Director. He responsible for more than 500 staff at is Professor of Medicine at the University Institute research facilities in Australia, of Oxford and is an international authority China, India and the UK. In 2008, he on the causes, prevention and treatment received the Australian Government’s of common cardiovascular diseases. highest award for achievement in medical His special interest is the management research and in 2012, he was elected as of chronic and complex conditions in Fellow to both the Australian Academy resource-poor settings, particularly in the of Science and the Academy of Medical Asia-Pacific region. Sciences. THE GEORGE INSTITUTE FOR GLOBAL HEALTH 149 INTERVIEW WHAT SPARKED THE CREATION OF LIFESEEDS? We’ve had a long term interest ultimately the whole project has been designed and run by our team in Beijing – all of whom are Chinese and several have joint appointments in the treatment and prevention of with Peking University. Therefore, it heart disease and stroke in Asia. One wasn’t an Australian or British study. of the lessons we learned early on is Fundamentally, it was run, as is ap- that a large majority of patients who propriate, by people who understand either had already experienced a the Chinese health system, politics heart attack or stroke – or those who and culture, all which are critical in are at very high risk – weren’t getting any shift in healthcare. “the West has so much experience in the management of these chronic conditions, that we have something to offer China and other emerging markets” any care at all, and those who were getting care were usually getting suboptimal care. That was the scenario we faced, and clearly the status quo of healthcare services was far short of what was required. ilarly, once we had a plan for action, referral, treatment and follow-up. Health and Family Planning Commis- we identified the key stakeholders We believe that these personalized sion) has not had access to research including the Ministry of Health and instructions for clinical management, funds, so it was not in a position to provincial health bureaus, and we together with continuous monitoring contribute financially but it has acted worked closely with them as well as of practice quality, have the potential as strategic partner. Additionally, a range of others, like the Chinese to greatly improve the quality of the regional health bureaus in the Center for Disease Control and Pre- care provided. That said, without the provinces contributed by providing vention. So we made a deliberate extension of the human resource, access to facilities and staff. But we effort to identify and engage all the there will always be limitations. had to raise all the research funds key stakeholders, and take account We’ve shown that we can improve outside of the country, which is – of their views as to how best to the care provided by what are effec- today - unsustainable. China has achieve our goals. tively non-medical workers, and if an enormous economy and thereWHAT WERE YOUR FIRST STEPS IN STARTING LIFESEEDS? We didn’t have many models to follow, because at the time we start- by building technology systems to we not focus on the most or least fore the days of the United States, developed provinces, but rather Australia, the UK and other Western find provinces in the middle, where countries providing research funds there was the greatest potential for to China are over. We’d like to get change and scale-up. China more directly involved with the village doctors were already care workers because they are, of healthcare research funding in the overwhelmed with work, so ex- course, very inexpensive compared So we focused on what is basical- WHAT WERE THE MAIN BARRIERS IN STARTING LIFESEEDS? The major barrier was that that support them we can substantially improve the quality of care, then it will be very cost effective to hire more of these non-medical health- Therefore, we commissioned a ed working with China in this area, small pilot study in China working there wasn’t much focus on stroke ly the “stroke belt” of China, which future. To do so, we’re focusing on tending their reach, even to cover to regular doctors. As long as we with the Ministry of Health to look at and heart disease. Most of the global runs from the middle of China above closer engagement with the Ministry something as important as stroke can ensure safe, effective care, this is a few clinical centers in some rural interest in healthcare in China had Beijing to the east coast. Here stroke of Science and Technology. prevention and treatment, was not potentially a very scalable solution. areas to see what was going on, par- focused on issues like SARs, which rates are very high, and while there ticularly in terms of stroke preven- were seen as possible threats to the are major limitations in the level of organization, and not a techni- very modest level of training of and have shown that a very basic tion, as stroke is the leading cause West. So ailments that weren’t a care provided, the health systems cally Chinese organization, so we doctors was an issue. So while the prototype technology has the ca- of death and disability in China. threat to the West, like heart disease are strong enough to support the cannot seek resources directly from stroke prevention program clearly pacity to improve outcomes. What And the results were pretty grim in or stroke, weren’t on the Western implementation of new programs. the government, as only Chinese improved the quality of the care that we now need is a bespoke Chinese terms of the treatments people were agenda. Part of the rationale for es- And as it has turned out, the Minis- organizations can apply for funding was delivered, the impact was still version and a completely new phase receiving if they’d had a stroke, and tablishing The George Institute was ter’s advice was extremely helpful from the Chinese government. That well short of what we had hoped for. of LifeSeeds, targeting the same the absence of anything being done that the West has so much experi- and the provinces we chose to be said, we need to find other ways to for those at risk. ence in the management of these great places to run this project. work with the government through On that basis, we put together The George Institute is a global chronic conditions, that we have partnerships or joint venture with a partnership with Peking Universi- something to offer China and other Chinese organizations with interests ty – it also involved the Ministry of emerging markets, experientially and Health and Bureaus of Health in rural financially. provinces. We developed a program At the outset, we knew there HOW DID YOU GET RESOURCES TO CREATE THE CHANGE YOU in improving healthcare for the poor. WANTED? HOW DID YOU INVOLVE OTHER a straightforward task. Also, the HOW WILL YOU OVERCOME THESE BARRIERS? AND WHAT ARE THE CHALLENGES TO OVERCOME IN THE FUTURE? The next phase of this project will was a big difference in the quality After identifying the provinces healthcare workers with very modest of healthcare in the cities and rural with which to work, we sought fund- training. The program was very areas in China. I had previously had ing from the US National Institutes of simple and aimed to enable them to the opportunity to host the Chinese Health, which had a specific program identify people at high risk of stroke Minister of Health, Mr. Gao Qiang, on devoted to improving healthcare for When we first established our or who had had a stroke, and provide a visit to Sydney and he emphasized heart disease and stroke in low and Institute in China, we developed it as gram, we will provide mobile internet low-cost evidence based treatment. that the most important challenge middle income countries. We suc- a partnership with Peking University. based programs, which provide The program ran for 2 years and was to improve care in Chinese rural ceeded in gaining their support, and We chose Peking University because instructions directly to the doctor then we assessed the outcomes. communities. We discussed with they funded the project for the best it’s the leading university in China, about how to manage the patient him the selection of provinces for part of 5 years. so in that sense it was a carefully in front of him or her. This includes planned strategic partnership. Sim- instructions about risk assessment, cial support for this project, but LifeSeeds and he suggested that Until very recently, the Chinese PEOPLE AND ORGANIZATIONS AND HOW DID YOU CHOOSE WHO TO INVITE? We’ve begun some work on this, or similar populations, to assess to train “village doctors,” who are I was involved in raising finan- 150 Ministry of Health (now the National whether this approach to care works. We do not yet have funds for this, but it is something we will continue to seek. There is also a need to extend the reach of the program to urban com- use new IT technology to commu- munities. If you are wealthy in China, nicate with the village doctors. So you can get 5 star medical service in rather than training the doctors and leaving it to them to follow the guidelines and implement the pro- “As long as we can ensure safe, effective care, this is potentially a very scalable solution.” 151 any of the major cities, but if you’re the national level. If we can achieve of 2 generic drugs that cost about poor, and particularly if you’re a the results we are aiming for in terms 10 cents a day. If we could show migrant, then there are big challeng- of stroke prevention, then we could widespread uptake and persistence es in accessing quality care. There is take a similar approach to other in that sort of care, we would know therefore a demand for accessible, major health problems in China such we are on track to make a major affordable care in urban areas, as as lung disease, cancer, and mental difference in clinical outcomes for well as in rural areas. health. this very large patient population. Of course, the actual implemenHOW DO YOU ENGAGE ALL THE ACTORS INVOLVED WITH LIFESEEDS? work is that there is a clear currency: the provincial or national levels is death or hospitalization. It’s the type the responsibility of governments, of thing you can easily count. unless – and this is possible – China But, of course, it’s not only There has been very a good engage- opens up the healthcare sector to counting the bodies that matters. ment with the village doctors and foreign ownership and operation. We need to make sure treatments this is demonstrated by the improve- I think that’s in the cards. Already, and initiatives are cost effective. You ment in care we have observed. the planned free trade agreement could spend a fortune and only save We’ve also had great support from between Australia and China will a few lives, or you could spend much the Chinese bureaus of Health, allow Australians to own and operate less and save many lives. And in all Peking University and the Ministry of healthcare facilities in China. This resource poor environments, you Health, so I don’t think engagement could be the start of much more need to veer on the side of the latter has been a major challenge. global engagement with China in – and do things that are affordable the development of solutions for its as well as accessible. That said, the greatest health challenges. resources that are currently available The bigger challenge will come when it comes to scale up. Translating evidence from projects such as LifeSeeds directly into national programs is extremely challenging. What we have learned is that a better option may be to first try in rural China are not adequate, so H0W DO YOU MEASURE THE EFFECT OF LIFESEEDS? HOW WILL YOU KNOW IT WORKED? any sort of implementation of better quality care is going to require greater resources. Our hope is that if we can show the LifeSeeds programs to achieve scale up in a provincial There are national and interna- are cost effective, this will result in program. A successful provincial tional guidelines about how patients resource allocation that will allow program could then provide a model with certain conditions should be these programs to be scaled up. for a national program. Our view treated and their recommenda- at the moment is that although we tions are based on strategies that have improved the care provided in have been shown, unequivocally, these villages, we don’t yet have the to reduce the risk of death, stroke solution that we should be scaling and other diseases. Therefore, if up. We’ve proven the principle that we can show there are meaningful you can change the care provided improvements in the application of by village doctors, but we still need a those strategies in the populations more powerful intervention that will served by LifeSeeds we can make a deliver larger improvements. If we precise estimate of the effect these can achieve this in the next phase of programs will have on death and LifeSeeds then I think we will really disease. For instance, if a patient has have something we could promote had one stroke then that person’s at a provincial level. risk of a second stroke is high (say, From there, we’d have a model of success that we could then bring to 152 The great thing about this kind of tation of any such programs at either 20% over 5 years). We know that this risk can be halved by a combination “The great thing about this kind of work is that there is a clear currency: death or hospitalization. It’s the type of thing you can easily count.” 153 INSPIRATION FOR FURTHER READING WHO’S BEHIND SUSTAINIA is an innovation platform where companies, The objective of strategic research is to enable long- NGOs, foundations and thought leaders come together term innovation and business growth in support of the in creating tangible approaches to sustainability. With a overall strategy of DNV GL through new knowledge and focus on readily available solutions, Sustainia’s mission services. Such research is carried out in selected areas is to mature markets and sectors for sustainable models, that are believed to be of particular significance for DNV products, and services. The work of Sustainia equips GL in the future. DNV GL will seek out the best practices decision makers, CEOs, and citizens with the solu- in risk thinking to support the further development of tions, arguments, visions, facts, and networks needed high quality, person-centered care. We welcome the to accelerate a sustainable transformation in sectors, opportunity to work with others to make this vision a BMJ SPOTLIGHT: PATIENT CENTRED CARE, 2015 industries, and our everyday lives. reality for all. To learn more about our work to establish Healthcare faces serious threats to its sustainability. Ageing populations, the rise a collaboration, please visit us at: www.dnvgl.com/pa- of co-morbid chronic conditions, an unenviable safety record and the impact of tientsafety austerity collectively mean that health systems around the world have to change The concept of Sustainia was developed by Scandina- if they are to achieve improved well-being for individuals and populations. Such vian think tank, Monday Morning, in a collaborative ef- change is possible if we join the power of systems thinking with the engagement fort with global companies, foundations, organizations, and experts. Since 1989, Monday Morning has addressed megatrends in our society: sustainability, healthcare, welfare, and financial systems, to name but a few. On a DNV GL and Sustainia have created multiple publications on the subjects of healthcare and health. We hope State of Healthcare has inspired you to keep reading and exploring our work. We have listed a selection of reading material below: of service users as equal and active partners alongside practitioners, provider organizations and policy makers. This is the message of the new publication on Erik Rasmussen Founder of Sustainia and CEO of Monday Morning person-centred care from the BMJ and DNV GL. national and international level, Monday Morning works Stephen Leyshon for an innovative society where old barriers between Deputy Programme Director - Principal Advisor in Patient Safety MIXED METHODS: IMPROVING THE ASSESSMENT OF SAFETY CULTURE IN sectors, institutions, and leaders are torn down in an ef- DNV GL - Healthcare | Strategic Research and Innovation HEALTHCARE, 2014 fort to locate common challenges and shared solutions. To find out more, visit: www.sustainia.me Safety culture is the way in which organizations live and breathe safety. If there is Eva Turk to be improvement in the quality of healthcare, the assessment of safety culture is Senior Researcher DNV GL - Healthcare | Strategic Research and Innovation DNV GL is driven by its purpose of safeguarding life, property, and the environment, DNV GL enables organizations to advance the safety and sustainability of their business. DNV GL provides classification and technical Global Technical Director for Healthcare DNV GL - Healthcare | Business Assurance Fabijana Popovic advisory services to the maritime, oil and gas, and Project Manager, Monday Morning Sustainia to customers across a wide range of industries. Combining leading technical and operational expertise, risk THE GUIDE TO CO-CREATING HEALTH, 2014 Guide to Co-Creating Health describes a not-too-distant future society in which different arenas work together to create a health-empowering society. The guide Esben Alslund-Lanthén looks at schools, workplaces, the food sector, healthcare and communities and Research Analyst, Monday Morning Sustainia examines their roles in creating a society that truly values health. By using clear language and easily read illustrations, the book portrays the healthy society we methodology and in-depth industry knowledge, DNV Monica Keaney GL empowers its customers’ decisions and actions with Project Coordinator, Monday Morning Sustainia trust and confidence. The company continuously invests in research and col- in which quantitative and qualitative methods are combined to improve the accuracy of results in the assessment of a healthcare organization’s safety culture. Stephen McAdam assurance along with software and independent expert energy industries. It also provides certification services paramount. This position paper makes the case for using a mixed methods approach, could live in ten years from now based on solutions available today. Anna Fenger Schefte Journalist, Monday Morning THE GUIDE TO PERSON-CENTRED CARE, 2014 While the current healthcare systems of the world are unsustainable, their challenges laborative innovation to provide customers and society Lisa Haglund at large with operational and technological foresight. Head of Design, Monday Morning Sustainia also present the greatest opportunities to co-create healthier societies. In PersonCentred Care, we set forth a bold vision for what healthcare could look like if person- DNV GL, whose origins date back to 1864, operates centered care is made a reality for all. The guide features interviews with world globally in more than 100 countries, with its 16,000 leaders in person-centered care, 10 illuminating case studies from around the world, professionals dedicated to helping their customers make the world safer, smarter, and greener. Always looking a review of the challenges and obstacles to person-centered care and an accessible SUSTAINIA and engaging review of the evidence. to the future, the company undertakes a great deal of research on coming trends, as part of the DNV GL Strategic Research and Innovation program. 154 a part of MONDAY MORNING 155 REFERENCE LIST A Alkenizan A & Shaw C. Impact of ac- of university-affiliated hospitals in Shiraz, Bossone A. Sharing the pain: Improving Center for American Progress. Alter- Centers for Medicaid and Medicare creditation on the quality of healthcare Iran. Journal of Infection and Public healthcare in warzones. Nature – Middle natives to Fee-for-Service Payments Services. Medicare ACOs continue to Adam T. Advancing the application of services: a systematic review of the Health 2012; 5: 169-176. East. 2014. www.natureasia.com/en/ in Health Care. 2012. http://cdn. succeed in improving care, lowering systems thinking in health. Health Re- literature. 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Our ambition is to help change the conversation from only focusing on challenges to an approach that highlights opportunities and co-creates positive change. SUSTAINIA a part of MONDAY MORNING 168