Download From Eastern Question to Early Colonial Policies

Prof. Bruno Pierri
History of Italian Foreign Policy
The Kingdom of Italy’s Foreign
Policy: From Eastern Question to
Early Colonial Interests
February 12th, 2014
Ottoman Question
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Herzegovina 1875: Christian uprising
against Ottoman Empire
Russian intervention 1877-1878 and
Turkish defeat
Treaty of St. Stephen Mar 1878
reduced Ottoman territories and
Turkish power in Europe
Conference of Berlin established that
Bosnia-Herzegovina, though
nominally still under Turkish
sovereignty, would become military
protectorate of Austria
Giving up neutrality
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Rivalry with France and risk of invasion
of Sicily
Austrian-Hungarian Empire might
expand Eastwards, with relative
strengthening in Adriatic
Hope that, in case of alliance, Austria
might cede Trentino
In case of war between Russia and
Turkey, Britain would have backed the
former
Neutrality could have been turned into
isolation
Getting closer to Germany
► 1877
Crispi (Chairman of House of
Deputies) got in touch with Bismarck to
propose alliance in case of war against
both France and Austria
► Integrity of Austrian Empire matched
European balance and German interests
► Italian proposal rejected: Bismarck did
not back Italian irredentism and wished
Italo-Austrian friendship
Berlin Congress 1878
► Austria
occupied Bosnia-Herzegovina and
improved positions in Dalmatia
► Britain kept Cyprus
► France got free hand in Tunisia
► Russia gained Bessarabia and Batum, on Black
Sea
► Germany had no territorial gains, but became
main stay of European balance
► Congress reduced and divided Bulgaria, satellite
of Russian Empire, confirming independence of
Romania, Serbia, Montenegro
► Russia not satisfied of negotiations
► Turkey, though losing large territories, limited
damage compared with Treaty of St. Stephen
Repercussions in Italy
► No
gain for Italy, though Rome had participated
in Congress
► Agreements reached before Congress
► Italy excluded since she was not part of any
alliance
► May 12, 1881: French Protectorate on Tunisia
without any compensation and guarantee to
Italian interests
► British tacit assent to French interests
► Italy completely isolated and diplomatically
powerless
► Necessity of alliance on anti-French purposes
Triple Alliance 1882
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Italian committment to assist Germany in case of unprovocked
French aggression
Austrian and German committment to assist Italy in case of
unprovocked French aggression
Casus foederis: in case one or two parties involved in war, without
any provocation, against two or more powers – I.e. if Austria
attacked by Russia and France, Italy obliged to intervene
In case of war against power due to threat, the other parts
observed benevolent neutrality towards allies, reserving
themselves to intervene on her side
Committment not to undertake any other alliance hostile to Triple
Alliance and to consult the other parts on political and economic
matters
Guarantees that Triple Alliance was not aimed against Britain
Defensive alliance to keep European monarchic order established
after 1870
Accomplishment of Bismarck diplomacy: isolation of France,
surrounding of Germany avoided, European system rotating around
Germany
Bismarck’s Diplomacy
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Anti-German coalition avoided
St. Petersburg and Vienna divided on Eastern question
France tried to break isolation and reconquer a position
of power, thus weakening Germany
Twofold Alliance Austria-Germany 1879
Three Emperors Pact 1881 (Germany-Austria-Russia):
Bismarck sought peace between Austria and Russia, at
the same time avoiding approach between Russia and
France
Through Triple Alliance, though without any explicit
reference to safety of borders, Italy was relieved from
territorial worries and Austrian support to French
clericalism
Irredentism and Mediterranean policies put on shelves
Bulgarian Unification
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Triple Alliance renewable after 5 years
Only in case of international crisis, could Italy play geopolitical role and improve positions
Bulgarian Unification 1885:
Principality of Bulgaria and semi-self-governing Ottoman
province of Eastern Rumelia proclaimed unification
Unification took place against great powers’ will. Serbia also
feared that all this would undermine her position in Balkans.
Flattered by Austrian promises on territorial enlargement,
Serbia waged war on Bulgaria
Serbian defeat persuaded Austria to support Belgrade,
threatening intervention in war
19 February 1886 treaty of peace. No change on SerbianBulgarian border
Three Emperor Pact at risk. Russia sought detente with
France, which sought dialogue with Italy
Carlo Felice Nicolis, Earl of Robilant
Minister of Foreign Affairs 1885, Depretis Government
Renewal of Triple Alliance 1887
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Confirmation of previous treaty, in addition to Italo-German and
Italo-Austrian treaties
1)
Italo-Austrian Treaty:
A)
Prevent territorial changes in the East and get information on
each other’s decisions
B)
In case of necessary break of status quo, pre-hemptive
agreement and mutual compensations for each territorial gain –
Trento and Trieste question reopened!
2) Italo-German Treaty:
A)
Alliance extended to North Africa
B)
German committment to assist Italy, in case or armed response
to French influence in Morocco and Tripoli
C)
In case of Italian victory, German committment to facilitate
territorial guarantees for security of Kingdom – Mediterranean
question reopened!
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Italian fortunes did not depend on Rome’s initiatives, but on
foreign events and eventual war
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Counter-diplomacy
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1887 secret treaty Russia-Germany:
benevolent neutrality in exchange of moral
support to Russian interests in Bulgaria and
Straits area
Treaty contrary both to Triple Alliance and
Austro-German alliance
Guarantee against joint Franco-Russian action
1887 Italo-British treaty of co-operation
British abstension from agreements with
France against Italy
Mutual strengthening of monarchic principle
Italy associated to great powers and
diplomatically on equal level
Early colonial policy
► Italy
aimed at establishing hegemony on
Tunisia
► 1881 French initiative caused a big
change in Italian foreign policy
► Italian colonialism started by gaining
Assab and Massawa on Red Sea (18821885)
► Some Italian entrepreneurs already
working there
► Unlike European colonial powers, in Italy
the State had to encourage capitalists to
invest in colonies or areas of influence
Massawa and Assab
► Horn
of Africa - Italy decided to orient
expansion claims towards territories not well
regarded by colonial powers yet
► 1882: Italian State purchased Bay of Assab
► 1885: exploiting as a pretext the massacre of a
trading expedition, Italian troops occupied
Massawa harbour, thanks also to British
approval. Shortly aftwerwards, occupation of
coastal strip between Massawa and Assab and
annexation of Massawa
► Plans of penetration into Sudan rejected by
Britain
► 1887 Robilant decided to carry on operations in
Eritrea