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Affective Computing Ana Paiva & João Dias Lecture 2. Introduction to Affective Computing Inspiration, main questions and approaches to understand emotions What is Affective Computing? “Computing that relates to, arises from, or deliberately influences emotions” Rosalind Picard, 1997 A bit of History on AC • Roz Picard: pioneering work in 1996 • Coming from the MIT Media Lab and very technical background was received with mixed feelings by community • In 2002 the HUMAINE network of excellence created a truly community and area. • There were many diverse workshops from 1996 and in 2007 the Affective Computing and Intelligent Interaction was held in Portugal • In 2010 the journal IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing was launched. • But, in order to understand the area of Affective Computing, we need to explore the understanding of emotions and related phenomena… What is an emotion: some ideas • We all have experienced emotions, so we know what they are.. • Yet, because of that, psychologists have difficulty in obtaining a general and proper definition of what an emotion is. An emotion is psychological state or process that mediates between our concerns (or goals) and events in our world. Emotions as priority to concerns According to Sylvan Tomkins: At any one time an emotion gives priority to one concern over others See Emotions as sources for values • Emotions according to Solomon (2007) are the source for our values: – Whom and what we love; what we dislike and what we despise. – Morality emerges from our emotions. Emotions and relationships Whom do we choose to spend our life with? How does one feel with their families? Why do we worry about being apart from people we love? Emotions help us for and engage in our relationships. Perspectives on Emotion • Psychology as an independent academic discipline emerged during the last third of the 19th century (Leahey, 2003). Study of emotions in Philosophy and in Literature • Aristotles (384-322 BC) in his book Rethoric discusses how different beliefs and judgements give rise to emotions . He considered that emotions come as a result of our beliefs, and as such we are in control of them, as we are in control of our beliefs. • Aristotle also talks about katharsis of our emotions: purification, or clarification (see the work by Nussbaum)- clearing away obstacles. Descartes René Descartes is In those days emotions were called considered the founder of passions. modern philosophy René Descartes, The passions Soul, 1649 of the • He claimed that six fundamental emotions- wonder, desire, joy, love, hatred and sadness- occur in the “thinking” aspect of ourselves, which he called the “soul”. • He considered that the origins of emotions are in the “souls”, and emotions cannot be completely controlled by thinking. • Like Aristotle Descartes suggested that emotions depend on how we evaluate events. Descartes’ error • According to Descartes(1569-1650) there was a clear separation between the rational and the irrational. • [Damasio] defends that reason and emotion cannot be seen as antagonic entities in our mind. 12 Ground-breaking Inspirations Modern ideas about emotion result from the work of 3 important scientists: Charles Darwin Sigmund Freud William James Darwin: the evolutionary approach In 1872 Charles Darwin publishes “The expression of Emotions in Man and Animals” Q1: How are emotions expressed in humans and other animals? Q2: Where do our emotions come from? Emotion expressions derives largely from habits that in our evolutionary or individual past had once been useful. Emotional expressions are based on reflexlike mechanisms and can be triggered involuntarily in circumstances similar to the ones that triggered the original habit. Darwin: the evolutionary approach In 1872 Charles Darwin publishes “The expression of Emotions in Man and Animals” He discusses emotion expressions, with their bodily systems Expression Bodily System Emotion example Blushing Blood vessels Shame, modesty Body contact Somatic muscles Affection Clenching fists Somatic muscles Anger Crying Tear ducts Sadness Frowning Facial muscles Anger, frustration Laughing Breading apparatus Pleasure Perspiration Sweat glands Pain Hair standing on end Dermal apparatus Fear, anger Screaming Vocal apparatus Pain Sneering Facial muscles Contempt Trembling Somatic muscles Fear, anxiety Evolutionary approach to emotion • Emotions are a result of evolution, the theory of how species developed and a central concept in biology. Elements in the evolutionary approach: - Selection Pressures - Adaptation - Natural design and gene replication Selection Pressures • Selection pressures involve threats or opportunities directly related to physical survival. • Many of our systems, such as our preferences for sweet foods and aversion to bitter foods, our thermoregulatory systems, our fight and flight responses, developed in response to these kinds of selection pressures. Adaptation • A central concept in evolution is that of adaptation. Adaptations are genetically based traits that allow the organism to cope well with specific selection pressures. Examples of adaptation Problem/Pressure Adaptation Avoid eating toxins Distaste for bitterness Find healthy mate Perceive facial simetry as beautiful Share costs of raising offsprings Preference for male with status, resources Find fertile mate Preference for mate with youthful appearance Protect offsprings Emotional response to baby-like cues William James: the Physiological Approach Stimulus …bodily changes follow directly the perception of the exciting fact.... and feeling of the same changes as they occur, is the emotion. James 1890, p. 449 Response Emotion (heart rate, etc) James argued against the commonsense idea that when we feel an emotion it impels us in a certain way. Instead, James proposed that when we perceive the “exciting fact” the “emotion” is the perception of the changes in our body as we react to the situation. This is about the nature of “emotional experience”. He argued that experience is embodied… Freud: the psychotherapeutic approach • Proposed that some events are so damaging that they leave emotional scars, which will shape our life. • He worked on a set of case studies. • Like Darwin, he thought that an emotion in the present could derive from one in the past. Recent: Brain science and emotion Starting with John Harlow case of Phineas Cage. Phineas Cage was a likeable foreman working in a railroad in Vermont. On September 1848 a rod entered Gage’s skull, beneath the left eyebrow, and to the top of his head. Gage bleeded, had an infection but recovered., in body but not in mind. Harlow wrote: “the balance between his intellectual faculties and his animal propensities seems to have been destroyed” Walter Cannon • One of the pioneers of modern brain research (he argued against William James). • In the lab he experimented with severing certain subcortical regions of the brain of a cat and showed that the animal had intense emotions. Alice Isen: experimental based work • • She investigated how happiness influences the perception of the world. In one experiment (1970) she gave a test of perceptual-motor skills to people randomly selected. Some were told they had succeeded in the test and some were told they had not. The people that were told they had succeeded (that were more happy) were more likely to help the researcher when she dropped her books. Study Method of Induction Effect of Induction Isen, 1970 Told of skill success Larger donation to charity and help stranger Isen & Levin, 1972 Given cookies More helpful, less annoying in library Isen et al. 1978 Free gift Better recall of positive memories. Report fewer problems in consumer goods. Isen et al. 1985 Positive word association More unusual word associations Isen and Geva, 1987 Bag of candy More cautious about loss when risk is high, less cautious about loss when risk is low. Isen et al. 1987 Comedy film or candy Better creative problem solving Kraiger, Billings & Isen, 1989 Watching TV bloopers More satisfaction in performing a task Isen et al. 1991 Told of anagram success Faster clinical diagnosis, extra interest in patients What is an emotion? Leading Theorists James, 1884 The body changes follow directly the perception of the exciting fact, and our feeling of the same changes as they occur is the emotion. Arnold & Gasson, 1954 An emotion or an affect can be considered as the felt tendency towards an object judged suitable, or away from an object judged unsuitable, reinforced by specific bodily changes. Lazarus, 1991 Emotions are organised psychophysiological reactions to news about ongoing relationships with the environment Ekman, 1992 Emotions are viewed as having evolved through their adaptive value in dealing with life-tasks. Each emotion has unique features: signal, physiology, and antecedent events. Each emotion has characteristics in common with other emotions: rapid onset, short duration, automatic appraisal, and coherence among responses. Frijda & Mesquita, 1994 Emotions… are first and foremost, modes of relating to the environment: states of readiness for engaging, or not engaging, in interaction with that environment. Izard, 2010 Function of emotion: 1. Interupts/changes processing and focusses attention and direction of responses. 2. Motivates cognition and action and provides emotion information to guide and coordinate the engagement of the individual in the physical and social environment for coping, adaptation, affiliation and wellbeing. Characteristics of Emotion Dimensions of emotion (valence and arousal) • Function and structure • Emotion as a “motivator” • Facial feedback hypothesis (e.g. Ekman, Levenson, & Friesen, 1983) • Action tendencies (Frijda, 1986) Are there Discrete Basic Emotions? • • • • There is at large the agreement by many Emotion Theorists that there are some basic emotions. Each of the basic emotions has some kind of “module” (for example, Ekman considered that there are at least 6 modules: joy, sadness, anger, disgust, fear and surprise). The main idea is that when activated by a specific set of suitable perceptions, these “emotion programs” would fire generating emotion-specific feelings, physiological reaction patters, an involuntary tendency for facial expressions, and a tendency to act. James-McDougall influential theory considers that there are discrete biologically evolved basic emotions. Basic Emotions? Basic Emotions Basis for Inclusion Arnold Anger, aversion, courage, dejection, desire, despair, fear, hate, hope, love, sadness Relation to action tendencies Ekman, Friesen e Ellsworth Anger, disgust, fear, joy, sadness, surprise Universal facial expressions Frijda Desire, happiness, interest, surprise, wonder, sorrow Forms of action readiness Rage and terror, anxiety, joy Hardwired James Fear, grief, love, rage Bodily involvement Mowrer Pain, pleasure Unlearned emotional states Panksepp Expectancy, fear, rage, panic Hardwired Fear, love, rage Hardwired Gray Watson The emotional realm: Emotions & other affective States “Affect” is a more general term and refers not only to emotion but also to other “related phenomena”, such as: – Moods (e.g., cheerful, gloomy, irritable, listless, depressed, buoyant) refers to the state that typically lasts for hours and days. When it starts and stops is usually unclear. – Interpersonal stances (e.g., distant, cold, warm, supportive) – Preferences/Attitudes/Sentiment (e.g., liking, loving, hating) – Emotional Disorders (depression, mood disorders) – Personality Traits (e.g., nervous, anxious, reckless, morose) – Culture (e.g., Individualistic vs. Collectivist; engineering vs. social sciences) Emotions and Social Motivations Humans come from a mammals, where one of the defining characteristics is that they are born alive, and thus, during the period when we are unable to fend ourselves we are given milk and nurtured by our parents. - So, social elements are very important and related to emotions. Humans are not only social, but hypersocial: the live in families, societies, develop cultures… - The social motivations can be thought as adaptations that were done during evolution. Three types of social motivations: 1. Attachment 2. Assertion 3. Affiliation The three social motivations Attachment Assertion Affiliation Social Motivations Attachment Attachment can be seen as a human form of imprinting, where the infant and the caregiver cooperate to allow the child to thrive. Because of the way mammals are born, they are so fragile that they would not survive without the caregiver. • Humans exhibit behaviours due to this attachment element. • Bowlby proposed the idea of the mother as a “secure base”. So, when a child starts to move about, her or she can explore the features of the new environment when the mother is present. Attachment Mary Ainsworth (1967) made naturalistic studies of babies and mothers in Uganda, and identified a set of behaviour patterns that young children show when they were with their mothers and did not show with anyone else. List of some attachment behaviours (from Ainsworth, 1967) Differential smiling, vocalization and crying Crying when the mother leaves Following the mother Visual motor orientation towards the mother Greeting though smiling and general excitement Burying the face in mother’s lap Embracing, hugging, kissing the mother Exploration away from the mother as secure place Video on Attachment Attachment and Social Relations According to Bowlby the attachment relationship of infancy creates a template for all later intimate relationships: affectional bonds. Assertion • Another kind of social motivation, the first in the order of emergence during evolution, is assertion or power. • Assertion and power is related to the fact that we live with hierarchies, which have arisen in the animal world. • Assertion is the motivation to move upwards in a social hierarchy, and to resist the challenges from those who would move us downwards. Affiliation The third human social motivation is affiliation (also called affection). Along side with the protective functions of attachment, there is also the system of affiliation. • This can be different in different cultures. • Affiliation are associated with caring relationships and people express more emotions in these relationships. • Cooperation, a fundamental aspect of human life, is influenced by affiliation. Emotion in the space of three social motivations Assertion Anger Affiliation Affection Shame Sadness Anxiety Trust Attachment Emotions in other species • Do other species have emotions? • Evolutionary theorists look at emotions within the environment of adapteness: human emotions became adapted as our species evolved. • The work on the evolution of emotions relies on several kinds of evidence in particular the analysis of emotions in our closer relatives like chimpanzees and bonobos. Emotions in Chimpanzees by Frans de Waal Discussion