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Affective Computing
Ana Paiva & João Dias
Lecture 2. Introduction to Affective Computing
Inspiration, main questions and approaches to understand
emotions
What is Affective
Computing?
“Computing that relates to, arises from, or
deliberately influences emotions”
Rosalind Picard, 1997
A bit of History on AC
• Roz Picard: pioneering work in 1996
• Coming from the MIT Media Lab and very
technical background was received with mixed
feelings by community
• In 2002 the HUMAINE network of excellence
created a truly community and area.
• There were many diverse workshops from 1996
and in 2007 the Affective Computing and
Intelligent Interaction was held in Portugal
• In 2010 the journal IEEE Transactions on
Affective Computing was launched.
• But, in order to understand the area of
Affective Computing, we need to explore
the understanding of emotions and related
phenomena…
What is an emotion:
some ideas
• We all have experienced emotions, so we know
what they are..
• Yet, because of that, psychologists have
difficulty in obtaining a general and proper
definition of what an emotion is.
An emotion is psychological state or process
that mediates between our concerns (or
goals) and events in our world.
Emotions as priority to
concerns
According to Sylvan Tomkins:
At any one time an emotion gives priority to
one concern over others
See
Emotions as sources for
values
• Emotions according to Solomon (2007)
are the source for our values:
– Whom and what we love; what we dislike and
what we despise.
– Morality emerges from our emotions.
Emotions and
relationships
Whom do we choose to
spend our life with? How
does one feel with their
families? Why do we
worry about being apart
from people we love?
Emotions help us for and engage in our
relationships.
Perspectives on Emotion
• Psychology as an independent academic
discipline emerged during the last third of
the 19th century (Leahey, 2003).
Study of emotions in
Philosophy and in
Literature
• Aristotles (384-322 BC) in his book
Rethoric discusses how different beliefs
and judgements give rise to emotions .
He considered that emotions come as a
result of our beliefs, and as such we are
in control of them, as we are in control of
our beliefs.
• Aristotle also talks about katharsis of our
emotions: purification, or clarification
(see the work by Nussbaum)- clearing
away obstacles.
Descartes
René Descartes is
In those days emotions were called
considered the founder of passions.
modern philosophy
René Descartes, The passions
Soul, 1649
of the
• He claimed that six fundamental
emotions- wonder, desire, joy, love,
hatred and sadness- occur in the
“thinking” aspect of ourselves, which he
called the “soul”.
• He considered that the origins of
emotions are in the “souls”, and emotions
cannot be completely controlled by
thinking.
• Like Aristotle Descartes suggested that
emotions depend on how we evaluate
events.
Descartes’ error
• According to Descartes(1569-1650) there was a
clear separation between the rational and the
irrational.
• [Damasio] defends that reason and emotion cannot
be seen as antagonic entities in our mind.
12
Ground-breaking
Inspirations
Modern ideas about emotion result from
the work of 3 important scientists:
Charles Darwin
Sigmund Freud
William James
Darwin: the evolutionary
approach
In 1872 Charles Darwin publishes “The expression of Emotions in Man
and Animals”
Q1: How are
emotions expressed
in humans and other
animals?
Q2: Where do our
emotions come
from?
Emotion expressions derives
largely from habits that in our
evolutionary or individual past had
once been useful. Emotional
expressions are based on reflexlike mechanisms and can be
triggered involuntarily in
circumstances similar to the ones
that triggered the original habit.
Darwin: the evolutionary
approach
In 1872 Charles Darwin publishes “The expression of Emotions in Man
and Animals”
He discusses emotion expressions, with their bodily systems
Expression
Bodily System
Emotion example
Blushing
Blood vessels
Shame, modesty
Body contact
Somatic muscles
Affection
Clenching fists
Somatic muscles
Anger
Crying
Tear ducts
Sadness
Frowning
Facial muscles
Anger, frustration
Laughing
Breading apparatus
Pleasure
Perspiration
Sweat glands
Pain
Hair standing on end
Dermal apparatus
Fear, anger
Screaming
Vocal apparatus
Pain
Sneering
Facial muscles
Contempt
Trembling
Somatic muscles
Fear, anxiety
Evolutionary approach to
emotion
• Emotions are a result of evolution, the
theory of how species developed and a
central concept in biology.
Elements in the evolutionary approach:
- Selection Pressures
- Adaptation
- Natural design and gene replication
Selection Pressures
• Selection pressures involve threats or
opportunities directly related to physical
survival.
• Many of our systems, such as our
preferences for sweet foods and aversion
to bitter foods, our thermoregulatory
systems, our fight and flight responses,
developed in response to these kinds of
selection pressures.
Adaptation
• A central concept in evolution is that of adaptation.
Adaptations are genetically based traits that allow the
organism to cope well with specific selection pressures.
Examples of adaptation
Problem/Pressure
Adaptation
Avoid eating toxins
Distaste for bitterness
Find healthy mate
Perceive facial simetry as beautiful
Share costs of raising offsprings
Preference for male with status,
resources
Find fertile mate
Preference for mate with youthful
appearance
Protect offsprings
Emotional response to baby-like cues
William James: the
Physiological Approach
Stimulus
…bodily changes follow directly the
perception of the exciting fact.... and
feeling of the same changes as they
occur, is the emotion.
James 1890, p. 449
Response
Emotion
(heart rate, etc)
James argued against the commonsense idea
that when we feel an emotion it impels us in a
certain way. Instead, James proposed that when
we perceive the “exciting fact” the “emotion” is the
perception of the changes in our body as we react
to the situation.
This is about the nature of “emotional
experience”. He argued that experience is
embodied…
Freud: the psychotherapeutic
approach
• Proposed that some events are
so damaging that they leave
emotional scars, which will
shape our life.
• He worked on a set of case
studies.
• Like Darwin, he thought that an
emotion in the present could
derive from one in the past.
Recent: Brain science and
emotion
Starting with John Harlow case of
Phineas Cage.
Phineas Cage was a likeable foreman
working in a railroad in Vermont. On
September 1848 a rod entered Gage’s
skull, beneath the left eyebrow, and to
the top of his head. Gage bleeded, had
an infection but recovered., in body but
not in mind.
Harlow wrote:
“the balance between his intellectual faculties
and his animal propensities seems to have
been destroyed”
Walter Cannon
• One of the pioneers of
modern brain research (he
argued against William
James).
• In the lab he experimented
with severing certain
subcortical regions of the
brain of a cat and showed
that the animal had intense
emotions.
Alice Isen: experimental
based work
•
•
She investigated how happiness influences the perception of the world.
In one experiment (1970) she gave a test of perceptual-motor skills to people
randomly selected. Some were told they had succeeded in the test and
some were told they had not. The people that were told they had succeeded
(that were more happy) were more likely to help the researcher when she
dropped her books.
Study
Method of Induction
Effect of Induction
Isen, 1970
Told of skill success
Larger donation to charity and help stranger
Isen & Levin, 1972
Given cookies
More helpful, less annoying in library
Isen et al. 1978
Free gift
Better recall of positive memories. Report fewer problems in consumer
goods.
Isen et al. 1985
Positive word association
More unusual word associations
Isen and Geva, 1987
Bag of candy
More cautious about loss when risk is high, less cautious about loss when
risk is low.
Isen et al. 1987
Comedy film or candy
Better creative problem solving
Kraiger, Billings & Isen,
1989
Watching TV bloopers
More satisfaction in performing a task
Isen et al. 1991
Told of anagram success
Faster clinical diagnosis, extra interest in patients
What is an emotion?
Leading Theorists
James, 1884
The body changes follow directly the perception of the exciting fact, and our
feeling of the same changes as they occur is the emotion.
Arnold & Gasson,
1954
An emotion or an affect can be considered as the felt tendency towards an
object judged suitable, or away from an object judged unsuitable, reinforced by
specific bodily changes.
Lazarus, 1991
Emotions are organised psychophysiological reactions to news about ongoing
relationships with the environment
Ekman, 1992
Emotions are viewed as having evolved through their adaptive value in dealing
with life-tasks. Each emotion has unique features: signal, physiology, and
antecedent events. Each emotion has characteristics in common with other
emotions: rapid onset, short duration, automatic appraisal, and coherence
among responses.
Frijda & Mesquita,
1994
Emotions… are first and foremost, modes of relating to the environment: states
of readiness for engaging, or not engaging, in interaction with that environment.
Izard, 2010
Function of emotion: 1. Interupts/changes processing and focusses attention
and direction of responses. 2. Motivates cognition and action and provides
emotion information to guide and coordinate the engagement of the individual in
the physical and social environment for coping, adaptation, affiliation and wellbeing.
Characteristics of Emotion
Dimensions of emotion
(valence and arousal)
• Function
and structure
• Emotion as a “motivator”
• Facial feedback hypothesis
(e.g. Ekman, Levenson, & Friesen, 1983)
• Action tendencies (Frijda, 1986)
Are there Discrete Basic
Emotions?
•
•
•
•
There is at large the agreement by many
Emotion Theorists that there are some basic
emotions.
Each of the basic emotions has some kind of
“module” (for example, Ekman considered that
there are at least 6 modules: joy, sadness,
anger, disgust, fear and surprise).
The main idea is that when activated by a
specific set of suitable perceptions, these
“emotion programs” would fire generating
emotion-specific feelings, physiological
reaction patters, an involuntary tendency for
facial expressions, and a tendency to act.
James-McDougall influential theory considers
that there are discrete biologically evolved
basic emotions.
Basic Emotions?
Basic Emotions
Basis for Inclusion
Arnold
Anger, aversion, courage,
dejection, desire,
despair, fear, hate,
hope, love, sadness
Relation to action
tendencies
Ekman, Friesen e
Ellsworth
Anger, disgust, fear, joy,
sadness, surprise
Universal facial expressions
Frijda
Desire, happiness, interest,
surprise, wonder,
sorrow
Forms of action readiness
Rage and terror, anxiety,
joy
Hardwired
James
Fear, grief, love, rage
Bodily involvement
Mowrer
Pain, pleasure
Unlearned emotional states
Panksepp
Expectancy, fear, rage,
panic
Hardwired
Fear, love, rage
Hardwired
Gray
Watson
The emotional realm:
Emotions & other affective
States
“Affect” is a more general term and refers not only to
emotion but also to other “related phenomena”, such
as:
– Moods (e.g., cheerful, gloomy, irritable, listless, depressed, buoyant)
refers to the state that typically lasts for hours and days. When it starts and
stops is usually unclear.
– Interpersonal stances (e.g., distant, cold, warm, supportive)
– Preferences/Attitudes/Sentiment (e.g., liking, loving, hating)
– Emotional Disorders (depression, mood disorders)
– Personality Traits (e.g., nervous, anxious, reckless, morose)
– Culture (e.g., Individualistic vs. Collectivist; engineering vs. social
sciences)
Emotions and Social
Motivations
Humans come from a mammals, where one of
the defining characteristics is that they are
born alive, and thus, during the period when
we are unable to fend ourselves we are given
milk and nurtured by our parents.
- So, social elements are very important and
related to emotions. Humans are not only
social, but hypersocial: the live in families,
societies, develop cultures…
- The social motivations can be thought as
adaptations that were done during
evolution.
Three types of social motivations:
1. Attachment
2. Assertion
3. Affiliation
The three social
motivations
Attachment
Assertion
Affiliation
Social Motivations
Attachment
Attachment can be seen as a human form of imprinting, where the
infant and the caregiver cooperate to allow the child to thrive.
Because of the way mammals are born,
they are so fragile that they would not
survive without the caregiver.
• Humans exhibit behaviours due to
this attachment element.
• Bowlby proposed the idea of the
mother as a “secure base”. So, when
a child starts to move about, her or
she can explore the features of the
new environment when the mother is
present.
Attachment
Mary Ainsworth (1967) made naturalistic studies of babies and mothers
in Uganda, and identified a set of behaviour patterns that young
children show when they were with their mothers and did not show with
anyone else.
List of some attachment behaviours (from Ainsworth, 1967)
Differential smiling, vocalization and crying
Crying when the mother leaves
Following the mother
Visual motor orientation towards the mother
Greeting though smiling and general excitement
Burying the face in mother’s lap
Embracing, hugging, kissing the mother
Exploration away from the mother as secure place
Video on Attachment
Attachment and Social
Relations
According to Bowlby the attachment relationship of
infancy creates a template for all later intimate
relationships: affectional bonds.
Assertion
• Another kind of social
motivation, the first in the order
of emergence during evolution,
is assertion or power.
• Assertion and power is related
to the fact that we live with
hierarchies, which have arisen
in the animal world.
• Assertion is the motivation to
move upwards in a social
hierarchy, and to resist the
challenges from those who
would move us downwards.
Affiliation
The third human social motivation is affiliation (also called affection).
Along side with the protective functions of attachment, there is also the
system of affiliation.
• This can be different in
different cultures.
• Affiliation are associated
with caring relationships
and people express more
emotions in these
relationships.
• Cooperation, a
fundamental aspect of
human life, is influenced by
affiliation.
Emotion in the space of
three social motivations
Assertion
Anger
Affiliation
Affection
Shame
Sadness
Anxiety
Trust
Attachment
Emotions in other
species
• Do other species have emotions?
• Evolutionary theorists look at emotions
within the environment of adapteness:
human emotions became adapted as our
species evolved.
• The work on the evolution of emotions
relies on several kinds of evidence in
particular the analysis of emotions in our
closer relatives like chimpanzees and
bonobos.
Emotions in Chimpanzees by
Frans de Waal
Discussion