Download article - National Science Teachers Association

By Julianne Maner Coleman and
M. Jenice “Dee” Goldston
W
hat do science investigations and visual
literacy have in common? More than
one might think. When students draw
observations or interpret and draw a
diagram, they’re communicating their understandings of
science and demonstrating visual literacy abilities. Visual
literacy includes skills needed to accurately interpret
and produce visual and graphical information such as
drawings, diagrams, tables, charts, maps, and graphs.
Communication through visual modes is common in
science instruction; however, using visual information
in texts as part of the science inquiry is generally less
common (Yeh and McTigue 2009). Visual information in
textbooks is often neglected at the expense of the written
word (Winn 1994; Wellington and Osborne 2001).
Though elementary teachers can and should use a
variety of approaches to teach science, some elementary
teachers rely on textbooks as primary tools for instruction
(Weiss et al. 2003).
As part of a professional learning community project
with elementary teachers, we examined the teacher’s
edition of a popular K–6 science textbook series, finding
little support for building students’ knowledge of
science using visuals and graphics through questioning
strategies. Because visually rich science textbooks are
common, we wondered how graphics, particularly
diagrams, were used by teachers to scaffold student
learning of science. In the following vignette, Mrs.
Sandage uses a cutaway diagram (Figure 1) to teach
visual literacy skills to enhance students’ science inquiry
experiences. As shown in Figure 2 (p. 44), cutaway
diagrams are just one of several types of diagrams that
can be found in science textbooks.
A Closer Look
Mrs. Sandage is a fourth-grade teacher who uses both
inquiry and textbooks to teach her students science. In
this snapshot, Mrs. Sandage’s fourth graders have started
a unit on plants. The vignette presents how Mrs. Sandage
leads a discussion using a cutaway diagram of a plant cell
and its structure.
What Do
You
See?
Purposeful questioning encourages
visual literacy during a lesson on cells
42 Science and Children
What Do You See?
Mrs. Sandage begins,
“Class, we have just finished
Figure 1.
reading about cells. Please
Cutaway diagram of a plant cell.
look at the diagram. Why do
you think the authors include
this diagram in a chapter?” Jill
Cell wall
Nucleus
says, “It helps us see it [the
cell].” Jose whispers to Jill,
“Hey, they want to show us a
cell, ‘cause we just read about
it.” Mrs. Sandage responds,
“You are both right. Diagrams
can help us see what we are
Vacuole
reading about. So it’s important
to examine them. Let’s look at
this diagram again to see what
else we can learn.” She points
to the plant cell diagram on
the overhead and asks, “What
do you observe?” Henry says,
“I see things inside it.” Sally
adds, “The things are colored.”
Jill responds, “Yeah, and they
have names.” Mrs. Sandage
replies, “Good observations.
Cell membrane
Are we missing something
that might help us to see what
Chloroplast
Cytoplasm
this diagram represents?” She
waits for hands to go up to no
avail. Then asks, “Ok, what
information in the diagram
helps us to name what we are
seeing?” Nonchalantly, George says “Ahhhh, I see…it
represents one cell and the “wings” show you the walls
is a plant cell—it says it right there in the title!”
of the cells that would normally surround it.” She
Mrs. Sandage responds, “Yes, George, good
adds the additional cells to the diagram to create the
observation! What else can we find out about a plant cell
sheetlike layer of cells using the “wings.” She then asks,
from the diagram?” The students identify cell structures
“Can anyone tell us how big one plant cell is?” John
labeled in the diagram. Mrs. Sandage, using their
suggests that it looks pretty big from the picture in the
responses, describes each organelle while pointing to
book. The rest of the class agrees. She appreciates their
the labeled parts (cytoplasm, cell wall, cell membrane,
observations, but reminds them that to see cells they
nucleus, chloroplasts). She uses analogies to describe
will use microscopes.
the functions of the organelles in the cell. She says,
Mrs. Sandage points out, “We call this image a
“Look at the nucleus, and think about it as the ‘control
cutaway diagram because it shows us the inside of
center of the cell’ like the principal’s office is the control
objects, like cells.” She asks, “How does the artist show
center of the school.” Following class discussion of the
that the cell is like a water-filled baggie and not flat like
organelles she asks, “Do you notice anything else about
a piece of paper?” Mrs. Sandage holds up a bag full of
the diagram? What do you notice about the outside of
water and demonstrates that it has depth and inquires
the diagram?” Puneet says, “I see some things coming
again, “How does the artist draw the plant cell to show
off the outside of the cell.” Mrs. Sandage says, “Good,
its depth?” Katie excitedly raises her hand, “I see lines
what do you think they are?” Maria replies, “They
and different colors that make the cell look like a box.”
look like wings.” Mrs. Sandage grins, “They sure do,
Mrs. Sandage summons Katie to the overhead to point
but they aren’t wings. Are there any ideas about what
to the lines and shaded parts of the diagram, giving
they might be?” Tracing the outline of the cell, Mrs.
it depth. Mrs. Sandage points out that because the
Sandage provides further explanation: “This diagram
diagram is drawn on a flat surface, the artist uses special
September 2011 43
techniques like shading and lines to show the cell has
depth. She concludes, “Visuals, like diagrams, presented
in your books often show us characteristics of objects or
phenomena that you normally can’t see.”
“Working with your partners, you are going to go
look at onion and Elodea (an aquatic plant) cells using a
microscope and draw your observations in your science
journals. You’ll have time to compare observations with
your partner and make changes to your drawings. First,
let’s make two guesses. Thumbs-up if you think the
cells and organelles will look exactly like those in the
diagram. Second, thumbs-up if you think the parts you
observe under the microscope will be the same color as
those in the diagram. The majority of the class nods and
gives a thumbs-up for each prediction. Mrs. Sandage
smiles as the students move to examine cells.
After the cell lab, the students share their drawings
with their partners, adding details, color, and labels to
the cell organelles viewed with the microscope. They
return to the microscopes to see whether their drawings
are missing details and discuss organelles they could
actually see.
Bringing the class back together, Mrs. Sandage asks,
“Do you think that the diagram in your textbook does
a good job of representing a cell?” Lynn volunteers,
“I don’t think so… the cells we looked at under the
microscope don’t really look like it.” Lynn elaborates
on her thinking by saying, “The part called the nucleus
was easy to see in the onion because we stained it
with iodine, and we could see the wall because it is on
the outside, but we couldn’t see a membrane.” Mrs.
Sandage nods and asks students to identify other cell
parts they saw under the microscope. What about
cytoplasm? Tommy offers, “I think it was there but I am
not sure.” Mrs. Sandage states, “That is a good point:
cytoplasm has no color so it would be hard to see unless
you see cell parts moving. Good, did you see anything
in the Elodea that you did not see in the onion cell?
How were the cells different?” Brandon confidently
says, “We could see green ovals moving around in
the Elodea cells. We think they are chloroplasts. We
didn’t see them in onion cells. They are white.” Becky
chimes in, “Yeah, why did they put all those parts in
the diagram if we can’t see them?” Mrs. Sandage smiles
and says, “Let’s talk more about that and some of your
other observations.”
She proceeded by framing questions so students
would compare and contrast their observations under
the microscope to the textbook diagram.
Look at your drawing and list the parts of a cell
found in the cell diagram that you couldn’t see in the
microscope. Why do you think you couldn’t see all
the cell parts? Why do you think the cell parts you
couldn’t see were in the text diagram? Did the cell
parts (organelles) you observed in the lab look like
the drawings? What is missing from some of the cell
organelles in the text diagram? Why do you suppose
there are cell organelles with and without labels in the
diagram?
Strategies for Communicating Science
Graphics like cutaway diagrams are often difficult for
elementary-age children to interpret. However, Mrs.
Sandage supports students’ knowledge of plant cells
Figure 2.
Moline’s classification system for graphics.
1. Simple Diagrams are pictures with labels or a scale.
A. Picture glossaries help the reader to identify, differentiate, or define items within a group.
B. A scale diagram is a picture of a subject with a scale
beside it to indicate size, mass, or distance.
2. Synthetic Diagrams make connections between the parts of a sequence or subgroups within larger groups.
A. Flow diagrams link their parts with lines or arrows to
show a process that moves through time (e.g., water
cycle or the life cycle).
B. Tree and web diagrams take the form of branching
trees or interconnecting lines or arrows that connect
objects or concepts in hierarchies, subgroups, and classifications in hierarchies.
3. Analytical Diagrams help us to see inside an object and to understand its internal workings.
A. Cutaway diagrams help us interpret the relationships in
three-dimensional space by peeling off or cutting away
the outside layer.
44 Science and Children
B. Cross-section diagrams reveal the inside of an object
in one plane by taking a slice through and cutting the
object in half.
What Do You See?
with a twofold purpose. First, through questioning
she promotes students’ interpretations of a cutaway
diagram, setting the stage for students’ inquiry with
the microscopes. Second, she challenges students
to compare and contrast their lab observations and
drawings (visual productions) to the cell diagram
(visual interpretation) from the text. Ultimately,
Mrs. Sandage fosters accurate understanding of
plant cell structure, enhancing their visual literacy
abilities through observations and inquiry experiences
with microscopes (Figure 3). So what guided her
instruction?
Figure 3.
Assessment for observations and inquiry experiences with microscopes.
Microscope Assessment
Team Assessment
Excellent
Satisfactory
Needs Work
All three parts of onion cell
sketched
Two parts of the onion cell
sketched
One part of the onion cell
sketched
All three parts of onion
cell labeled (cell wall,
cytoplasm, nucleus)
Two parts of the onion
cell labeled (cell wall,
cytoplasm, nucleus)
One part of the onion
labeled (cell wall,
cytoplasm, nucleus)
All three/four parts of
Elodea cell sketched (cell
wall, cytoplasm, nucleus,
chloroplasts)
Two parts of Elodea cell
sketched (cell wall, cytoplasm, nucleus, chloroplasts)
One part of Elodea cell
sketched (cell wall, cytoplasm, nucleus, chloroplasts)
All three/four parts of
Elodea cell labeled (cell
wall, cytoplasm, nucleus,
chloroplasts)
Two parts of Elodea
cell labeled (cell wall,
cytoplasm, nucleus,
chloroplasts)
One part of Elodea
cell labeled (cell wall,
cytoplasm, nucleus,
chloroplasts)
Yes
No
I Wonder
Did the onion cell parts
have color before the
iodine was added?
Are any of the Elodea
parts green?
Did the sketch include
cell parts from the text
diagram?
Did the sketch include one
cell or many cells?
How do you know?
Does the sketch include
cell parts NOT seen under
the microscope?
If included, why?
September 2011 45
Determining Purpose Questions
Mrs. Sandage has students think about why the authors included the cutaway diagram in the text. She directs her students to consider the unique role visual information found
in the cutaway diagram. Later, in the lab experience, she
then asks questions that scaffold and guide careful student
observations. Observation, as part of science inquiry [or
visual literacy], is a basic process skill for learning about the
social and natural world (Padilla 1990; Ostlund 1996). As a
result, the development of observation abilities in students
is strengthened by her emphasis on inquiry involving both
visual literacy and microscopes.
Figure 4.
Questioning strategies: Inquiry and visual literacy.
General Questions to Support the Interpretation of Graphical Representations
Determining Purpose
(DP) Questions
Identify, Define, Label
(IDL) Questions
Analyze, Critique, Compare Check
(ACCC) Questions
•Why do you think the authors included this (what purpose) graphical representation?
•What is their purpose?
•What observable elements of the
graphical representation can be
identified, defined, and labeled?
•Examine this graphical
representation and ask, “Is this
the best way to communicate the
information presented?”
Mrs. Sandage’s Questioning Strategies
DP Questions
•Why do you think the authors included this diagram on this page?
IDL Questions
•What do you observe in the diagram?
•What information in the diagram helps us to name what we are seeing?
•What do you know about a plant cell by looking closely at the diagram?
•What do you think those things coming off the outside of the diagram are?
•Are we not seeing something in the diagram that might help us to understand what this diagram is showing us?
ACCC Questions
•Can you tell how big the plant cell is by this diagram?
•Who can look carefully at the diagram and point to where the artist helps us to see that the cell is not flat like a piece of tape?
•How does the artist try to show that the plant cell in this diagram has depth?
•What do you notice about how the diagram is drawn?
•Do you think the cells and their parts under the microscope will look exactly like those in the diagram?
•Do you also think the cell parts you observe under the microscope will be the same color as those you see in the diagram?
•As an expert observer, what advice would you give someone using diagrams to learn about nature?
Mrs. Sandage’s Questioning Strategies to Compare and Contrast Graphics to Student Inquiry-Generated Diagrams
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Look at your cell drawings and list the parts of a cell that you didn’t see in the microscope.
Why do you think you couldn’t see these parts? Why do you think the cell parts you couldn’t see were in the cutaway diagram?
When you first looked in the microscope, did you see one cell like the cutaway diagram or did you see a layer of many cells?
Why do you suppose there are cell organelles with and without labels?
How do you think we should find out more about the cell organelles that are unlabeled?
Do the chloroplasts in the cutaway diagram look like the chloroplast seen in the Elodea?
What are the limits of the use of diagrams? Where did the diagram fail to accurately represent what you saw during
the microscope inquiry?
46 Science and Children
What Do You See?
Identify, Define, and Label Questions
Mrs. Sandage shifts students’ visual inquiry toward
identifying, labeling, and defining elements of the diagram. Supporting students’ initial understandings and
development as keen observers, she has students revisit
the diagram seeking specific observations important to
understanding the cell using visual literacy strategies.
Although her questions might appear to be basic at first
glance, this line of questioning, followed by her use of
analogies, helps to uncover the students’ initial understandings about the plant cell and its organelles. She anticipates that most of her students expect the live plant
cell to look like the text diagram, which is not the case.
Discussing the diagram, she draws additional cells
from the “wings,” illustrating how cells connect and form
layers. Mrs. Sandage clarifies that the artist chose a cutaway
diagram to allow viewers to see inside the plant cell,
which is too small to be seen without magnification. Her
questions prompt students’ use of visual literacy skills as
they communicate their observations and understandings
of the cell diagram, which later support their visualization
of cells using the microscopes. Observing Mrs. Sandage,
we recall that inquiry takes on many forms as she makes
visual literacy an integral part of the larger science inquiry.
Analyze, Critique, Compare, and
Check Questions
Mrs. Sandage further seeks to develop students’ interpretations of the diagram by targeting the diagram’s
structural design. As shown in Figure 4, her questions
are purposeful and move students toward analyzing the
artist’s use of drawing techniques, showing that the cell
has depth. By having the students examine the design
format of the cutaway diagram, Mrs. Sandage ensures
that students use visual information to develop an artist’s
perspective. By questioning students’ interpretations,
she reduces the likelihood that the graphical forms in
their textbooks might create misconceptions about science (Wellington and Osborne 2001).
Prior to viewing cells in the lab, Mrs. Sandage’s prediction questions (Figure 4) challenge students to consider
the diagram in light of their cell drawings. Using hands-on
inquiry, students develop a critical eye for analyzing visuals and graphics. Her inquiry questions stimulate students’
critique of the cell diagram when checking it against their
own cell drawings. She provides students with multiple
opportunities to grapple with analyzing visual information
from the diagram and their actual drawings to enhance
students’ communication of science.
Visual literacy and science inquiry go hand in hand.
By questioning visual information, children develop
visual literacy skills that enable them to critically interpret and communicate information observed through
Connecting to the Standards
This article relates to the following National Science
Education Standards (NRC 1996):
Content Standards
Grades K–12
Unifying Concepts and Processes
• Evidence, models, and explanation
Grades 5–8
Standard A: Science as Inquiry
• Ability to do science inquiry
• Understanding about scientific inquiry
Standard C: Life Science
• Structure and function of living systems
National Research Council (NRC). 1996. National
science education standards. Washington, DC:
National Academies Press.
science experiences. When appropriate, comparing and
contrasting visuals against observations during science
activities promote students’ interpretative skills and their
understanding of “how we know what we know in science”
(NRC 1996, p. 105). The questioning framework offered
is a practical approach for teachers seeking to improve
students’ knowledge of science using visual literacy. n
Julianne Maner Coleman ([email protected])
is an assistant professor of Curriculum and Instruction
at the University of Alabama in Tuscaloosa, Alabama.
M. Jenice “Dee” Goldston is a professor of Elementary
Science Education in Tuscaloosa, Alabama.
References
Ostlund, K. 1996. Rising to the challenge of the national standards. Fresno, CA: S and K Associates.
Padilla, M. 1990. The science process skills. In Research matters…
To the science teacher, ed. G. Markle (pp. 20–22). Reston, VA:
National Association for Research in Science Teaching.
Weiss, I., J. Pasley, S. Smith, E. Banilower, and D. Heck. 2003. Looking inside the classroom: A study of K–12 mathematics and science education in the United States. Chapel Hill, NC: Horizon.
Wellington, J., and J. Osborne. 2001. Language and literacy in
science education. Philadelphia: Open Press.
Winn, W. 1994. Contributions of perceptual and cognitive processes to the comprehension of graphics. In Advances in psychology: Vol 108. Comprehension of graphics, eds. W. Schnotz
and R.W. Kulhavy (pp. 3–27). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Yeh, Y., and E.M. McTigue. 2009. The frequency, variation, and
function of graphical representations within standardized
state science tests. Journal of School Science and Mathematics
109 (8): 435–449.
September 2011 47