Download Coastal Ambassadors 2012

Coastal Ambassadors
2012
This program has been assisted by the New South Wales Government through its Environmental Trust.
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We gratefully acknowledge the following:
Dr. Arthur Dye, Enviroaware Pty Ltd & Cathy Hemery, Resource Writers
Bianca Springford, Coastal Environment Centre
Professor A.J Underwood and Dr. M G Chapman,
Centre for Research on Ecological Impacts of Coastal Cities,
University of Sydney,
NSW Fisheries,
Dr. Isobel Bennett, AO, 1909-2008
This project has been funded by the New South Wales Government through its Environmental Trust.
© Copyright Coastal Environment Centre 2012
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Coastal Ambassadors Environmental Training Program
for Surf Club Members
This folder has been compiled to give you a general understanding of the coast and its importance and of
the habitats and physical processes that make it a unique environment. The information supplements the
talks and fieldtrips in your course. The material is divided into sections, starting from a broad view of the
coastline and the animals and plants to be found there, to more specific information, with the emphasis
on sandy beaches and rocky reefs. Also included are a reading list, glossary and useful websites that
contain a wealth of additional information. Finally, we have included some tips on communicating this
information to others as you take on the role of Coastal Ambassador.
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Tables of Contents
Section A: Overview
Welcome to the Coastal Ambassadors Program
What makes Coastal Ambassadors so special?
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Importance of the Ocean and Coastal Regions
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Complexity of Coastal Issues - A brief summary
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Coastal Habitats of Marine Invertebrate Communities
Rock Platforms, Rock Pools
Boulder Fields, Sandy Beaches
Estuaries, Mangrove Forests
Salt Marshes, Mud Flats
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Physical Processes Affecting Intertidal Environments
Tides, Waves
Currents
Common Characteristics of Marine Plants and Animals
Naming Plants and Animals
Marine Plants, Algae, Blue Green Algae
Red Algae, Brown Algae, Green Algae
Tropical Species of the NSW Coast
Sponges; Corals, Sea anemones and jelly fish, Worms
Crabs, prawns, barnacles; Animals with shells, sea slugs and octopuses
Starfish, sea urchins and holuntherians; Sea mats, sea squirts
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Section B: Sandy Beaches and Rocky Reefs
Sandy Beach: Physical and Biological Processes
Beach structure, Beach sediment
Categories of beach
Reflective, Intermediate, Dissipative, Distribution of animals on sandy beaches
Adaptations of animals, Food requirements of animals in sandy beaches
Diatoms, Conclusion
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Ocean Wanderers and Drifters
Plant and Animal Castaways, Some examples from the Plankton
Plankton Spume, Nekton
Bioluminescence
Rock Platforms and Life (Biological) Processes
Recruitment from the plankton
Competition for space, Grazing, Predation, Competition for food
Behaviour
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Section C: Issues in the Coastal Zone
Global Warming: Effects of Sea Level Rise on Sandy Beaches
What does this mean for our beaches
What can be done, More carbon in the ocean
Human Impacts on sandy beaches and rock platforms
Sandy Beaches, Rock Platforms
Aquatic Reserves, Intertidal Protected areas and Bag and Size Limits
Aquatic Reserves
What can I do in an aquatic reserve, Intertidal protected areas
Bag and Size Limits, Octopus, Collecting Invertebrates
NSW Marine Protected Areas
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Surf clubs and the message of Sustainability
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Reduce the Carbon Footprint of Your Surf Club
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Our earth is warming
Develop a Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction Strategy
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Developing Effective Communication
How do we communicate, Communication blocks
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Styles of Communication
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Useful reading list and contacts for Coastal Ambassadors
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Web Sites - Information and Funding
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Glossary
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Welcome to the Coastal Ambassadors Program
Our Coastal Ambassadors Environmental Program is unique. Developed by Pittwater Council, in
partnership with Surf Life Saving Sydney Northern Beaches, it is guided by scientific expertise. Local
northern beaches surf clubs, Surfrider Foundation members and Eco-Divers have been the project
participants and beneficiaries.
This resource folder has been provided by an Environmental Trust Grant for the years 2005-2011. This
year in 2012, their generosity has expanded the program to include surf clubs up and down the NSW
Coast.
This folder is a valuable supplement to your current training program. Highlighting the unique biodiversity
of our temperate and sub tropical coastal regions, it explores current coastal issues threatening the
marine environment. It also follows closely the presentations shown to you during the lecture evenings.
What makes Coastal Ambassadors so special?
1. Everyone shares responsibility for protecting our environment:
The need for conservation of our coastline is supported by the 1997 NSW Coastal Policy and the Local
Government Act. Other regional management bodies, such as Catchment Management Authorities are
important management tools. They evaluate development impacts of land-based activities on creeks,
lagoon systems, harbours and the ocean. They also promote community
awareness of fresh as well as saltwater aquatic habitats.
The catchments and local government areas include us, the community!
Rock platform exploration, North Narrabeen
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2. Loss of intertidal marine species along our coastline.
Population pressure in coastal areas has caused many problems. These include pollution, sedimentation,
and changes to animal and plant communities. Specific scientific concern has been raised in the past
over extensive removal of intertidal animals. Such long-term impact could create population imbalances
and decimate marine biodiversity.
3. Community education is a valuable resource!
Coastal Ambassadors is a Train the Trainer education model. Other programs such as the initial Fisheries
Volunteer Fishing Liaison Officer Programs (VFOLs) in Western Australia and the NSW EPA “Earthworks”
inspired the development of Coastal Ambassadors. Without grass-roots education, conservation legislation
cannot be effective. Coastal Ambassadors are agents of social change.
Everyone brings to this program a unique portfolio of skills, experiences and values capable of changing
people’s attitudes towards marine life.
4. What is expected of a NSW Coastal Ambassador?
This program provides you with a three day intensive weekend that includes a blend of workshops and
also two field trips. We are confident that your communication skills and organisational outreach will bring
our program to a much larger audience.
We are asking you to be the catalysts for change to liaise with your community, develop a scientific
partnership and use our resources to implement training programs in your own region.
Joint clean up Surfrider and EcoDivers at Turrimetta Beach
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Importance of the Ocean and Coastal Regions
“The white doorsteps of the ocean travel and travel” - Helen Garner
Importance of Coastal Regions
The ocean is essential to our planet’s well being. Our seas contain 97% of the world’s water, playing an
essential role in the oxygen, nitrogen, carbon and water cycles. The seamless water environment allows
sediments, nutrients, organisms and pollutants to travel freely. The lack of artificial boundaries encourages
fish, sea mammals and birds. 26 out of 32 animal Phyla have marine origins.
Winds, tides and currents mix water masses on the edge of continental shelves, circulating nutrients
essential for marine life.
Nudibranch
Australia’s coastline spans close to 38,000 kilometres. Its narrow continental shelf is the oldest on the
planet. Geological stability, physical remoteness and only recent population growth means that our marine
environment features many unique organisms and living fossils.
Our national preoccupation with the ocean is reflected in everyday life, from beach holidays, surfing to
recreational fishing. Despite our cultural image as an outback nation, our early lifeline to other countries
was maritime.
Dependence on the coastal fringe for food, shelter and trade began with our indigenous people thousands
of years ago. They left a legacy of huge shell middens in coastal and estuarine areas.
Today, our beautiful coastline is under severe threat. We have become one of the most urbanised nations
on earth. Human impact has precipitated destruction of estuarine habitats through dredging and in filling.
Sewage, chemicals and industrial waste are discharged into the sea causing health concerns throughout
the food chain.
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Land-based activities such as industry, housing development and agriculture impact on the marine
environment. Wind-blown and water-borne plastic, oil, food scraps and industrial wastes also end up in
the sea.
Future management of coastal areas must address the health of entire catchments.
There is still a long way to go in regard to our understanding of the ocean and its inhabitants. Current
knowledge includes animals of the accessible intertidal area. Nevertheless, the relationships of marine
organisms in terms of distribution and reproduction is highly complex with more research needed.
In the past, scientific research concentrated on tropical regions including the Great Barrier Reef. Today the
majority of human impacts lie in the larger temperate areas. How can we estimate development impacts
on the many marine organisms that spend their larval phase drifting in the ocean currents? They are also
subject to the hidden threats of pollution, over fishing and habitat change.
Legislation, based on scientific research, and grass-roots community concern is needed to protect our
coastal environment.
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Complexity of Coastal Issues - A brief summary
Advantages:
 The coast is geologically stable with many different habitats only slightly affected by the last Ice Age.
This has encouraged wide biodiversity.
 At least 26 of the 32 known animal phyla are found in the marine environment.
 Though fish species are not abundant, marine invertebrates are highly abundant, including several
living fossils such as limpets, barnacles and cunjevoi.
 The NSW coastal waters experience temperate as well as sub-tropical influences.
Disadvantages:
 Over 80% of Australia’s population lives within 30kms of the coast, leading to development and
recreational pressures. This is exacerbated by improved transport and access.
 Our sub-conscious view of the ocean as vast and unlimited leads to over-exploitation.
 A sense of communal ownership works against marine stewardship – everyone, yet no one, is
responsible for the ocean.
 There is inadequate knowledge of the biology of many invertebrates drifting in the ocean, making it
difficult to assess our impacts upon them.
 Most marine pollution comes from the land, but there is inadequate knowledge of the processes
connecting land and ocean.
 Legislation to protect the coastal zone is confusing, overlapping and inadequate. Poor enforcement is
also an issue.
Twelve Apostles, VIC
Photo courtesy of Dr. Isobel Bennett
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Coastal Habitats of Marine Invertebrate Communities
Different habitats set the stage for plants and animals of the coastal region. These include sandy beaches,
sheltered and exposed rocky shores, boulder fields, estuaries, coastal lakes, lagoons, mudflats and
mangrove forests.
Animals and plants constitute the biotic (living) part of this environment. They are well adapted to the
features of each particular habitat. Nevertheless, they may not be confined to that area. Some are sessile
(fixed) but many others move in and out of their environment according to needs and external pressures.
Distribution of species on the shore creates a patchy mosaic of interspersed species. Patchiness is
caused by many factors including random movement of planktonic larvae in water currents and differing
recruitment rates into coastal regions. Heavy wave action also contributes to patchiness by removing
colonies of animals and plants from the rock surface.
Rock Platforms
These familiar sights along the NSW coastline are formed over thousands of years by erosion, wave action
and chemical processes. The top edge of the shoreline usually features a cliff with minimal erosion. The
seaward end forms a step down into subtidal regions and is less eroded due to lack of exposure to the air
and pounding waves. The mid to lower intertidal regions, exposed at low tide, bear the brunt of powerful
wave action.
Marine organisms feed on the surface of the platform or shelter in the crevices, channels and pools. Rock
platforms are home to many species of small and large algal grazers including gastropods, sea stars and
urchins. They also provide habitat for predatory snails and sessile species such as barnacles, oysters,
worms and cunjevoi.
Rock Pools
These micro-environments occur along our coastline
mostly in regions of soft sedimentary rocks. They are
common in mid to lower tide areas where continuous
wave action has rolled rocks around forming shallow
depressions or deeper holes. Adjacent rock pools can
contain different animal and plant communities.
Deeper and larger pools attract a greater variety of life,
including sea urchins, sea anemones, sponges, sea
stars, limpets, predatory whelks, or seasonal visitors
such as sea hares. Octopi occasionally occupy the
deeper pools. Rock pools provide refuges for small fish
stranded by low tide.
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Rock Pool, North Narrabeen
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Boulder fields
Clusters of boulders may occur in areas of minimal slope and medium wave action. These interesting
habitats represent two distinct communities. The top of the boulder is exposed to heat, air and waves.
The surface beneath is dark, moist and sheltered. Animals and plants in boulder fields cope with a rapidly
changing environment. Their world is often altered by waves or destroyed by storms which scrape the
rocks along the surface of the platform.
Exposed surfaces feature tough encrusting algae. Boulders which have lost their grazing gastropods (e.g.
limpets) through natural or human factors, will display larger patches of seaweed on their surface. The
moist, dark underside of boulders are ideal habitats for colonial and sessile species and many juveniles.
Common residents include sponges, bryozoans, colonial ascidians and tube worms. Mobile animals under
boulders feature chitons, brittle stars, free-swimming worms, crabs, predatory whelks, unusual keyhole
limpets and cowries.
Basin Beach, Mona Vale
Sandy beaches
Sandy beaches are formed through the action of waves carrying and depositing accumulated grainy
sediments along the coast. Beaches contain eroded material from land as well as sediment from the
ocean floor. Exposed beaches are subject to strong currents and heavy wave action, creating fluctuating
sand movement along the coast.
The highly dynamic nature of these beaches cause animals living there to survive in a very unstable
environment. Residents include burrowing worms and molluscs. Beach worms are quick and predatory
diggers. Molluscs such as pipis use their flat muscular foot to pull themselves down into the sand.
Recent research indicates that some communities of tiny diatoms and zooplankton live inside the
calcareous fragments of wet beach sand. These microscopic communities provide an additional nutrient
source for crabs and sea-cucumbers. Many crab species are found near the shoreline. They are some of
the dominant scavengers of the beach. Sand hoppers live on the beach surface and feed on decaying sea
weed.
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The high tide line of a sandy beach holds great interest after summer storms when oceanic species are
washed ashore. Unusual animals in this group are those living in the `blue layer,’ or neuston layer, the top
5 cms of the ocean’s surface. Beach visitors brought by north-easterly winds include the Portuguese Man
of War, By-the-Wind Sailors, purple bubble shells (Janthina) and oceanic seaslugs (Glaucus).
Estuaries
Estuarine ecosystems offer vastly different environments to the exposed coastline. The extremely rich
biodiversity of the open coastal habitats is usually not found in estuaries. Lack of tidal flushing and low
oxygenation tend to limit the diversity of life. Though estuarine habitats vary, estuaries with attendant
sea-grass beds play an important role as a nursery for many fish, crustaceans and other invertebrates.
These animals later inhabit open rocky coasts as adults.
Mangrove forests
Many survival strategies have been adopted by different species of land plants of the intertidal zone to
overcome the presence of salt and lack of air in the waterlogged sediment. Mangroves are vascular plants
noted for their salt tolerance. Pores on the leaves of mangroves excrete salt. Their root systems are either
aerial or peg roots known as pneumatophores poking above the mud at low tide.
Though most people think of mangroves as tropical species, two species, the grey mangrove (Avicennia)
and the river mangrove (Aegiceras) exist as far south as Victoria and the two main gulfs of South Australia.
Travel towards the northernmost areas of the NSW coast and mangrove species diversity expands.
Mangroves serve a valuable purpose. As land-makers they fringe the shore trapping silt and sediments.
Their aerial root systems serve as a substratum for other plants and animals. Mangroves provide an
important sheltering environment for juvenile fish and crustacea. Their dense stands offer protection
against the coastal erosion occurring during storm events.
Mangroves, Winnerreremy Bay
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Salt marshes
The mangroves of the temperate regions provide protection from the ocean for salt marsh communities.
Plant species are ranked in order of high salt tolerance, from Salicornia nearest the mangrove fringe
through several overlapping plant communities inland to less tolerant Swamp paperbark (Melaleuca) and
she-oak forests (Casuarina). Species diversity is low in salt marshes due to the significant stresses placed
on the resident organisms, though some species may occur in large numbers. Temperatures can fluctuate
wildly from very high in summer at low tide to the after effects of hail following a seasonal thunderstorm.
Salinity levels also fluctuate greatly, with desiccation a constant threat.
Mud Flats
Estuarine mud flats are a very prominent part of the coastline around Australia. They offer the hinterland
a stable environment and protection from high seas and storms. Mud flats are usually associated with
mangroves, salt marsh communities, seagrass (Zostera) and ribbon or strapweed (Posidonia) beds just
offshore.
These large flat habitats offer a rich environment for a great number of organisms. It is little wonder that
many migratory and coastal bird species live and breed in these areas. Many species of crabs exploit
this habitat along with crustaceans, such as nippers, prawns and the smaller Amphipods and Isopods.
Detritivores feeding on the scum coating the surface of the mud, are very active.
This “biological soup” can consist of everything from a rich bacterial flora, phyto-plankton and zooplankton
deposited at low tide, to the cast off skins of crustaceans. General scavengers exploit the daily tidal
offerings of stranded surface dwellers, algae, seagrass fragments, fish carcasses and the remains of
birds. Carnivores such as Naticid snails plow the sediment in search of filter feeding bivalves. Predatory
worms scavenge the muddy surface. Sedentary species live in tubes and filter food out of the water
column as it passes by.
Zostera Beds ceoe.udel.edu
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Physical Processes Affecting Intertidal Environments
Tides
Tides are caused by the gravitational pull of the moon and sun on ocean surfaces of our planet. Tides are
the most important influence affecting organisms in intertidal areas. The moon exerts more influence than
the sun. Although smaller than the sun, it is much closer to the earth. The sizes of tides are closely related
to the cycles of the moon. Small “neap” tides occur when the sun and moon pull against each other
during the first and last quarter of the moon’s passage. Large Spring tides are caused by the sun and
moon combining their gravitational force.
Each day it takes an hour longer for the earth to spin round through these tidal cycles and line up with the
moon. For this reason, tides occur approximately an hour later each day. In NSW, the tidal rise and fall is
over two metres. In other parts of the continent tide variations are much greater. Tides play an important
part in the lifecycle of intertidal invertebrates. As the tide falls, animals are exposed to the air and dry out.
They must survive until the incoming tide covers them. Most animals adapt to this situation by remaining
inactive during this time. High tides are essential in providing nutrients and oxygen to rock platforms.
Maximum tidal range in the Sydney area is approximately 2 metres. The tidal range increases the further
north one travels.
Waves
Waves are a major source of energy in the coastal zone. They are responsible for the long-term evolution
of beaches and also account for individual daily changes. Waves can significantly affect intertidal habitats.
As they break, kinetic energy is released. When a wave reaches the coast, it breaks because there is not
enough depth in the water for it to travel freely.
It piles up on itself, tumbling over the sand and rocks at the end of its journey. Heights of waves depend
on the distance of the coast from the beginning of the wind-generated movement, shape of the ocean
floor and tidal size. Movements in the earth’s crust can also create giant waves called Tsunamis. These
are extremely destructive.
Knoll 2009
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Waves also play a role in determining the varieties of plants and animals found along a coastline. They
can increase populations in intertidal zones by washing colonizing species onto the shore. Waves can also
destroy marine communities when the actions of violent storms uproot plants and animals. Marine plants
or algae adapt to waves by developing tough flexible or flattened structures that are resilient.
Currents
Currents are created by a combination of wind and differences in oceanic temperatures between
equatorial and arctic zones and, to a lesser extent, differences in density of sea water. They are invisible
highways, circulating nutrients and any pollutants. Currents are efficient carriers of the planktonic stages
of many marine organisms drifting in the sea during the first phase of their lifecycle, before being washed
ashore.
Major ocean surface currents
Other factors affecting marine communities include composition of sea water, water temperature and
potential global warming. The prevailing current along the New South Wales coastline is a warm equatorial
flow of water known as the East Australian Current. It moves predominantly in a North-South direction, but
is also influenced by cold water eddies off the Victorian coast and the Antarctic west wind drift.
This phenomenon makes the temperate NSW coastline one of extraordinary species diversity as
planktonic larvae of many tropical species are brought southwards to overlap with water containing
marine organisms of temperate regions. Tropical species such as Butterfly Fish, Damselfish, Wrasses and
Surgeon fish are summer and autumn visitors to our coast.
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Common Characteristics of Marine
Plants and Animals
Naming Plants and Animals
Scientists classify living organisms into different groups, making it easier to identify them and understand
their biology. They are placed in groups according to the features that they have in common and
separated according to their differences.
Living things are generally named according to a binomial system developed by a famous Swedish
naturalist, Carl von Linne. This usually gives them two names. Their genus (pl. genera) name is like your
family name and places them into the same group as other similar organisms. This is usually given first
and has a capital letter. Their specific name is what classifies them as a species and separates them from
other species in the same genus.
Turbo torquatus
Photo courtesy of Dr. Isobel Bennett
For example, the cats-eye shell is called Turbo undulatus. Turbo is its generic name and is shared with
other similar snails, e.g. Turbo torquatus. The names - undulatus and torquatus – are specific names
used to tell these two species apart. Similarly, the tortoiseshell limpet is called Cellana tramocerica.
Cellana groups it with a number of other closely-related limpets - tramoserica is its own unique name. In
this way, scientists from around the world know that they are talking about the same animal, even if they
speak different languages!
Genera are grouped into Families, Families into Orders, Orders into Classes, Phyla and finally Kingdom. In
regards to the Cats-eye shell and Tortoiseshell Limpet, the Phylum is Mollusca while the Phylum of Sea
stars is Echinodermata.
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Marine Plants
Phytoplankton, microscopic marine plants form the basic building blocks of life in the ocean. As the
bottom of the marine food chain, they sustain marine fauna with valuable nutrients. It is important to
discriminate between true marine plants featuring roots, stems and leaves, and other plants known as
marine algae. True plants which grow in the waters near the coast and in our estuaries are known as Sea
Grasses. These are unlike terrestrial grasses, but possess roots and use an underground stem known as
a rhizome to reproduce vegetatively. They also feature stems, leaves, flowers and produce inconspicuous
seeds. Sea grasses form large undersea meadows, providing shelter for many species. They are breeding
grounds for fish and invertebrate populations such as worms, crabs and molluscs.
Today sea grass beds are threatened by coastal development. This includes dredging, associated
sedimentation and shading by artificial structures. Storm water run-off, industrial pollution, fertilizers and
anchoring are also a threat.
Sea Lettuce
Photo courtesy of Dr. Isobel Bennett
Algae
Algae or seaweeds appear more primitive. They are a critical component of our ocean ecosystem.
Marine algae have no roots. Instead seaweeds feature a stalk known as a stipe and fronds: thallus either
branched, flattened, sculpted into crenulations or threads. What appears as a root-like structure at the
base of the plant is an attachment mechanism, the holdfast. This enables the plant to attach successfully
to the rocky substrate and anchors it against the buffeting of currents and waves.
If you examine a holdfast, it also becomes a unique habitat for sessile worms and bryozoans. Marine
algae are a critical component of our ocean ecosystem, responsible for at least 50% of our planet’s
oxygen.
Blue-Green Algae
Are mostly microscopic and live in the surface of the water to take advantage of sunlight for
photosynthesis. A small number in this group are toxic to marine organisms.
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Red Algae
Are the most numerous of all seaweed species and possess an amazing variety of forms, textures and
colours. They fix carbon in their fronds as calcium carbonate and help to trap sediments. The most
common reds are the encrusting Corallines. Some resemble pink paint splashed on the rocks. Another
common coralline algae grows in the mid-tidal area and at the edge of rock pools as a thick dense turf.
When this species has been grazed by herbivorous snails, it resembles grey spongy clumps.
Red Algae
Photo courtesy of Dr. Isobel Bennett
Green Algae
Photo courtesy of Dr. Isobel Bennett
Brown Algae
Are found at the bottom of the shoreline in the intertidal and upper subtidal areas. There are
approximately 4000 brown kelp species known in the world. Of these, at least 800 are found in Australia.
The size variation in this species is enormous, ranging from microscopic tufts, bizarre spaghetti-like
strands, dense plants with tiny air sacs to enormous kelp species several metres tall.
Green Algae
Range in colour from yellow green, black green to brown. Many green sea weeds are very tolerant of high
nutrient loads and thrive in areas of pollution or storm water discharge. The green seaweeds are found in
the upper intertidal regions, harbours and estuaries.
All of the above algae use sunlight for photosynthesis. The further one ventures into the ocean, the less
light penetration and sea weed species can be found. Seaweed diversity changes along the NSW Coast.
For example at one time the giant Bull Kelp, Durvillea potatum, was found as far north as Bermagui on the
south coast.
With the increase in water temperature, cold water species are moving further south and warm water
species from the sub-tropics are also migrating in the same direction.
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Tropical Species of the NSW Coast
While much of the NSW coast is considered temperate, the presence of the warm East Australian Current
(EAC) offshore maintains areas of higher sea temperature where tropical species can be found much
farther south than one would expect. This is partly due to the general warming of water as one moves
north but is enhanced by spin-off or eddy currents from the EAC that bring warm water and the eggs and
larvae of tropical marine animals to the coast. This effect becomes more pronounced in the north so that
from Port Stephens northwards to the Queensland border, tropical marine species become increasingly
common. This mixing of temperate and tropical species increases the biodiversity of the marine
environment. The Solitary Islands Marine Park, for example, has over 550 species of reef fish, 90 hard
corals, and 600 species of molluscs. Julian Rocks in the Cape Byron Marine Park has over 1000 marine
species, many of which are common in the tropics.
Some tropical examples include:
Spanish Dancer Nudibranchs
Toenail Egg Cowries
Blue Seastar
Angel Fish
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Sponges (Phylum Porifera)
Sponges are ancient, primitive animals. They consist of a network of chambers and canals held together
in a spongy matrix. Although very simple, sponges come in a variety of shapes and colours. They are
found stuck onto the rock in pools, under boulders or in overhangs. If pulled off, they cannot re-attach
and will die if left in the sun. Sponges are composed either of calcium carbonate or silica. Most deep-sea
sponges are made of silica.
Hydroid Sponge
Photo courtesy of Dr. Isobel Bennett
Orange Puffball Sponge
Photo courtesy of Dr. Isobel Bennett
Corals, sea anemones and jelly fish and cube medusa (Phylum Cnidaria)
Include a range of simple, soft-bodied animals with stinging cells arranged around a circular mouth, used
to catch small animals for food. Jelly fish, the Portuguese Man O’War and By-the-Wind-Sailors are
free-swimming. They are found onshore when they have been blown in by the wind. The purple stinger
Pelagia noctiluca as well as the small cube meduse Charybdea rastoni occur in the summer months along
the NSW coast. They are best avoided as their stinging tentacles can be extremely painful.
Sea anemones are common on intertidal shores around Sydney, mainly in pools, crevices and under
boulders. Although they seem sessile they can move great distances if local conditions change (e.g.
temperature or salinity changes). Corals are not common in temperate waters but can be found on some
sub tidal reefs around Sydney and in the harbour.
Worms (Phylum Annelida)
Of the many different worms found on intertidal shores around Sydney, most belong to the group of
segmented worms (Phylum Annelida). These are divided into two broad groups - the free-moving and
the tube-dwelling worms. The mobile worms are common in pools, under boulders and amongst clumps
of algae and animals, such as barnacles. Most are predators and hunt other small animals. Fire worms
(Eurythoe complinata) are bright red with white bristles and should be handled carefully. The bristles can
break off in the hand and irritate with a long-lasting burning sensation.
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In warmer waters, the worm is much larger in size and grey with
red fawn bristles. Only the heads of tube-dwelling worms are
visible because the body is enclosed in the tube. Their heads have
elaborate structures of tentacles and spikes used to filter food out
of the surrounding water. Other worms include the un-segmented
Nemerteans, graceful carnivorous Flatworms and strange Peanut
worms found in rubble.
Nemertean Worm
Photo courtesy of Dr. Isobel Bennett
Crabs, prawns, barnacles and their relatives (Phylum Crustacea)
This very diverse group of animals includes prawns, shrimps, crabs, hermit-crabs, barnacles and many
small isopods and amphipods. Although crustaceans are varied in size and shape they all share two
important characteristics - a segmented, crusty outer skeleton and jointed legs. Crabs and amphipods are
very active and often difficult to catch and see clearly. Some hunt other animals but many feed on algae
or detritus.
Barnacles are unusual because the adults attach to rock surfaces. They secrete a hard, conical shell
around themselves and as they mature, turn upside down, feeding with their legs waving in the water
column. The secret life of barnacles was recorded by Charles Darwin in eight years of intense study. All
crustaceans moult, allowing for annual spurts of growth.
Animals with shells, sea slugs and octopuses (Phylum Mollusca)
Molluscs have a soft body, which may or may not be enclosed in a shell. Those found on intertidal shores
usually have shells, although octopuses, nudibranchs (sea slugs) and sea hares, which do not have hard
shells enclosed in the body, are found in pools or low on the shore. Chitons are an ancient and primitive
group of molluscs with eight shell plates surrounded by a tough girdle.
Bivalves consist of two separate hinged shells and include oysters and mussels. Most bivalves do not
move once settled on the shore and filter food out of the water.
Many intertidal molluscs are single-shelled snails (part
of the diverse group called the Gastropoda). These
feed on microalgae, large seaweeds or other animals.
Because they are so varied in their life styles, they are
extremely important in determining what the shore looks
like at any time or in any place.
Nudibranch
Photo courtesy of Dr. Isobel Bennett
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Starfish, sea urchins and holutherians (Phylum Echinodermata)
This group includes crinoids, brittle stars and sea cucumbers. Two starfish, the 8-arm carpet star and the
smaller 5-armed cushion star are common on rocky shores around Sydney. Unlike most starfish which
are voracious predators, these species eat algae, although the larger carpet star will feed on carrion when
available.
In northern NSW, the beautiful blue five armed sea star Linckia lavigata stands out brilliantly on the ocean
floor. Echinoderms feature a water-filled system of channels throughout their body, the water vascular
system. This water is pumped into extensible tube feet which they use for locomotion. If you turn a
starfish over, you can observe tube feet in grooves underneath each arm.
The soft body of a sea urchin is enclosed in a limy, spherical casing (or test) surrounded by hard, movable
spines. Sea urchins are grazers and have been collected in large numbers for food. The bag limits for
urchins are not effective under current legislation as ten animals can be taken by a single person.
Sea cucumbers are found on the northern NSW coast. They may grow up to 45cm in length. They usually
are partially covered by sand and protrude their white thread-like feeding apparatus when handled.
Sea mats, sea squirts and other intriguing animals
Many of the interesting, beautiful and more unusual animals that can be found on rocky shores belong to
a number of Phyla which are generally not as well known as those described above.
They include the sea mats and their relatives, Lace Coral (Bryozoa). Though they feed on large seaweeds,
Bryozoans are becoming less common on intertidal shores. These animals are not related to coral,
although resembling them. They are small animals that live in large colonies, forming flat sheets or
branching bush-like colonies.
Other intertidal colonial animals are the sea squirts, although the most common one, the Cunjevoi, lives
as separate individuals. Each sea squirt has two distinct openings. It sucks water in through one of these
into the bag-like body which is encased in a hard, horny or gelatinous case. When food has been filtered
out, it is expelled through the other opening. Cunjevoi are the extremely primitive ancestors to vertebrates
- animals with backbones.
Dissected Cunjevoi
Photo courtesy of Dr. Isobel Bennett
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Sandy Beach: Physical and Biological Processes
Australia’s coastline consists of approx 16,000 km of sandy beaches, half of which lie within temperate
latitudes, including the Sydney area.
Traditionally beaches were viewed as arid regions, devoid of animal life. Research in the past 30 years
has revealed beaches as highly productive ecosystems offering organisms a wide and three-dimensional
habitat in which to live. Grain size, organic matter, desiccation and dissolved oxygen can vary markedly at
different levels in the sand, providing a broad scope of living space for a diversity of organisms. As many
as 2-3 million animals can live in a cubic metre of beach in NSW. Some minute animals even live tucked
in the cracks and crevices of individual sand grains.
Beach Structure
Is determined by:
1.
Height of waves.
2.
Time between waves.
3.
Size of sediment grain.
4.
Tidal range.
Beach sediment
Comes from two main sources. Particles of natural rock may come from eroding bedrock or be
discharged from river systems. Calcium carbonate particles come from eroded mollusc shells,
foraminiferans and bryozoans. Sandy beaches south of Long Reef to Manly and Bondi to Maroubra are
finer, whiter and predominately 90% quartz sand derived from rivers when sea level was lower, then
reworked onshore by waves during sea level rise. The finer sand results in a lower gradient and a wider
surf zone.
North of Long Reef to Palm Beach the sand is slightly coarser, more iron-stained colouring it yellow/
orange. The composition of the sand is still mostly quartz (70-80%) with 20-30% carbonate detritus,
much of which is derived from algae washed up from offshore. The coarser sand results in steeper
beaches and a narrower surf zone.
Sediments - Magnified coarse sand
Photo courtesy of Dr. Arthur Dye
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Categories of beach
Reflective Beaches
Consist of course gravel or sand and form where waves less than 1.5m high with a typically steep beach
face. Less than one third of NSW beaches are reflective with most found on the south coast. Reflective
beaches with coarse sediment drain rapidly and little organic matter remains though the structure is well
oxygenated. Organisms are few and live deep below the sediment surface.
Intermediate Beaches
Consist of fine to medium sediment and form where waves are between 0.5m and 2 metres in height.
The surf zone increases with wave height and is generally characterized by sand bars, troughs and
channels produced by long shore and rip currents. This beach type is the most common in southern
Australia and prevalent in the Sydney region. Intermediate beaches are a more encouraging habitat
for beach organisms than reflective beaches and host a wide range of amphipods, copepods, crabs,
polychaete worms and molluscs.
Dissipative Beaches
Only occur along the most exposed coastlines of southern Tasmania, Victoria, South Australia and Western
Australia. Waves are consistently large and deposit fine sediments. The surf zones of these beaches can
be up to 500 metres wide. They possess the greatest abundance and diversity of animals due to slow
drainage and surf zone stability. Animals and plants occur mainly in the oxygen-rich surface layer of the
sediment.
Distribution of animals on sandy beaches
The distribution of animals on beaches is complex, influenced by a number of factors, including wave
height and tidal range. Animals also migrate depending on the time of day. Populations will vary
seasonally as well as according to the food source, mostly composed of three major plant sources.
Among the macroscopic animals, air-breathing amphipods and ghost crabs live at the highest level,
scavenging isopods live at the intermediate level and a variety of crabs, amphipods, molluscs and
polychaetes (free-swimming segmented worms) inhabit a broad area at the lowest level. Although some
species can be quite large (giant beach worms can be over 2m long) most macroscopic species are less
than a centimetre long. Microscopic animals, which are the most abundant, wash out at high tide and
create another food source for juvenile fish.
Beaches with deposited plant material in the surf zone are between five and ten times richer in fish
species than bare sand beaches with no kelp in the water table.
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Adaptations of animals in sandy beaches
Animals that live in the substratum of beaches adapt to a constantly shifting environment when sand
moves due to weather and wave action. For this reason, burrowing pipis are wedge-shaped and along
with other snails possess a strong muscular foot helping them plough through sand grains.
Most animals of sandy beaches are highly proficient diggers. Polychaete worms have well developed
digging organs. Many crabs also feature flattened legs and enlarged blades at their extremities to assist in
the shoveling process.
Amphipod
Photo courtesy of Dr. Arthur Dye
Sandy beach animals do not face the same problems of drying as animals of rocky shores. Sand always
holds a fair amount of water. Though oxygen is freely available to rocky shore residents, animals in
sand adapt to sustain themselves on limited amounts. They are equipped with long breathing tubes and
siphons or possess efficient gill systems. Heart-shaped urchins are equipped with a long breathing siphon
that connects them to the surface.
Adaptations like fringes of hair (seen in crabs around openings leading to the gills) or sieve-like structures
exclude sand grains from their internal structures. Animals in sand environments tend to be less colourful
than intertidal rocky shore species. There is little need for bright colours or camouflage as the greater part
of their lives are spent hidden in the sand.
Food requirements of animals in sandy beaches
Food chains on sandy beaches rely on three major sources of energy-phytoplankton, microscopic benthic
algae and detached fronds of large foliose seaweeds that drift ashore. Intermediate beaches often have
re-circulating seawater cells in the surf zone trapping plant debris and nutrients. This process creates a
suitable environment for growth of diatoms.
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Diatoms come in all shapes and sizes
Surf diatoms are an important food source for filter feeding invertebrates. The animals living amongst
the sand grains also use organic matter produced by surf phytoplankton. Copepods, nematode worms,
flatworms and other subsurface fauna consume the cells. The microbial films of bacteria and protozoans
that coat the sand particles also provide food for animals in the upper layer of the sediment.
The most important food on most beaches consists of detached seaweeds and seagrasses that wash
ashore. Decaying seaweed is seen by some as a health risk but provides an important ecological function
by becoming a food source for amphipods, larvae of kelp flies and scavenging shorebirds.
Conclusion
Though beaches appear to be lifeless, they are a dynamic habitat for a wide range of organisms. It is
fascinating to note how adaptations of animals of sandy beaches enable them to exist and thrive in a
turbulent and changeable environment.
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Ocean Wanderers and Drifters
Our beaches feature obvious strand lines indicating where the last high tide came up to. At first glance,
these lines appear as rubbish and debris from the ocean and near urban areas. Look a bit closer,
however, and you will certainly see unusual things. Strange animals from the near shore and from the
open ocean have drifted thousands of kilometres before washing up on your beach.
Originally the terms flotsam and jetsam were used to describe anything that had washed up or thrown
off a ship ending up on the shore. Today, however, the words are applied to anything (natural objects and
human rubbish) washing up on the beach.
Beach wrack is probably the most common material on the strand line. This is algae, like kelp, that has
been dislodged from rocks nearby, usually by storms, and left high and dry on the shore. Though it may
be smelly, it forms an important part of the beach ecosystem. Decaying seaweed provides nutrients, a
source of food and a place to live for small but important animals in the food chain.
Plankton known as Sapphirina spp.
Photo courtesy of Dr. Isobel Bennett
Plant and Animal Castaways
Ocean organisms are classified as plankton (Greek for”drifter”) if they either can’t swim or do so very
weakly and so they are at the mercy of the currents and wind. Ocean organisms that can move about at
will, like fish and whales are called nekton (Greek for “the swimmer”).
Some examples from the Plankton
Most beach goers will be familiar with blue stingers, incorrectly referred to as Blue-bottles. They are
feared because of their painful stings. Despite this, they are fascinating animals. Each stinger is a colony
of animals, each part specialised for a different task. One zooid provides the float, others catch and digest
food and some are responsible for reproduction. The food catchers are the ones with stinging cells! Blue
stingers or Physalia can’t swim, but float on the surface at circulated by the wind. Sometimes they travel
thousands of kilometres.
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Blue Stinger
Photo courtesy of Dr. Isobel Bennett
Occasionally after high tide, you may find little blobs of jelly on the strand line. Some are small jellyfish,
but could also be strange little animals called Salps. They are common in the world’s oceans, with
approximately 70 species around Australia. They live in the open ocean where the water is clean, but die
in turbid coastal waters.
Each animal consists of little more than a protein jelly and only eats and reproduces. Their reproduction
is very unusual, occurring in two stages. First the adults simply produce buds which break off and grow
into new salps. The adults die after budding. Then, the new ones form large chain-like colonies, several
hundred strong, in which sexual reproduction and genetic exchange takes place. The colony then breaks
up and adults drift away to start the cycle again.
Occasionally, oceanic slugs (Glaucus, Glaucilla ) are found in the drift line. These unusual and beautiful
animals are molluscs (related to snails) but have lost their shell and instead float, belly-up, on the sea
surface. Their undersides (which face upwards) are coloured a deep blue while their backs are silver.
This effectively camouflages them from birds in the air and fish in the sea. They are voracious predators,
feeding on blue stingers and other drifters. Immune to the stinging cells, these are incorporated into their
own bodies as a protection mechanism. Other animals of the “Blue Layer” include the By The Wind Sailor
(Velella) and a small blue disk-shaped Porpita.
Blue Sea Slug - Glacus atlanticus
Photo courtesy of Dr. Isobel Bennett
© Copyright Coastal Environment Centre 2012
Blue Button - Porpita
Photo courtesy of Dr. Isobel Bennett
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Our final castaway is known as the “swimming anemone”. This is a colony of sea anemones (related to
corals) which doesn’t actually swim, but detaches from the rocks where it usually grows to drift with the
currents and is washed up on the shore. This anemone, often the size of an adult fist, resembles a red
and green bag of baked beans. The colony will die if it washes onto a beach, but survives quite well in a
tidal rock pool.
Logs, fishing floats, even old shoes, are all great places to hitch a ride if you are a goose barnacle. These
members of the barnacle family (crustaceans like lobsters but very small) attach to floating objects using
a stalk and they resemble mussels at first glance. They are common around the world. Like all barnacles,
they feed by waving a feeding appendage out of the shell to trap floating particles.
They will live for months or even years on a piece of wood and travel thousands of kilometres in the
process. Sadly, they die when washed ashore.
Plankton Spume
Red or brown discolouration of the sea in the surf zone is often mistaken for pollution. It is caused by a
bloom of microscopic marine plants called phytoplankton. Under the right conditions, countless millions
of these one-celled plants grow in the water. The bloom only lasts a few hours before being dispersed.
Sometimes the remains are washed up as brown slimy foam which soon dries out on the sand. Very few
species of plankton produce potent toxins harmless to most marine animals but potentially can collect in
shellfish like oysters and mussels. Whilst incidents are rare, infected shellfish can cause death if eaten.
Nekton
Larger animals, including fish, turtles and marine mammals such as dolphins and whales occasionally
wash up on beaches. Causes include death from old age, disease, storm or disorientation. One smaller
species, our own Weedy Sea Dragon, is a striking example of camouflage. This fish, one of the so-called
Pipefish, has modified fins resembling the fronds of sea weed. This hides them from predators where they
live, in seagrass beds and kelp forests, down to about 25m. Beautifully coloured, they can grow to about
50cm. The local one Phyllopterix taeniolatus is unique to our part of the world. You can’t collect or harm
them in their natural habitat as they are a protected species. They are a close relation to the Sea-Horse, a
member of the Sygnathid family.
Weedy Sea Dragon
Photo courtesy of Dr. Isobel Bennett
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Bioluminescence – Light from Life
One of the most amazing natural phenomena is the ability of some animals to produce light - think of fire
flies and the night time twinkling of tropical waters. Many marine animals produce light; to attract mates,
to find food or to warn off predators.
It’s not the animals, however, that produce bioluminescence but humble bacteria. These single cell
organisms have the ability to produce light by a complex biochemical process. The animals take
advantage of this by harbouring these bacteria in special organs. In return for the light, the bacteria get
food and shelter. Bacteria, of course, don’t need the animals and do produce light on their own. In the
open ocean this can produce a horizon-to-horizon milky glow at night easily seen from space. Seafarers
have commented on this for centuries, but we still really don’t know how it happens.
Deep sea jellyfish
National Geographic
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Rock Platforms and Life (Biological) Processes
Rock platforms in New South Wales are important habitats for a variety of reasons. They are the most
accessible of all marine habitats and remain an important resource for casual hobbies, recreation and
education. Secondly, the variety of animals and plants of rocky shores, either above or below low tide, is
enormous. We are nationally committed to conservation of this uniquely Australian diversity.
Physically defined habitats on rock platforms include open rock, pools, undersides of stones, crevices and
boulder fields. Physical conditions change dramatically from low to high shore. The low shore is almost
always wet due to waves and supports a wide variety of plants and animals. During low tide the rock
becomes increasingly dry the further up the shore you go. Only those animals adapted to the dry, hot
conditions can survive on the high shore.
Barnacles
Photo courtesy of Dr. Isobel Bennett
Depressions in the rock often stay full of water at low tide and offer additional refuge for plants and
animals. Organisms that can’t tolerate strong sunlight are found under stones in pools. This explains why
you should always replace stones right side up and never leave them overturned. Crevices are cracks in
the rock platform formed by erosion. They are cooler and damper than the surrounding rock during low
tide and like pools, provide refuges for plants and animals.
Recruitment from the plankton
Most intertidal animals feature planktonic early stages of life-history. The juveniles (larvae) are washed up
and down the coast by tides, waves and currents. Most are eaten by predators but as predators vary in
numbers or effectiveness, some larvae of intertidal species survive. Random movements and variations in
numbers surviving mean that irregular numbers arrive on any particular shore or even from one part of a
shore to another at any time. This patchiness is the dominant feature of our shoreline.
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Competition for space
The animals and plants on rocky shores all need space on which to attach or above which to feed.
When too many arrive in a place they cannot all survive and grow to adult sizes. Competition for space
is therefore very important, particularly for sessile animals such as barnacles and tube-worms which are
unable to move to less crowded sites.
Carpet sea stars
Photo courtesy of Dr. Isobel Bennett
Grazing by herbivorous animals
Fleshy or foliose (branching) seaweeds are limited to the lower levels of the shore by the activities of
grazing snails and limpets. At higher levels, the grazers remove the plants while they are in their early
microscopic stages preventing them from growing large enough to be seen. As plants lower down are
underwater for longer, they grow faster. As they escape being eaten, they can survive to cover large areas
of the rocks.
Predation
Whelks and crabs are common intertidal predators. Whelks eat barnacles, mussels, oysters, tube-worms,
etc. Crabs eat snails and barnacles. As a result, predators also alter the numbers of grazers or users of
space and influence the natural patchiness and temporal variation on the shore.
Competition for food
Because grazing animals at mid to high shore levels eat all of the microscopic stages of foliose seaweeds,
any increase in numbers of grazers must result in a shortage of food. Therefore, competition for the
available food influences sizes and numbers of many species of snails and limpets.
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Behaviour
Many of the mollusc species on our shores behave in complex ways that influence the distribution of
other species. For example, the whelk Morula marginalba shelters in cracks and crevices during bad
weather but comes out to feed when the tides and weather are good. It then kills barnacles and other
prey around its shelter. As a result, where there are crevices, there are often few sessile animals as they
have been eaten but further away they are able to survive. The foraging and sheltering behaviour of the
whelks creates complex patterns on the shore.
Mulberry whelks
Photo courtesy of Dr. Isobel Bennett
Another example is the limpet Patelloida mufria which commonly lives on the shells of other snails.
These piggyback the limpets into pools when the tide falls. The limpets are able to survive the period of
desiccation until the tide comes in again. These limpets are mostly found on those snails whose behaviour
ensures that they are associated with moist places during low tide. Other limpets use “home scars” where
their shells have worn a depression on the rock surface that fit exactly. The limpets return to their home
scars during low tide where they clamp down to avoid predators and prevent drying out.
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Global Warming: Effects of Sea Level Rise on Sandy
Beaches
The sea is rising!
Since the 1870s, the sea has risen by about 20cms and is projected to rise a further 5-8cms by the end
of the century. The cause of this phenomenon can be linked to the fact that the earth is getting warmer.
Our Earth’s atmosphere has warmed by nearly 1°C over the last century and is expected to increase by
another 5-6°C by 2100.
Our atmosphere naturally traps heat from the sun and accounts for the amazing presence of life on our
planet. Before the industrial revolution of the 17th and 18th centuries, heat lost to space more or less
balanced heat coming in. With the large-scale burning of fossil fuels the atmosphere now contains more
gases, such as carbon dioxide and methane. These absorb heat making our world warm up, just like in a
giant greenhouse.
The increased heat contributes to sea level rise in two ways:
 Melting of ice caps
 Expansion of the sea water as it warms.
CO2 rise since 1700
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The ice caps are certainly melting, as indicated by retreating glaciers and the breakup of ice shelves like
Larsen B in the Antarctic in 2002. For the first time in recorded history the Arctic Ocean will be navigable
by ships this summer. However, this process has contributed only about 1% to sea level rise. By far the
greatest contribution comes from the expansion of water as it absorbs heat from the atmosphere.
What does this mean for our beaches?
Around the world, beaches are under threat from coastal development, pollution and sea level rise. The
pending threat to beaches is that they will be washed away, not only by rising water levels, but also by
storms that will become more violent as a result of climate change. There is a mathematical relationship
between sea level rise and beach erosion. A beach will erode by about 100 times the rise in sea level. So,
for an expected average rise of 44 cm, the width of a beach will be reduced by 44m by 2100. Imagine
losing 44m of Narrabeen beach! In some places, the entire beach would be lost.
smh.com.au
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What can be done?
The ecological and economic impacts of losing beaches will be enormous. We have heard how beaches
perform vital functions in cleaning the near shore water and in supporting biodiversity. They are also the
reason for huge investment in real estate and business activity worldwide. Entire cities, like the Gold
Coast, exist because of nearby beaches, while almost the entire economies of several nations are based
on tourism generated by the sandy shoreline.
The only practical solution is to encourage beach nourishment where sand is added to the beach to
replace that which is lost to erosion. This, along with engineering works such as groynes to stabilise the
beach, have been used around the world for many years. For the long term survival of populations and
cities on the coastal fringe, we need to look at the bigger picture. We must reduce our carbon footprint
and gas emissions to slow global warming.
Another problem - More carbon in the ocean
Ocean acidification is the process whereby the acidity of the oceans increases due to the absorption of
increased amounts of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Since the Industrial Revolution the amount of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere has increased and continues to increase as a by-product of the burning of
fossil fuels such as coal and oil.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) naturally dissolves in water to form carbonic acid which lowers the pH. In the last
100 years or so the pH of the oceans has decreased by about 0.08 units. While this may not seem much,
the effects could be significant for many marine animals. This is because many species build their shells
or skeletons out of calcium compounds (mainly calcite and aragonite) which tend to dissolve as the ocean
becomes more acidic. This makes it more difficult for animals to absorb calcium from the water and
incorporate it into their shells or skeletons.
It is feared that if the acidification continues species such as molluscs and corals will decline because
they would have to devote a greater portion of their energy reserves into keeping their calcium structures
intact at the expense of reproduction, for example. This, in turn, would have an adverse effect on
biodiversity as many other species (particularly fish) depend on molluscs for food and shelter. There are
many other species in the oceans that would also be adversely affected. The oceans are far from acidic,
and it is not expected that they would become so, but it takes only a slight shift in the chemical balance to
cause environmental problems.
There is, however, no chance of beaches dissolving as some have suggested, with beaches such as
Narrabeen being 50% shell grit.
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Human Impacts on Sandy Beaches and Rock Platforms
Disturbances to marine invertebrate populations are either biological or physical.
Biological disturbances involve unusual interactions among species, which potentially create large
changes (eg effects of large number of Crown-of Thorn starfish or algal blooms known as ‘red tides).
Physical disturbances include the force of waves and impacts of human activity. Among these are
urban development, dredging, industrial pollution, sewage, fishing (using trawls or dredges) and human
harvesting of marine invertebrates for food or bait. Potential changes or disturbance to a habitat may
affect a particular species or a number of species that live together. It may also create free space which is
available for other plants and animals to colonize.
An impact or change doesn’t always result in fewer organisms, it may actually be beneficial to some. In
examining physical impacts on rock platforms, it is essential to consider three factors:
1.
2.
3.
The intensity of the event
The timing
The frequency of the occurrence.
Intensity of an event can vary from the removal of a single organism to widespread disruption caused by
large waves.
The time of the year the event occurs is also important to consider. Many marine organisms have
planktonic larvae which may be present in the ocean during certain months. Species that have their
juvenile counterparts in the ocean for lengthy periods may have a greater chance of recruitment from the
platform if there is free space available. Plants and animals may also be more vulnerable during certain
periods of their lifecycle, especially during the larval phase if they are stressed.
Frequency of the event is important to consider because some species recover quickly and can cope with
frequent disturbances while others can’t.
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Sandy Beaches
Although every day use of the beach for swimming or sunbathing can cause damage, there are a number
of other ways in which humans disturb sandy beaches. Littering is unsightly and can be harmful to both
humans and marine animals.
Depending on the grade of sand and wave action, a build-up of residues from sun screens can disrupt
water circulation and reduce oxygen in the sediment.
More drastic activities such as driving vehicles on the beach can kill animals and disrupt the sediment.
Mechanical beach cleaning physically damages the beach and impairs the ability of the sand to recycle
nutrients. Shoreline construction such as breakwaters and groynes can result in severe erosion by
interrupting the longshore movement of sediment that would naturally replenish the beach.
Newport Beach
Rock Platforms
Marine invertebrates on rock platforms are especially vulnerable to the effects of human activities such
as fishing, diving, snorkeling, walking, collecting organisms for food or for salt water aquaria. Scientific
surveys on the extent of harvesting by humans of plants and animals have revealed wide and continuous
pressure on intertidal animals which might affect long-term viability of breeding populations. For example,
removal of the larger sizes of animals could affect their genetic diversity or alter breeding patterns.
Ascidians, gastropods and crabs are vulnerable species collected for bait while gastropods, echinoderms
and crustaceans are also collected for food. Harvesting pressure is greatest from mid-morning to dusk
during weekend and holiday periods. Protection of marine invertebrate species in reserves and intertidal
areas could be cost-effective if during these times there was adequate enforcement and reporting by
local residents. It would also be advantageous to implement these measures during low tide to protect
populations of the ascidian Pyura stolonifera.
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Aquatic Reserves, Intertidal Protected areas and
Bag and Size Limits
NSW DECC is the lead agency responsible for the management of aquatic reserves in NSW. Intertidal
protected areas and conservation of fish stocks remains with NSW DPI Fisheries. Together these agencies
provide protection in a number of different ways which include;
 Declaration of marine protected areas
 Restrictions on harvesting methods
 Declaration of intertidal protected areas
 Implementation of bag and size limits
Aquatic Reserves
Aquatic reserves have been established to protect biodiversity and provide representative samples of our
wonderfully varied marine life and habitats. New South Wales currently has 12 aquatic reserves declared
under the Fisheries Management Act 1994.
Apart from protecting important habitat, nursery areas and vulnerable and threatened species, aquatic
reserves also have valuable research and educational roles. Although aquatic reserves are generally small
compared with marine parks, they play a significant role in the NSW marine protected area system.
North Narrabeen Rock Platform
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What can I do in an aquatic reserve?
The type of protection varies from reserve to reserve. In some reserves, for example, fishing is permitted,
but invertebrates and some marine vegetation species are protected, therefore bait collection is
prohibited.
In other reserves fishing and all disturbance of marine animals and vegetation is prohibited. In these
reserves only passive activities and observation of the marine life is permitted. For further information on
permitted activities within NSW aquatic reserves see details at www.environment.nsw.gov.au.
The NSW aquatic reserves are;
1. Cook Island
8. La Perouse
2. Barrenjoey Head
9. Boat Harbour
3. Narrabeen Head
10.Towra Point
4. Long Reef
11.Shiprock
5. Cabbage Tree Bay
12.Bushrangers Bay
6. North Harbour
7. Bronte-Coogee
Intertidal protected areas
There are eight intertidal protected areas in the Sydney area where the collection of intertidal plants and
animals is prohibited with the exception of lobsters (bag limits apply). These IPAs extend from the mean
high tide mark to ten metres horizontally seaward of the mean low tide mark.
The intertidal protected areas are;
1. Bungan Head
2. Mona Vale
3. Dee Why
4. Sydney Harbour
5. South of Bondi Beach
6. Long Bay
7. Inscription Point
North Newport Rock Platform
8. Cabbage Tree Point (Bundeena)
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Bag and Size Limits
In those areas not protected as aquatic reserves or intertidal protected areas, invertebrates may be
collected for either food or bait. All invertebrates are subject to bag limits and some, such as rock lobster,
abalone and turban snails, are also subject to size limits. For further information, refer to the NSW
recreational saltwater fishing guide or visit the NSW DPI website at www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/fisheries.
Octopus
It is illegal to take octopus from ocean rock platforms in NSW or from rock platforms in Sydney Harbour.
Collecting Invertebrates
You can only collect invertebrates from unprotected areas via methods that do not harm the environment.
The use of specific tools is permitted in some circumstances. For example in mud and sand areas
you can use a single bladed knife when collecting pipis and cockles, a pair of pliers when catching
beach worms and yabby pump, upturned tin can, spade or fork when gathering yabbies (pink nippers),
bloodworms and squirt worms. It is not permitted to dig or use a yabby pump in seagrass areas,
mangroves or saltmarshes. On rock platforms you can use a single bladed knife only. Mattocks, chisels
and crowbars are not permitted. Intertidal animals may not be removed from their shells at the waterside
unless they are used immediately as bait.
To find out more about Aquatic Reserves and Marine Parks in NSW phone DECC Aquatic Protected
Areas Section on (02) 4982 1232 or DECC Environment Line on 1300 361 967. To find out more about
Intertidal Protected Areas or NSW DPI Fisheries Regulations phone NSW DPI Fisheries Info Line on 1300
550 474, Senior Recreational Fisheries Manager on 9527 8522 or visit www.dpi.nsw.gov.au
Please report illegal fishing activities on;
Fishers’ watch phone line on 1800 043 536 or
Sydney South Fisheries Office (Sans Souci) (02) 9529 6021
Sydney North Fisheries Office (Wollstonecraft) (02) 8437 4903
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Surf clubs and the message of sustainability
In 2005, Surf Life Saving Australia released their Eco Surf Policy Statement.
The Mission Statement as follows:
Surf Life Saving Australia is committed to the ecologically sustainable use of the coastal environment. It
will demonstrate this commitment through the promotion of environmentally friendly practices, education
and awareness raising of environmental issues in order to ensure the ecologically sustainable use of
coastal resources.
Coastal Ambassadors of the Northern Beaches of Sydney have demonstrated their commitment to
minimising their ecological footprints. They have provided a great opportunity to showcase ways to reduce
waste, install rain water harvesting systems and look at reducing their carbon footprint since the project’s
inception. Surf clubs are community icons. Their facilities lie on the periphery of the coastline most likely
to be impacted by potential climate change.
Below are some examples of local clubs committed to sustainable use of the coastal environment. By
2011, all northern beaches clubs had completed energy audits and retrofitted facilities to reduce green
house emissions.
Freshwater Surf Club Sustainability Initiative
In 2010 the “Freshwater Surf Nomes” (two Coastal Ambassadors graduates) received a $7500 grant
to refit their club house with water efficient fittings. They also instigated a bucket program whereby life
savers on patrol could pick up rubbish from the beach during quiet times.
“Surf Nomes” Naomi & Naomi
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Bilgola Surf Club - Community Water Grant project
Surf clubs are great consumers of water having to clean and maintain a large range of equipment. In late
2007, Bilgola Surf club received over $20,000 for a rainwater harvesting and re-use system.
Newport Surf Club Environmental Plan
In February 2008, Newport Surf Club’s Environment Committee prepared an Environmental Plan that
addressed ten proposed actions in cooperation with Pittwater Council and the community. Some of these
proposals include a coastal education unit for nippers, making the clubhouse environmentally compliant,
installation of rain water tanks, and contribution to dune and headland vegetation regeneration.
Mona Vale Surf Club - $40,000 for Water Storage initiatives
To date three-quarters of the funds have been spent on the in-ground installation of two 5000 litre
rainwater tanks. The Club has embarked on a “greening” landscape project on the northern side of the
club, to create a community park.
Mona Vale SLSC are also keen to work with Council to promote dune planting and regeneration.
Long Reef Surf Club Energy Audit
In 2006, an extensive energy audit identified and reduced power usage. Plans for the new club house will
incorporate eco-friendly design. Members have worked cooperatively with Reefcare, a local Bushcare
group to improve habitat at Long Reef.
Coastal Ambassadors Naomi W and Naomi D clean up Freshwater Beach as part
of their Freshwater Nomes Environmental Protection Program at Freshwater Surf
Life Saving Club.
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North Steyne, Manly amd Queenscliff Surf Clubs
North Steyne proved to be a sustainability champion with their 2005 inaugural energy and recycling
initiatives, beautification of clubhouse surrounds and an active participation in environmental events
including spelling out Life Saving Energy with over 5,000 people at Ocean Care Day, Manly in 2007.
Queenscliff and Manly Clubs joined forces for this event and with North Steyne are the first northern
beaches surf clubs to install solar panels on their buildings.
In 2008, Coastal Ambassadors formed a reference group across all of the various clubs to progress and
share sustainable actions within the surf club movement. In addition, the appended page of resources
should give you some clues for grant funding streams you can source as a community group for your
projects.
Never underestimate the value of cooperative partnerships, either with your local Council, service groups
or any organization or business willing to sponsor your idea.
Above all, as Coastal Ambassadors, you all have the potential to be agents for positive environmental and
social change!!
“Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful, committed citizens can change the world; indeed it’s
the only thing that ever has.”
Anthropologist and Author, Margaret Mead
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Reduce the Carbon Footprint of your Surf Club
3 Step Greenhouse Gas Emissions Reduction Strategy
Our earth is warming!
It is now beyond doubt that our Earth’s atmosphere is warming. Scientists are more than 90% sure that
the principal cause of much of the observed warming since 1950 is human emission of greenhouse
gases to the atmosphere, principally through land use changes for agriculture and burning fossil fuels for
energy.
Greenhouse gases include the naturally occurring gases - carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide
as well as man-made industrial gases which trap heat close to the surface of the earth. Coastal zones
will likely be significantly impacted by sea level rise; increasing frequency and severity of storms and
acidification of the oceans as the ocean absorbs more carbon.
Photo courtesy of Joanne Tulau
Source: http://climate.nasa.gov/
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What can we do?
It is certain that the world is moving to a carbon constrained and a clean energy future. We have the
opportunity to think globally and act locally and reduce our carbon footprints at home, where we work,
and where we play!
Source: Victoria EPA – carbon management principles | www.epa.vic.gov.au/climate-change/carbon-management
Develop a Greenhouse Gas Emissions Reduction Strategy
Step 1: Know your carbon position
 Measure / Audit: You can’t manage what you can’t measure. The first step in managing greenhouse
gas emissions (GHG) to know your starting point. Develop a GHG inventory to quantify the amount of
greenhouse gases being emitted to the atmosphere by the energy consuming operations of the club.
 Sources of GHG emissions: Include purchased electricity, transport fuels, gas – both mains and
bottled. Where are these consumed? How much? Decide on the boundaries around your inventory.
Step 2: Take a leadership position and inspire GHG emissions reduction by your example
 Avoid waste of energy: In our society, a great deal of energy is wasted. Identify energy conservation
opportunities – including lights left on when no-one is in the room and air conditioners that are set too
cold or too hot.
 Energy efficiency: Identify opportunities to get the same service but by using less energy. Consider
upgrading technology, lighting or appliances to more efficient models. Electricity costs are rising
quickly and the savings may fund the upgrade. Energy efficiency saves the club money as well as
reducing climate risk to the world as a whole.
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 Consider clean energy generation opportunities: Solar panels may be a goal that can be approached
with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions of the club. Grant funds may be available as
we move towards the clean energy future, or the club may be in a position to access support from
sponsors.
 Consider offsetting your carbon emissions: The GreenPower scheme is an option that is available
right now, by paying an extra few cents per kilowatt hour. Energy efficiency gains may generate the
funds to make GreenPower purchase revenue neutral. Zero greenhouse gas emissions are emitted
from 100% GreenPower.
Step 3: Take a leadership position and inspire GHG emissions reduction by your example
 Sustainability Champions: Surf Clubs and Coastal Ambassadors are in a key position to take the
message of sustainability out to a wider audience. Be the change you want to see in the world!
 Communications Plan: A good deal of the opportunities for reducing greenhouse gas emissions come
from behavioural change – avoidance of waste; willingness to adopt change; being open to doing
things differently and in a more energy efficient way. Let people in the club know what you are doing.
Get their buy in. Tap into their good ideas.
 Change Management: Identify and communicate with key people in your organisation including
change leaders, change agents and change champions. Change leaders would include the Club
President for example, who can help empower action and make change stick. Change agents would
include the Coastal Ambassador initiating the GHG emissions reduction and others directly involved in
implementing the plan. Change champions include people who can lend support and create a positive
atmosphere within which the change agents can make things happen.
Sources of information
There are many good sources of information on this topic, but I suggest that the best way forward is to
use the detailed resources provided by the EPA Victoria. Google “EPA Victoria Carbon Management”.
The search will drop you in at the correct page. GOOD LUCK!
Joanne Tulau
Senior Environment Officer – Sustainability
Natural Environment & Education Unit | Pittwater Council
9970 1339
0417461703
[email protected]
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Developing Effective Communication
The way that people respond to issues, including watching strangers harvest marine invertebrates, relies
on several factors. Human perceptions are based on :
 personal observation
 received knowledge
 value systems.
These important aspects influence the way people communicate and define their impulses for
conservation as well as destruction.
How do we communicate?
Effective communication is a two-way process, involving the ability to clearly transmit ideas while
simultaneously being a receptive listener and appreciative of other viewpoints.
Studies have revealed that up to 65% of all communication is non-verbal. Meaning is emphasized
through body language which includes tone of voice, eye contact, facial expressions and muscle tension.
Some individuals relate to the world in a visual manner. Others absorb information through what they
hear, touch, smell or feel. Most people employ one or two of these senses in their information screening
process.
A teacher with a monotonous lecture style and little eye contact will fail to address the needs of students
due to their lack of body language clues.
Communication Blocks
Some of the factors listed above can be instrumental in creating communication blocks, preventing a
receptive framework for empathy and sharing.
Personal Observation Block
As humans rely on their own perceptions and experience to frame their actions, it is easy to assume that
our own perceptions are valid while those of other people are not. Holding what we see as true, may
prevent us from acknowledging the many other faces of reality.
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Word/body language conflict
Words and body language may also be in conflict. Strong words of endearment, mumbled in a hesitating
tone with no eye contact, are unlikely to inspire a relationship. When words and actions are in harmony,
successful dialogue is more likely to occur.
Feeling overload
As emotional levels of feeling escalate, the content of the message diminishes. Vital communication can
be lost in a torrent of anger or distress.
Value systems
Value systems or contextual assumptions are hidden messages. They are an unconscious filtering
system defining the limits of what we consider possible. They include our ethical values, prejudices and
parental guidelines. Values should not be seen as good or bad, merely different. When people respond
inappropriately in a situation, they may be responding to their unconscious inbuilt set of rules.
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Styles of Communication
Passive Communicators
People with this style hardly ever take action to meet their own needs. They are most likely to put the
needs of others ahead of their own. Passive communicators need to learn to identify their own needs and
act on them.
Aggressive Communicators
People in this group believe strongly in their own rights, but often disregard the opinions of others. Such
communication can be caused by strong desire to compete and achieve, but is also caused by a poor
self-image. Controlling others becomes a way of boosting their self-confidence.
Assertive Communication
The assertive method of communicating is the ability to accept and respect one’s own rights as well as
the rights of others. Assertive communicators are able to express their needs and opinions openly. They
are also willing to co-operate when conflict arises. Being assertive includes insight and willingness to
relate.
Effective Listening
Effective listening is a tool employed successfully to reach people who are upset or feel resistant and
uncomfortable in a particular situation. It is essential that the listener feels relaxed, has the time to listen
and gives full attention with supportive eye contact and body language. An effective listener remains a
neutral sounding board. Effective listening involves:
 showing genuine concern and interest
 reflecting back in a tentative way what it is thought the other person is feeling
 repeating the reflecting process until the other person is calmer
 avoiding responses which criticize, judge, probe, interpret
 awareness that expressions will convey acceptance and understanding more readily than words.
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Useful reading list and contacts for Coastal
Ambassadors
H. Breidahl, Australian Southern Shores. Lothian Books, Victoria. 1997.
A highly enjoyable and easy to read text that introduces the reader to seasonal variations in marine
invertebrate communities. It has excellent photographs, diagrams and reference material on habitats,
tides, coastal and marine algae
W.J Dakin, Australian Seashores. Angus and Robertson, Sydney. 1987.
This is the classic text on seashore life. It is out of print but available through most libraries.
K. Davey, A Photographic Guide to Seashore Life of Australia. New Holland Publishers, Sydney. 1988.
Keith Davey is a Central Coast marine scientist. This is an excellent guide with good photographs and
information.
Graham. J. Edgar. Australian Marine Life. Reed Books, 1997, 2nd edition 2008.
A large hardback publication with excellent seaweed and fish photographs. Clear and beautiful drawings
and photographs from a Tasmanian scientist.
Frank Haddon, Australian Seashores, an Environmental Field Guide to Flora and Fauna. Simon & Schuster,
l992. A basic easy to read field guide with good illustrations and information regarding flora and fauna of
coastal areas.
A.J.Underwood & M.G. Chapman, A Beachcombes Guide NSW. University Press Sydney, 1993.
A small volume to be tucked in your backpack for field trips. It gives excellent detail and comprehensively
covers topics such as classification, types of organisms, habitats and interactions.
A.J. Underwood & M.G. Chapman, Coastal Marine Ecology of Temperate Australia. UNSW Press, 1995.
This hardback is a collection of chapters written by many recognized marine scientists exploring a wide
range of issues including planktonic processes, subtidal habitats, disturbance factors and aquaculture. It
is an excellent reference for people seeking in-depth study of coastal issues.
Periodicals contain excellent articles on the marine environment, such as; Australian Geographic, Habitat,
Australian Natural History, New Scientist, Search and Ocean Wild.
These are available at the Coastal Environment Centre at Narrabeen as well as most local libraries.
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Web Sites - Information and Funding
Australian Conservation Foundation - www.acfonline.org.au
A conservation advocacy organization. The web site contains information on current conservation issues
in Australia.
Coastcare Australia - www.coastcare.com.au
Get involved! - Community volunteers caring for the coast.
Marine Education Society of Australasia - www.mesa.edu.au
Links to the best marine-oriented web sites on the net.
OzCoast and OzEstuaries - www.ozcoasts.org.au
Online coastal information for Australia.
Sydney Aquarium - www.sydneyaquariurn.com.au
Great site for facts about marine animals and plants and information on conservation issues, current
events etc.
Caring for our Country (community Coastcare) -www.nrm.gov.au/funding
Sydney Institute of Marine Science - www.sims.org.au
A research and training institute conducting marine research on fisheries. biological diversity. impacts of
climate change etc.
Coastal Ambassadors Graduation evening 2010
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Glossary
Acidification
Release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere which is absorbed by marine invertebrates in the ocean.
Lowering of the Ph causes the animal’s skeletal frame to weaken.
Benthic
Relating to the characteristics of the bottom of the sea, or the plants and animals that live there.
Biodiversity
The range of organisms (including plants and animals) present in a particular ecological community or
system.
Biological processes
Relates to the life cycle (eg feeding, reproduction, predation, decomposition) of living organisms.
Binomial System
The method by which all organisms are classified by order to create a standard reference tool and system
used by scientists all over the world.
Biotic
Relating to life and living organisms or connections caused by living organisms.
Bryozoans
A marine invertebrate that reproduces by budding. They often form colonies on the bottom of the sea, or
live attached to seaweed.
Carbon Footprint
The amount of carbon dioxide generated by the burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, gas and wood.
(This includes a daily consumption of resources) Reducing potential emissions could slow the heating of
the planet.
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Colonial Ascidians
Ascidians are small marine animals that are adapted to feed, reproduce and remain fixed in one spot.
They are also the most advanced of marine invertebrates by fact of possessing a notochord, or primitive
backbone. Colonial ascidians live together in a joint community and share the features described above.
Crinoids
Prehistoric marine invertebrate members of the echinoderm family with a cup-shaped body and five
feathery rotating arms. Related to sea urchins and sea stars.
Detritivores
Organisms that feed on decaying animal or plant material. Detritivores include bacteria, earthworms and
many insects who assist in breaking down the left-overs.
Diatoms
A microscopic one-celled algae that has beautiful-shaped silica filled cell walls or shells divided into two
halves.
Ecosystem
A localized group of interdependent organisms together with the environment they inhabit or depend on.
Estuarine
Estuaries are the wide lower course of the river where the tide flows in from the sea mixing salt and fresh
water. Estuarine therefore pertains to that type of environment.
Exo-skeleton
From the greek word “exo” meaning outside or exterior. This refers to marine invertebrates who mostly
wear their skeletons on the outside of their bodies (eg sea urchins, molluscs )
Fauna
The animal life found in a particular region.
Foramineferians
Microscopic calcium based organisms found mainly in sea water. The shells are the main ingredient in
chalk and some limestone deposits.
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Gastropods
Again from the greek-“gastro”-stomach and pod “foot”, a marine snail with a protruding foot for feeding
and moving.
Groynes
An artificial sea-wall built near the sea or an estuary to protect the shore from erosion.
Habitat
A location containing natural features that encourage or promote the residence of particular animal
species.
Herbivorous
Pertains to animals that eat only grass or other vegetable matter.
Intertidal
The area which occurs between the low and high tide mark on any given shoreline.
Kinetic
Relating to the presence of motion or energy.
Marine Invertebrates
Animal life forms found in the sea which do not possess vertebrae or a backbone. (ie sea slugs, bivalves
or gastropods).
Micro-algae
Larval and microscopic forms of sea-weed that can only be seen under a microscope. Usually grazed by
sea snails but not visible to the naked eye.
Mirco environment
An environment that only contains life visible under a microscope.
Natacid snails
Classification term for a marine snail that is a rubble browser and eats mainly detritus.
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Nekton
An area containing living organisms such as a fish that live in water and actively swim as opposed to
simply being carried along by water currents.
Neuston layer
The uppermost surface of the ocean that attracts its own life forms such as Glaucus and Janthina.
Nemertean worms
A particular species of worm which has no body segments or striations.
pH
Measures the acidity or alkalinity of a substance.
Phytoplankton
Very small microscopic plants or parts of plants floating in the ocean.
Phyla
A word denoting the classification of a particular group of animals that share common characteristics.(ie
Phylum Mollusca: sea snails, Phylum Annelida segmented worms.)
Physical Processes
Are all non-living processes such as erosion, vulcanism, ocean currents, waves, storms, sedimentation,
floods, chemical reactions which modify the environment.
Planktonic
Adjective from the word Plankton referring to a mass of tiny animals and plants floating in the sea or in
lakes, usually near the surface and eaten by fish and other water animals. (ie planktonic life forms)
Stipe
A term used to refer to the stem of any marine plant or seaweed excluding sea grasses.
Sustainability
The ethical principle that we exert no negative impact on our planet and are able to live within the means
of its natural resources without risk to future generations.
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Temperate
Cooler ocean regions. If you drew a line across the middle of Australia horizontally, it would delineate
the southern shorelines of the colder ocean. The cool temperature ranges according to Prof. W.J. Dakin
stretched from Bermagui in southern New South Wales around the coasts of Victoria and South Australia
to the lower section of Western Australia.
Thallus
The fronds or leaf section of marine algae that lies uppermost towards the light to capture photosynthesis
for nutrient intake.
Vascular
Relating to fluid carrying vessels such as blood vessels in animals or sap carrying vessels in plants.
Zooplankton
A term used to describe animal life forms that can only be viewed under a microscope.
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