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CONTENTS List of illustrations x Acknowledgements xii Chapter One The Condition of Europe c. 1789 1 Europe's extent and the concept of Europe 2 The social and economic background 3 Industry and trade 5 The states of Europe 6 The Enlightenment 12 Chapter Two The French Revolution, 1785-89 16 Key dates 17 SECTION A The collapse of the ancien regime, 1786—89 17 The year 1789 21 SECTION B - TOPICS FOR DEBATE Poverty or prosperity as explanations for the French Revolution 26 Chapter Three The Collapse of the French Monarchy and the International Response, 1789-92 31 Key dates 32 SECTION A The constitutional monarchy, 1789-92 32 The international response and the outbreak of war 37 SECTION B - TOPICS FOR DEBATE Why did the experiment in constitutional monarchy fail? 41 Chapter Four The Revolution at War 45 Key dates 46 SECTION A The radicalisation of the French Revolution under the pressure of war 46 The reign of Terror 50 The Directory 56 SECTION B - TOPICS FOR DEBATE Why did Republican France wage war, and what effect did war have on the Revolution? Chapter Five The Rule of Napoleon 59 64 Key dates 65 SECTION A Napoleon's rule in France 66 War, 1803-08 70 Defeat, 1808-15 73 Simpson, William Europe, 1783-1914 2009 digitalisiert durch: IDS Luzern i • CONTENTS • The Napoleonic impact on France 76 SECTION B - TOPICS FOR DEBATE Napoleon's relationship to the French Revolution 77 Chapter Six The Impact of the French Revolution and Napoleon on Europe and the Congress of Vienna 82 Key dates 83 SECTION A The varied impact of French rule 84 The making of the peace settlement 90 SECTION B - TOPICS FOR DEBATE The Treaty of Vienna: a backward looking settlement? 96 Chapter Seven The Industrialisation of Europe and its Effects 101 Key dates 102 SECTION A Economic change 103 Science and the industrial revolution 107 Social consequences of industrialisation 110 Ideological responses to industrialisation 114 SECTION B - TOPICS FOR DEBATE Living standards and the industrial revolution 116 Chapter Eight Changes in the World of Ideas 121 Key dates 122 SECTION A Newways of looking at the world 122 Romanticism 126 The cultural achievement 129 SECTION B - TOPICS FOR DEBATE The significance of the Romantic movement 135 Chapter Nine Nationalism and the Breakdown of the Concert of Europe, 1815-56 140 Key dates 141 SECTION A Nationalism and its supporters 142 Challenges to the Vienna settlement 144 The Near East 146 SECTION B - TOPICS FOR DEBATE Nationalism and its opponents 149 ChapterTen Restoration Europe, 1815-48, and Challenges to Authority Key dates 155 SECTION A France 1815-48 156 The Habsburg empire and the German Confederation 162 154 • CONTENTS • Russia 164 SECTION B - TOPICS FOR DEBATE Reaction, change and the failure of the French monarchy 170 Chapter Eleven 175 1848: The Year of Revolutions Key dates 176 SECTION A The political and economic background 177 The course of Revolution 178 The re-establishment of authority 184 SECTION B - TOPICS FOR DEBATE The 1848 revolutions: common features and failures Chapter Twelve 188 The Second Empire in France, 1851-70 192 Key dates 193 SECTION A Louis Napoleon Bonaparte and power 194 The flourishing of the Second Empire: the 1850s 196 Failure or fulfilment: 1860-70 200 SECTION B - TOPICS FOR DEBATE Liberal at home and abroad? 205 Chapter Thirteen The Unification of Italy, 1849-71 209 Key dates 210 SECTION A The nationalist movement prior to 1860 211 Italian unification, 185 0-61 213 Remaining problems 219 SECTION B - TOPICS FOR DEBATE The roles of Mazzini, Cavour and Garibaldi in the making of Italy Chapter Fourteen The Unification of Germany, 1849-71 220 225 Key dates 226 SECTION A Possible solutions to the German problem 227 Pressures to unite 229 The process of unification, 1848-61 230 The process of unification, 1862—66 232 The process of unification, 1866-71 234 SECTION B - TOPICS FOR DEBATE Bismarck's role in the unification of Germany 239 Chapter Fifteen Reform and Reaction in Russia, 1849-94 Key dates 245 SECTION A Defeat under Nicholas I 246 244 i • CONTENTS • Alexander II, 1855-81 247 Alexander III and the return to reaction, 1881-94 254 SECTION B - TOPICS FOR DEBATE The limitations of Alexander II's reforms 255 Chapter Sixteen The Age of Imperialism 262 Key dates 263 SECTION A Economic growth in Europe 264 The imperialist impulse 268 Africa and the Far East 273 SECTION B - TOPICS FOR DEBATE Colonial expansion and European rivalries 282 Chapter Seventeen Europe and the United States, 1763-1914 Key dates 287 SECTION A Europe and the United States 287 The political relationship, 1776-1865; 1865-1914 The economic relationship 304 Immigration 306 SECTION B - TOPICS FOR DEBATE Heritage, environment or experience 307 Chapter Eighteen 286 288 Marxism and the Growth of Working Class Organisations Key dates 312 SECTION A Karl Marx, his life and works 312 Varieties of Marxism 315 Working class movements 316 International organisations 319 SECTION B - TOPICS FOR DEBATE Left-wing alternatives to capitalism 320 Chapter Nineteen The Third Republic in France, 1871-1914 Key dates 326 SECTION A Establishing the Republic, 1870—79: a compromise with the past Challenges to the Republic 331 French foreign and colonial policy, 1871—1906 336 SECTION B - TOPICS FOR DEBATE The extent of support for the Third Republic 339 Chapter Twenty Imperial Germany, 1871-1912 Key dates 346 SECTION A The problems of German history 347 325 327 345 311 • CONTENTS • German domestic history, 1871-1914 347 German foreign policy, 1871-90 355 German foreign policy, 1890-1912 358 SECTION B - TOPICS FOR DEBATE The links between German domestic concerns and foreign policy Chapter Twenty-One The Habsburg Empire, 1848-1914 361 366 Key dates 367 SECTION A The problems facing the Habsburg empire 368 The return to absolutism 370 Austria-Hungary under the Ausglekh, 1867—1914 372 Austrian foreign policy, 1849-1908 376 SECTION B - TOPICS FOR DEBATE The weaknesses of the Habsburg empire 380 Chapter Twenty-Two Russia, 1894-1914 384 Key dates 385 SECTION A Witte's reforms and the 1905 Revolution 386 Stolypin's reforms and the Dumas 389 Foreign policy, 1894-1914 392 SECTION B - TOPICS FOR DEBATE The impact of the Dumas and Stolypin's reforms 394 Chapter Twenty-Three International Relations, 1890-1914, and the Origins of the First World War 401 Key dates 402 SECTION A The background to 1914 402 The Balkan tangle 409 Countdown to catastrophe 411 SECTION B - TOPICS FOR DEBATE Responsibility for the outbreak of war 415 Chapter Twenty-Four Europe in 1914: Retrospect and Prospect European states and empires 422 Forms of government 423 The European economic system 424 Society 425 Science and technology 426 The intellectual climate 428 Cultural trends 433 Challenges to Europe's stability 437 Index 441 421