Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Ukrainian War of Independence wikipedia , lookup
Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union wikipedia , lookup
Ukrainian–Soviet War wikipedia , lookup
Maria Nikiforova wikipedia , lookup
Vladimir Lenin wikipedia , lookup
Leon Trotsky wikipedia , lookup
Lev Kamenev wikipedia , lookup
LEON TROTSKY Final Script INTRODUCTION – Chapter Heading Leon Trotsky is considered one of the most controversial revolutionary figures of the Twentieth Century. With Lenin, he played a major role in the events leading up to the November revolution of 1917. As Commissar of War, was instrumental in securing a victory for the communists in the Russian civil war. Following Lenin’s death, Trotsky lost a struggle for power with Stalin. He was exiled from the Soviet Union, though continued to speak and write against Stalin, who finally ordered his assassination. LEON TROTSKY: 1879 - 1940 – Main Title HISTORICAL CONTEXT – Chapter Heading Since the sixteenth century, Russia had been ruled by the autocratic Romanov Dynasty. The last Tsar, Nicholas the second, controlled a vast Empire. The Church reinforced loyalty, while the army quelled dissent. Unions and strikes were forbidden, and the secret police, the Okhrana, targeted any opposition. The authoritarian rule of Tsarist Russia fueled unrest and the rise of many dissident groups, including the Socialist movement and the spread of Marxism. In 1905, Russia’s defeat in its war against Japan together with the ‘Bloody Sunday’ massacre sparked a series of strikes and public unrest across the country. Socialist groups, known as’ council of workers’ or ‘Soviets’, were established in most cities. Leon Trotsky led the most influential Soviet located in St Petersburg. In the face of a growing threat to overthrow him, Tsar Nicholas begrudgingly established an assembly or Duma, along with a constitution. The release of his ‘October Manifesto’ in 1905 satisfied very few but helped reassert Nicholas’ authority. Russia’s decision to go to war against Germany in 1914 proved a disaster. Military defeat and the appalling conditions the war inflicted on the Russian people again undermined the Tsar. Discontent boiled over in Petrograd, formerly St Petersburg, in March 1917, with a strike by over 250,000 workers. The Tsar’s response was to order his troops to open fire on the protesters. But this previously successful approach failed to quell the protests, intensifying them instead. The Tsar was forced to abdicate the throne and the Duma formed a conservative Provisional Government to rule Russia. 1 Political power was shared between the Provisional Government, led by Alexander Kerensky, and the soviets of workers and soldiers. Lenin, as leader of the Bolshevik faction, returned to Russia from exile in April 1917, and made plans for another revolution. From July 16 to18 1917, the Bolsheviks attempted to take advantage of a popular uprising in Petrograd known as the ‘July Days’ but were unsuccessful. It ended in tragedy when government soldiers fired on the protesters. Many were arrested, including Trotsky, while Lenin fled to Finland. Another challenge to the Provisional Government was a right wing coup led by General Kornilov, who wished to establish a military dictatorship. He was thwarted by the government, who were assisted by the Bolsheviks. Their popularity soared, leading Lenin, who was still in hiding, to declare the time was right for a revolution. Trotsky was instructed to take control of Petrograd. Key buildings were occupied on November 6th, and the following day the Bolshevik Red Guards, supported by the Kronstadt sailors, stormed the Winter Palace. Members of Alexander Kerensky’s Provisional Government were arrested. On the morning of November 8th, Lenin announced the fall of the government and the transfer of power to the Soviets. The success of the November Revolution was a result of Lenin’s authority and Trotsky’s organization. A series of reforms established a “dictatorship of the Proletariat’. Lenin quickly adopted measures to suppress opposition groups. All non-Party newspapers were banned, and the Cheka was formed to deal with political enemies. One of the first acts of the new Bolshevik regime was the signing of a harsh peace treaty with Germany, The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918. The Bolshevik Party changed its name to the Communist Party that same year. Lenin then began to make the social and economic changes necessary to create a communist Russia. All factories were placed under the control of elected committees of workers. 540 million acres of land was taken from the Czar, the church and wealthy landlords to be divided amongst the peasants. Banks were nationalized, unemployment insurance was introduced and an eight hour day established. The Bolsheviks faced three years of civil war against their opponents, known as the whites. Despite this, by 1921 they controlled most of what had been the Tsarist Empire. After Lenin’s death in January 1924, Trotsky competed against Stalin and others for leadership of the Communist party. The two men argued over the direction the revolution should take. 2 Stalin’s theory of ‘socialism in one country’ won out against Trotsky’s ‘permanent revolution’, characterized by his unrelenting desire to expand socialism to other countries. Stalin used his power as Secretary General to diminish Trotsky’s influence within the Party. As a result, Trotsky was forced to resign as Commissar for War and was eventually expelled from the Communist Party. He was exiled to Asiatic Russia and moved to Turkey in1929. That same year, Stalin became undisputed leader of the Soviet Union. BACKGROUND – Chapter Heading Leon Trotsky was born Lev Davidovich Bronstein on October 26th, 1879 in Yanovka, in the Ukraine. He was the son of a rich Jewish landowner but was raised to be Russian first and foremost, rather than Jewish. His father was illiterate, but was obsessed with his childrens’ education. Trotsky was able to attend secondary school in Odessa, where he excelled at writing and languages. He had an arrogant self-confidence, and was indifferent to what others thought of him. In 1895, he moved from Odessa to Nikolaev to prepare for university. Trotsky’s disdain for the nobility and the aristocracy fostered his interest in the writings of Karl Marx and other socialists. At Nikolaev, he connected with the Narodniki movement, which sought to spread revolutionary socialism amongst Russian peasants. Much to his father’s disappointment, Trotsky abandoned his studies to lead a halfMarxist, half-Nardonik student group. A voracious reader and keen debater, Trotsky began to actively express his opinions, writing articles for liberal newspapers, organizing protests and debating contemporary issues. His revolutionary career escalated in 1896, when he and Alexandra Sokolovskaya, a Marxist student, established a workers’ cell, the South Russia Workers’ Union. Trotsky wrote articles and helped produce the newspaper, ‘Our Cause’. The Workers’ cell grew rapidly which led to Trotsky and other socialists being arrested by the Czar’s secret police in 1896. He was imprisoned for two years before being exiled to Siberia, where he and Alexandra married. During this time he continued his Marxist education, and studied Lenin’s political theories. In 1902, Trotsky escaped from Siberia, encouraged by Alexandra, who he left behind with their two children. To hide his identity, he assumed the name Leon Trotsky. He began writing for a social democratic newspaper in the city of Samara and quickly came to the attention of Lenin, who encouraged him to come to London. 3 There, he began working for the Marxist newspaper Iskra, further refining his writing and oratory skills under Lenin’s close guidance. Trotsky’s keen intellect and talents proved a valuable asset for the social democrats, and he shared Lenin’s desire for a revolution in Russia. While on a lecture tour in Europe to promote their cause, Trotsky met a young social democrat, Natalia Sedova, with whom he later had two sons. The Second Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Party met in London in 1903, and was the scene of the famous split between its two factions, the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks. Trotsky stopped writing for Iskra, and openly criticized Lenin’s views on party organization, believing it would lead to a dictatorship. RISE TO PROMINENCE – Chapter Heading Emerging Political Role 1905 -17 – Sub-Heading When ‘Bloody Sunday’ took place in 1905, Trotsky and Natalia were in Geneva. They quickly returned to St Petersburg and joined the Menshevik group. Natalia was arrested for her involvement and Trotsky fled to Finland. There, he wrote dozens of pamphlets and articles which were smuggled back to St Petersburg. Striking workers took matters into their own hands, establishing the first Soviet of Workers’ Deputies. Upon his return, Trotsky was nominated deputy-head of the Soviet, and organized strikes, agitating for revolution. This Soviet, the first of 50 that formed throughout Russia, published its own newspaper, Izvestiya, organized trade unions and distributed welfare to striking workers. During the hectic 53 days of the revolution, Trotsky became chairman of the St Petersburg soviet. Behind the scenes, he endevoured to reunite the Bolshevik and Menshevik factions, and had clearly emerged as a talented revolutionary leader. Ultimately the leaders of the Soviets, including Trotsky, were arrested, imprisoned or sent to Siberia in an attempt by the Tsar to suppress the revolution. The Tsar introduced the October Manifesto, rejected by Trotsky as ‘offering reform whilst providing none’. While incarcerated, he envisioned his theory of ‘permanent revolution’, a phrase first used by Karl Marx. This involved encouraging revolutions in other countries to ensure the survival of a socialist Russia. Trotsky again escaped from Siberia and lived in Europe and the USA. At the outbreak of World War l in 1914, he became a newspaper correspondent on the Western Front. 4 Trotsky continued to denounce Russia’s involvement in the war as ‘a capitalist imperialist struggle’. He was deported from France in September 1916 for providing mutinous French soldiers with the subversive Russian socialist newspaper Our Word. Trotsky returned to the USA in January 1917. Role in the 1917 Revolution - Sub Heading The abdication of Tsar Nicholas the Second in March 1917 caught Trotsky by surprise, leading him to return to Russia two months later. He was horrified to discover that the Mensheviks supported the Provisional Government’s continued involvement in World War I. Trotsky shared the same anti-war attitude as the Bolsheviks. He was so impressed by Lenin’s plans for a Bolshevik-led revolution that he was prepared to overlook their previous disagreements. Lenin viewed Trotsky as a crucial asset to the Bolshevik cause. ‘This brought together the two revolutionary leaders most committed to an immediate overthrow of capitalism…together they were a formidable team.’ - Historian David Christian. At the first All Russian Congress of Soviets held at Petrograd in June, Bolshevik attempts to increase their influence suffered a series of setbacks. They had only 12 percent of the delegates, and failed to take control of the workers’ councils. Also, at the end of the congress, a vote of confidence in the provisional government was passed. Prime Minister Kerensky ordered a new military offensive against the Germans. A brief period of success was followed by the all too-familiar tale of defeat and retreat. Soldiers were ordered to leave Petrograd to support troops on the battlefield. Some rebelled and, with the support of sailors from the Kronstadt naval base, took to the streets to demonstrate against the government. The Bolsheviks then decided to lead the demonstrations, or risk losing the leadership of the revolutionary cause. In a series of anti government clashes known as the July Days, troops loyal to the Provisional Government used extreme force to quell the disturbances. Bolshevik leaders Zinoviev and Kamenev were imprisoned, while Lenin fled to Finland. The Bolsheviks turned to Trotsky for direction, but within weeks he too was arrested and imprisoned. In September, General Kornilov tried to overthrow the Provisional Government by ordering his troops to attack Petrograd. 5 In response, Kerensky called upon the support of the Soviets and the Red Guards. As well, Trotsky and other Bolsheviks were released from prison. While Kerensky’s government was successful in resisting the attempted coup, the Bolsheviks gained valuable arms, discipline and experience. Their popularity soared, leading Lenin to declare the time was right for a Bolshevik revolution. Lenin remained in exile while Trotsky began recruiting, arming and training the Red Guard. He was elected chairman of the Bolshevik controlled Petrograd Soviet, and was the key figure in planning the revolution. The timing was perfect, as the All Russian Congress of Soviets was scheduled to meet on November 7th. On the evening before, the Red Guard aided by sailors from the Baltic Fleet at Kronstadt, moved through the city. Encountering little resistance they took over key buildings; the post and telegraph offices; railway stations; bridges and garrisons, and laid siege to the Winter Palace. It was not until the night of the 7th that the palace was successfully attacked, with little bloodshed. Leaders of the Provisional Government were arrested, and Kerensky fled. Lenin, who had come out of hiding to address the Soviet, proceeded to organize the new Bolshevik state. While Lenin was the undisputed leader of the Bolsheviks, it could be argued that Trotsky had overshadowed him in engineering the seizure of power. His brilliant organizational skills were more significant at that moment than Lenin’s revolutionary theories. FROM REVOLUTIONARY LEADER TO EXILE: Significance & Evaluation Chapter Heading The Council of People’s Commissars was elected on November 8th 1917, with Lenin appointed chairman, and Trotsky Commissar for Foreign Affairs. In March the following year, the capital was moved from Petrograd to Moscow. The new government opposed Russia’s involvement in World War 1 and began peace negotiations with Germany in December at BrestLitovsk. After the Germans issued their terms, a divided Soviet leadership announced it would end the war, but not sign a peace agreement. This policy strategy was favoured by Trotsky. As a consequence, the German army resumed its offensive on February 18th 1918, moving further into Russian territory. A furious Lenin threatened to resign if his colleagues refused to sign a peace treaty. This was finally accomplished on March 3rd. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was harsh, with Russia required to pay a war indemnity of six thousand million marks. 6 Its Provinces of Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia and the Ukraine were annexed by Germany. This caused a rift within the Soviet leadership and Trotsky resigned with his reputation in tatters. Seen in a more favorable light, the Treaty had eliminated the Bolsheviks’ most dangerous enemy, and had given the new Soviet government the freedom it needed to consolidate its rule. The Treaty was eventually annulled when Germany signed the Armistice at the end of WW 1. Trotsky was appointed Commissar for War in April 1918 and used his position to lead the Bolsheviks against military intervention from the counter-revolutionary ‘White’ forces. The ‘Whites’ consisted of Social Revolutionaries, Mensheviks, Liberals, cadets from military schools, and ex-army officers. The Whites were initially supported by the allied countries opposed to Germany during the war. The Bolsheviks had to overcome an ineffective munitions industry starved of raw materials, and peasant support for the ‘Whites’. Trotsky surprised everyone with ‘his organizational capacity and ruthlessness as he transformed the Red Army into a fighting force.’ - Historian Robert Service. He increased the size of the Red Army to three million, and utilized the Secret Police, the Cheka, to maintain discipline. Factory workers loyal to the communists were recruited, conscription was introduced and the death penalty imposed for desertion and disloyalty. Touring the country by train, Trotsky was able to distribute ammunition and maintain morale, discipline and revolutionary fervor. The civil war was characterized by extreme brutality and atrocities on both sides. The peasant population suffered greatly as grain requisition by both armies pushed many villages towards starvation. Trotsky’s leadership, determination and utter ruthlessness played a decisive role in the final victory for the Bolsheviks in1921. Trotsky also showed no mercy to the rebellious Kronstadt sailors, who had sided with his Bolshevik movement to seize power. They had made demands to the government, but this was not tolerated, and they were systemically slaughtered by the Red Army and the Cheka. Following Lenin’s death in January 1924, a power struggle ensued, with Trotsky regarded as Lenin’s logical successor. Zinoviev, Kamenev and Bukharin focused on removing Trotsky, ignoring Lenin’s final wish to remove another major candidate - Stalin. According to the historian Robert Service ‘Fear of Trotsky continued to be greater than annoyance with Stalin… put aside their differences with Stalin to repel Trotsky’. 7 Trotsky regularly underestimated Stalin’s talent for intrigue and ruthlessness, and was often outmaneuvered. Stalin organized Lenin’s funeral at a time when Trotsky was away from Moscow. His absence was seen by the Russian people as disrespectful of their adored departed leader. Trotsky’s arrogance, condescension and authoritarian attitude also alienated too many of his fellow communists. His stubborn refusal to abandon his vision of ‘permanent revolution’ played into Stalin’s hands: Stalin appeared patriotic, while Trotsky was portrayed as an enemy of the state. Stalin was appointed General Secretary of the Central Committee and used his position to appoint nominees at every level of the party structure. He created a Congress that supported him, leading to the removal of Trotsky from the Politburo and the Central Committee. Trotsky was ultimately forced to resign as Commissar of War in 1925. In 1926, he joined with Zinoviev and Kamenev to oppose Communist Party policies. The following year, to mark the Tenth Anniversary of the Revolution, Trotsky and his followers led a peaceful demonstration through the streets of Leningrad, criticizing the ruling elite. As a result of this factionalism, they were expelled from the Party. Kamenev and Zinoviev recanted and were re-admitted, while Trotsky refused to do so and was sent into exile in Alma Ata in Asiatic Russia. TROTSKY IN EXILE: Significance & Evaluation Chapter Heading In 1929, agents of the GPU, the successor of the Cheka, charged Trotsky with counter revolutionary activity. He was deported from the USSR and so began the process of turning Trotsky into a political non-person. Trotsky arrived in Turkey and continued his writing and maintained his critical opposition to Stalin. He lectured throughout Europe and published numerous articles and books, including ‘The Bulletin of the Opposition’, and was labeled a foreign conspirator. After leaving Turkey, he found refuge in France in 1933, then Norway, and finally Mexico in 1937, where the leftwing government there offered him shelter. He continued to denounce Stalin and his interpretation of communism. In 1938 Trotsky helped form the Fourth International, an organization that claimed to represent true socialist principles. Finally, Stalin ordered Trotsky’s assassination. On May 24th 1940, a gunman fired over sixty bullets into Trotsky’s home, without harming anyone. Despite increased security a Soviet agent, Ramon Mercader, gained access to Trotsky at home, on the pretense of seeking advice on a political article. 8 While Trotsky read, Mercader struck him in the head with an ice pick. He died in hospital a day later on August 21th 1940. Leon Trotsky is considered one of the most controversial revolutionary figures of his time. Nevertheless, historical evaluation of him is widely divided. Was he a practical revolutionary or a naïve idealist? On the practical side, Trotsky was the mastermind behind the Bolshevik seizure of power in 1917, and was totally ruthless during the ensuing Civil War. As Geoffrey Swain’s biography acknowledges ‘…that without Trotsky there would not have been a Bolshevik Revolution, or communist victory in the civil war.’ David North and Ian Howe agree ‘…that without him leading the Red Army, the Bolsheviks would have lost power in the Civil War.’ Robert Service describes ‘Trotsky as a stubborn naïve socialist who sought to achieve his view of the revolution, regardless of the consequences. He was the instigator of his own downfall, being intolerant and inflexible, and failed to gain the trust of either side.’ Trotsky failed to adequately understand the power of the Party machine to win support, and frequently underestimated Stalin. Joshua Rubenstein noted: ‘Trotsky’s refusal to engage in an underhanded battle as a key factor in his defeat in the leadership struggle of the 1920s.’ An idealist commitment to radical reform and the pursuit of international revolution created many political enemies. ‘Trotsky’s adherence to the theory of permanent revolution and his post-revolutionary theories were misconceived and outmoded.’ (Geoffrey Swain). Trotsky was undoubtedly a master theoretician, a skillful propagandist and a brilliant orator. History records that these attributes could not compensate for the lack of a power base in the Russian Communist Party. 9