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Chapter 25: The Great War
I.
Causes of the Great War (MAIN) [See 5.23]
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
II.
Europe at Its Peak
1.
Industrial Revolution at its peak...by 1914, western European nations were the most technologically advanced,
wealthiest societies on earth. All aspects of life were affected by this modernization  transportation,
medicine, food production, education, housing and heating are but a few examples; standards of living rose,
which  life expectancy and  infant mortality
2.
Europe had 25% of world population--highest % of any time in history
3.
Modernization led to sense that Europeans were at the peak of world civilization and created a feeling of
superiority among many Europeans
Imperialism
1.
To maintain strong industrial economies, European nations competed for colonies; European nations carved
out overseas empires, which served as sources of inexpensive raw materials, pools of cheap labor, and outlets
for finished products
2.
In the late 1800s, a race for overseas colonies and economic dominance developed, which in several cases
nearly led to war b/w European countries (see 5.23 handout)
Militarism
1.
European nations adopted a militaristic stance in the late 1800s in order to acquire and protect colonies, as
well as to dissuade aggression by rivals.
2.
Militarism, the glorification of armed strength and the ideals of war, was a fashionable political theory at the
turn of the 20th century in Europe  rise of large sophisticated armies and navies
3.
Germany competed against England's naval superiority  Britain felt that its navy had to be as big as the next
two biggest navies on the continent, a strategy known as the “two-power rule”  when Germany  the size of
its navy, so too did England (dreadnoughts); by 1914, Russia had mobilized over 6 million troops
Nationalism
1.
Great pride in one's country or aspiring to become one's own country
2.
Germany and Italy had only recently become united, independent countries
3.
Many countries torn by tensions of different nationalist groups (Austria-Hungary, Russia, Britain)
4.
Combined with militarism and imperial competition, this increased tensions in Europe
The System of Alliances
1.
Imperialism, militarism, and nationalism all contributed to a sense that war was an inevitable end to European
competition...no European power wanted to be left to fight by itself with no diplomatic or strategic allies 
web of treaties to protect themselves…Bismarck had wanted to 1) avoid 2-front war 2) isolate France
diplomatically as result of Franco-Prussian War (France seeks revenge) 3) 3 power rule
2.
Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy
3.
Triple Entente: France, Russia, and Great Britain
4.
The alliance system, begun by Bismarck and hardened over the years, left Europe in a tenuous position in 1914:
its great economic, imperial powers, armed with massive, modern armies and inclined to support the idea of a
war for national glory, were tied to one another in a series of binding military treaties
War Erupts
A.
Nationalism in the Balkans
B.
C.
D.
III.
1.
People with diverse ethnic backgrounds, languages, and religions
2.
As Ottoman Empire receded, new nations were born (Greece, Serbia, Montenegro, Romania, Bulgaria, and
Albania); early history was violent  two Balkan wars were fought in these countries in 1912 and 1913
3.
Russia and Austria competed for control of new nations
4.
Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia in 1908, which Serbia resented (wanted to join the Slavic Bosnians to form own
nation)
The Assassination of the Archduke
1.
Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria visited Bosnian capital of Sarajevo on June 28, 1914 (June 28 was the
anniversary of Serbia’s most important battle—1389); the archduke’s visit on this day was a reminder of foreign
rule
2.
7 assassins from the Black Hand, a Serbian nationalist group, plot against him
3.
19-year-old Gavrilo Princip shot the Archduke and his wife (fateful wrong turn); both died instantly; Princip was
arrested and later died in prison from tuberculosis
Austria-Hungary’s Ultimatum
1.
Germany gave “blank check” of military support to Austria-Hungary no matter what happened with the
Serbians
2.
Austria-Hungary’s severe ultimatum to Serbia
3.
Serbia refuses to let Austria-Hungary’s officials run an investigation in Serbia (tantamount to relinquishing its own
sovereignty) knowing that it had the full support of Russia
4.
Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on July 28, 1914
The Alliance System Leads to War
1.
Russia supported Serbia and Germany supported Austria-Hungary
2.
Within one week, almost all of Europe plunged into war:
a.
Germany declares war on Russia and France
b.
Britain declares war on Germany after the Germans decided to attack France through the flat
coastal plains of Belgium, as opposed to through the rugged terrain of the Franco-German border
(violation of Belgian neutrality)
Alliances and Fronts of the War [See 6.03 and 6.05]
A.
B.
The Alliances
1.
Triple Entente: Britain, France, and Russia  Allies
2.
Central Powers: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Ottoman Empire
The Western Front
1.
Germany tried to take France quickly with the Schlieffen Plan on the Western Front and then turn to fight Russia
2.
Instead, battle lines formed in northeastern France and changed little (war of attrition)

1916 Battle of Verdun  680,000 casualties

1916 Battle of the Somme 1,000,000 + casualties
C.

1917 German retreat back to the heavily fortified Hindenburg line, entry of USA into the war in April,
and the Russian Revolution in November

1918 Allied naval blockade the Central Powers created dramatic shortages of food and raw materials
in Germany and Austria
The Eastern Front (Baltic Sea to Black Sea)
1.
Lack of modern technology caused Russia enormous defeats; ¾ of Russian troops went into battle without
weapons
IV.
In November 1917, Vladimir Lenin led a revolution that overthrew the Russian government and immediately took Russia out of the
war (see separate handout on Russian Revolution)
V.
Treaty signed with revolutionary government in Russia (Treaty of Brest-Litovsk)—Russia lost ¼ of country
D.
The Balkan Front
1.
VI.
Only victories in this front were in the Middle East, where British soldier T.E. Lawrence (Lawrence of Arabia), rallied Arab support
against the Ottomans
E.
The Italian Front
1.
F.
VII.
The Allies abandoned attempts to land in Balkans after losing key battles along the Gallipoli Peninsula
Italians joined the Triple Entente in 1915 and fought Austria-Hungary
The War Ends
1.
Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire were first Central Powers to be defeated
2.
Revolts inside Austria-Hungary and Germany helped end the war quickly
3.
Armistice signed on 11 hour of the 11 day of the 11 month (Nov 11, 1918)
New Weapons Used in War
 The Great War was a different war from any that had ever been fought in human history b/c of the modernization that had
taken place in Europe during the IR; advances that had been made to  manufacturing speed and efficiency were easily
transferable to the tools of war
A.
B.
C.
The Machine Gun
1.
Modern industry replaced the single-fire, short-range rifle
2.
British machine guns fired 8 rounds per second, at a distance of 2,900 yards
Artillery
1.
Greater power and carried much further
2.
24 million shells used in the Battle of Verdun alone  “rain of shells”
Weapons of the Industrial Age
1.
75 different types of poison-gas bombs used
2.
Flame throwers
3.
Tanks
D.
VIII.
4.
Airplanes
5.
Submarines (German attack on the Lusitania is an example)
Casualties of Modern Weaponry
1.
Tactics of sending masses of men toward enemy didn’t work against modern weapons  “mass” style of
fighting championed by the early 19th c. military strategist von Clausewitz (On War)
2.
Britain suffered 57,540 casualties on the first day of the Battle of the Somme
3.
Total casualties for WWI exceeded 21 million; 10 million died, of which more than 6 million were French, Russian,
German, and Austrian
The Reality of Soldiers’ Lives
A.
Patriotic Fervor
1.
B.
Attitudes Change
1.
C.
XII.
The Race to the Sea
When the Great War began, generals on both sides believed charges of massed soldiers would lead to quick victories  modern
weapons completely destroyed this tactic; to escape the constant barrage of bullets and shells, soldiers “dug in”
B.
XI.
No crowds or heroes’ welcome after the war  the reality of the scale of death led most people to seek
escape from thoughts of the war
Trench Warfare
A.
X.
Soldiers changed Europeans’ optimistic fervor through letters about the horrors of war
The Return Home
1.
IX.
Many Europeans looked forward to war at the start  nationalism/patriotism; many thought the “boys would
be back by Christmas” expressing a commonly held belief that the war would be short
2.
475 miles of trenches were dug across northern France (from North Sea to Swiss border)
3.
British troops used over 10 million shovels during the war (in 1914, only had allocated 2,500 shovels)
Life in the Trenches
Trench warfare = mass charges by infantrymen preceded by long artillery bombardments
1.
Charging ‘over the top’, crossing ‘no man’s land’ to reach enemy trenches
2.
Dangerous (snipers, artillery, later airplane attacks), boring (stir crazy), terrifying (caused shell-shock in some)
3.
Horrible living conditions  dugouts, trench foot, rats, flies
Effect of the War on the Home Front
A.
B.
Mobilizing for Total War
1.
Civilians back home made huge sacrifices
2.
Governments controlled industries, rationing, resorted to conscription
New Jobs for Women
1.
Worked in jobs traditionally held only by men, who were at the front
C.
D.
VIII.
2.
Number in paid employment rose by over one million
3.
Worked in paramilitary organizations to support soldiers at front
Women’s Wages
1.
Paid less than men for same work
2.
Industrial and civil work provided better pay and working hours than traditional jobs
Women’s Changing Role
1.
Women discovered the benefits of financial autonomy and greater mobility
2.
Some refused to return to domestic service
3.
Women won right to vote throughout Europe; growth of feminism (expectation for change in their position and
status in society)
The Paris Peace Conference [See 6.04]

The victorious allies met in Paris on January 18, 1919, to begin negotiating terms of peace
A.
Peace of Justice
1.
Leaders of Allied and Central Powers met at the Palace of Versailles
2.
Directed by the Big Four:
British Prime Minister David Lloyd George; French President Georges Clemenceau; Italian President Vittorio
Orlando; and, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson
3.
B.
C.
D.
President Wilson’s 14 Points supported self-determination for all nations and a just peace
Peace of Vengeance
1.
Italy and Britain wanted territory
2.
France wanted to punish Germany
3.
Italy and United States left, leaving peace settlement to France and Britain
Treaty of Versailles with Germany
1.
France and Britain created a severe treaty that punished Germany
2.
Germany had to:
a.
Return Alsace-Lorraine region to France
b.
Keep area near France, called Rhineland, demilitarized
c.
Lost all overseas colonies...mandate system
d.
No navy allowed; army could not have more than 100K soldiers
e.
Pay war reparations of 32 billion dollars
f.
Agree to infamous ‘war guilt clause’
The New Europe [See 6.05]
1.
Treaties similar to Germany’s signed with other Central Powers
2.
Many countries experienced a change in their borders...Italy, Greece, Bulgaria, Romania, Belgium, Denmark,
and France
3.
Bulgaria, Austria-Hungary, Germany, and Russia lost territory
4.
Yugoslavia
Many new countries were created...Poland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Finland, Czechoslovakia, Turkey, and
REVOLUTION IN RUSSIA (see 5.24)
Overview:
Like the American and French revolutions, the Russian Revolution began with a small incident—bread riots in the capital. But it
soon mushroomed into one of the most important events of the century. Leaders like Lenin were determined to create a new society
based on the ideas of Karl Marx. Certain that capitalism was destined to fall, they harbored ambitions to spread communist revolution
around the world.
The worldwide revolution that Marx had predicted never took place. But Lenin and his successors would transform tsarist Russia
into the communist Soviet Union. For almost 75 years, Soviet experiments in one-party politics and a state-run economy would serve as a
model for revolutionaries from China to Cuba.
I.
Revolution of 1905
A.
Russia began to industrialize on a wide scale in the 1890s under the leadership of Sergei Witte...by 1900, world’s 4 th largest
producer of steel
B.
Socialist thought and socialist parties developed alongside the emerging factory system...repressive government forced
these workers’ parties underground
C.
Defeat in war leads to domestic unrest
D.
II.
1.
2.
Russian territorial expansion in northern Korea led to a confrontation with Japan... Russo-Japanese War
Russians decisively defeated in a series of naval battles...humiliating loss for a “great power”
3.
A massive food shortage in Russian cities led to a peaceful workers’ protest in February that was staged at the
tsar’s Winter Palace in St. Petersburg
4.
5.
Tsar’s troops opened fire...”Bloody Sunday”...hundreds killed
After a general strike, the government capitulated  czar Nicholas II granted civil liberties and created a
legislative body...the Duma
Constitutional monarchy would be short lived...after the assassination of his chief adviser, the tsar resorted back to
autocracy
The Russian Revolution
A.
B.
C.
The Impact of the Great War
1. Russia was unprepared both militarily and technologically for the total war of WWI
2. Nicholas II [Romanov...since 1613], alone of all European monarchs, insisted upon taking personal charge of the
armed forces despite his lack of ability and training for such an awesome burden
3. Russian industry was unable to produce the weapons and supplies it needed for its army  suffered incredible losses
 b/w 1914 and 1916 six million casualties  by 1917, the Russian will to fight had vanished
4. Middle class, aristocrats, peasants, soldiers, and workers grew more disenchanted with the government,
exacerbated by the influence of Rasputin
The March Revolution
1.
Series of strikes erupted in Petrograd (formerly St. Petersburg...sounded more ‘Russian’)  led by women
industrial workers  called for “Peace and Bread” and “Down with Autocracy”
2.
Women soon joined by other workers  general strike
3.
A significant number of soldiers joined the workers  members of the Duma (Constitutional Democrats)
established a Provisional Government that urged the tsar to abdicate  he did on March 15
4.
The Provisional Government’s program consisted of 19th century liberalism...primarily a program established by
the middle-class and liberal aristocrats; foolishly, they decided to continue in the war effort
5.
Opposed by the soviets, councils of workers’ and soldiers’ deputies
a.
Represented the more radical interests of the lower classes and were largely composed of socialists of
various kinds
b.
Social Democrats had split in 1903
 Mensheviks...wanted SDs to be a mass electoral socialist party who would cooperate temporarily in
a democracy while working toward the ultimate achievement of a socialist state
 Bolsheviks...led by Lenin, they advocated violent revolution  only means to destroy the capitalist
system; uniquely, he argued an elite “vanguard” of activists must form a small party of well-disciplined
professional revolutionaries to accomplish this task
“April Theses”
1.
Lenin had been in Switzerland when the March Revolution erupted; with the help of the German high
command, he and a group of his followers were sent on a private train to Russia
2.
On April 20, he issued his “April Theses”
a.
Lenin revised Marx by arguing that Russia could directly move into socialism without first have a
proletarian revolution that overthrew the bourgeois capitalists (Russian industrialization?)
b.
c.
d.
III.
The soviets of soldiers, workers, and peasants were groups that the Bolsheviks must gain control
of...they would help them overthrow the Provisional Government
Bolsheviks would gain support through promises: end to the war, redistribution of all land to the
peasants, transfer of factories and industries from capitalists to committees of workers
Slogans of Bolshevik program  “Peace, Land, Bread”; “Worker Control of Production”, “All Power
to the Soviets”
The Bolshevik Revolution
A.
B.
C.
D.
Bolsheviks overthrow Provisional Government
1.
Bolsheviks were able to gain a majority in the powerful Petrograd soviet
2.
Lenin and Leon Trotsky organized a Military Revolutionary Committee within the Petrograd soviet to plot the
overthrow of the government
3.
On November 6-7, Bolshevik forces seized the Winter Palace, the seat of the Provisional Government 
collapsed quickly with little bloodshed
Winning the masses
1.
Immediately, the Bolsheviks (renamed the Communists) tried to win mass support asap by fulfilling their
promises:
2.
Lenin declared the land nationalized and turned it over to local rural soviets
3.
Lenin turned over control of the factories to committees of workers
4.
Lenin signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk on March 3, 1918, with Germany  Russians lost eastern Poland, Ukraine,
Finland, and the Baltic provinces
Civil War
1.
Opposition...Lenin and his Communists faced great opposition from groups loyal to the czar, but also from
bourgeois and aristocratic liberals and anti-Lenin socialists like the Mensheviks
2.
In addition, thousands of Allied troops were eventually sent to different parts of Russia in the hope of bringing
Russia back into the war
3.
Showdown between the Red Army (Bolsheviks) and the White Army (anti-Bolshevik) resulted in a victory for the
Reds...how?
a.
Trotsky turned the Red Army into a well-disciplined and formidable fighting force...re-instituted the
draft and even recruited former tsarist officers
b.
Had interior lines of defense and could move its troops easily (see pg 772)
c.
Disunity of anti-Communist forces vs Communists’ single-minded sense of purpose
d.
Bolsheviks implemented “War communism”  nationalization of banks and most industries, the
forcible requisition of grain from peasants, and the centralization of state administration under
Bolshevik control
e.
Bolsheviks implemented “revolutionary terror”  Red secret police known as the Cheka eliminated all
internal enemies (reminiscent of Robespierre’s Reign of Terror)...set stage for Stalinist purges that
reached into the millions! This fact alone is reason enough for many Americans to fear “communism”
f.
Foreign presence helped Bolsheviks appeal to Russian patriotism
Communist victory
1.
By 1921, Communists had succeeded in retaining control of Russia
2.
In the process, Russia was transformed into a bureaucratically centralized state dominated by a single party
3.
With Lenin’s death in 1924, a power struggle would emerge in the Communist Party...see Chapter 26