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THEORIES & METHODS OF ANTHROPOLOGY PART ONE: BUILDING THE DISCIPLINE AIM: Why did historical particularism fade away? HISTORICAL PARTICULARISM Three schools of Diffusionism Kulturkreise School Explain the development of culture through migration and diffusion British Diffusionism Implausable claim that Egypt was source of virtually all cultural traits and innovations, which then diffused to rest of the planet Short-lived Historical Particularism Main aspect was diffusionism Diffusionism – an aspect of culture, such as discover of the wheel, religious belief, or marital practices tend to spread from one culture to another, eventually becoming integrated into all of the cultures in a given geographical area No longer need for each culture to evolve through specific stages in a specific order Historical Particularism Historical particularism was main argument in America against evolutionism (Assumption all cultures had gone through same stages of evolution, in the same order) Basic Features of Historical Particularism Focus on one culture (or cultural area) and that the history of that culture be reconstructed Diffusion Culture is a loosely organized entity, rather then a tightly fused system Culture is to some extent unique Focus on emic analysis Social life is guided by habit and tradition Relativism Any particular culture was partly composed of elements diffused from other cultures Since each culture is to some degree unique, unacceptable to pass judgment on beliefs and actions found in other cultures Cautious generalizations Emphasis on original fieldwork Inductive procedure KEY FIGURES IN HISTORICAL PARTICULARISM Franz Boas (1858-1942) Born and educated in Germany Focus on importance of culture Rigorous fieldwork standards Collect native texts, vernacular accounts of aspects of culture Inductivist Only after masses of solid data had been collected could stabs at explanation and generalization be made Ruth Benedict (1887-1948) Trained by Boas 1934 – Patterns of Culture Leading figure in culture and personality school Believed each culture promoted a distinct personality type, and that there was a high degree of consistency between cultural type and patterns of emotion Modal Personalities A statistically most prominent personality which left room for other types Eventually view emerged that each culture had several modal personalities Evaluation Boas’s emphasis on: Subjectivity (personal interpretation) Insistence on collection of original texts (emic) Distrust in grand theoretical schemes Promotion of relativism AIM: How did structural functionalism become the dominant anthropological theory? STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM Structural Functionalism Initial reaction in British anthropology against evolutionism took form of diffusionsim From late 1800s until 1950s/60s, structural functionalism was leading theory in British anthropology Basic Features of Structural Functionalism Organic Analogy Natural science orientation Society is like a biological organism, with structures and functions Empirical, orderly, patterned Narrow conceptual territory Investigations should be restricted to social structure (society) Rarely paid much attention to art, language, ideology, the individual, technology, or environmental factors Existing structures and institutions in any particular society contained indispensable functions without which the society would fall apart, and these structures and functions or their equivalents were found in all healthy societies Basic Features of Structural Functionalism Significance of kinship system and the family Equilibrium Society exhibited long-term stability Anti-historical Society was not only thought to be highly patterned, but also in a state of equilibrium and would re-equilibrate when disruptions occurred Did not encourage a historical perspective Fieldwork Orientation Devoted to first-hand, participant observational research KEY FIGURES IN STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM A.R. Radcliffe-Brown (1881-1955) Born in England Promoted three stages of scientific investigation Observation (collecting data) Taxonomy (classifying the data) Generalizations (theoretical excursions) Believed cross-cultural comparisons and generalizations were essential to anthropology Bronislaw Malinowski (1884-1942) Father of Modern Fieldwork Long-term participant observation in a small community Research among Trobrianders Remained among them for four years, setting standard for future fieldwork Kula Ring The Kula Ring Necklaces were exchanged clockwise from one Trobriand island to another Armshells were exchanged counterclockwise Exchange was ceremonial (neither item had any intrinsic value) Exchanges increased level of interaction and decreased the degree of hostility among the people of various islands Made bartering for valuable resources possible with others Could not barter with groups you exchanged necklaces or armbands with Contributed to social solidarity and prevented squabbles over who got the best deal Malinowski vs. Radcliffe-Brown Malinowski placed emphasis more on function than structure Focused more on what institutions actually contributed to a society Radcliffe-Brown gave priority to social structure Malinowski argued that the function of institutions was to satisfy biological needs. Radcliffe-Brown saw their function as fulfilling the mechanical needs of society Malinowski stressed the importance of gathering native texts, or accounts of beliefs and behaviors in native’s own words Malinowski & Radcliffe-Brown held many of the same views as well Evaluation Structural functionalism provided anthropology with a coherent and tidy framework At its most basic level, procedure only required ethnographers to identify patterns of action and belief, and specify their functions. Downplayed conflict and almost ignored social change Structural functionalism suited to maintaining colonial empires once they had been established CONCLUSIONS Through the first phase of anthropology, there was a general commitment to establishing a scientific study of culture or society AIM: What methods did anthropologists use through the first phase of theories? METHODS The Fieldwork Situation In the late 1800s, there was a division of labor between the professional anthropologist and amateur fieldworker By early 20th century, anthropologists themselves began to do fieldwork At first the emphasis was on fieldwork rather then participation When 1913 edition of Notes and Queries was published there was an argument for intensive participant observation studies, to be carried out by a sole researcher in a small population over a period of at least a year Anthropologist remained in comfort of the library and museum Amateurs travelled to remote parts of the world collecting materials Basic Techniques and Related Elements - Fieldwork Participant observation Reliance on informants The interview (usually unstructured) Genealogies & life histories Collecting census material Long period of fieldwork Learning indigenous language Emphasis on actor’s point of view (emic) Emphasis on informal rather than formal structure Emphasis on validity rather than reliability Back rather then front stage Validity implies ‘truth’ Reliability just means that repeat studies will produce same results Limit on size of population Comparative method as alternative to controlled lab experiment Inductive research design Search for virgin territory Exaggeration of the degree of cultural uniqueness The more exotic, the better One’s research site should be as remote and isolated as possible so no other anthropologist will ever check up on one’s ethnographic findings Fieldwork personality Reaching conclusion based on observation: generalizing to produce a universal claim or principle from observed instances Flexible and perceptive, sense of humor Strong constitution, good listener Sustained disbelief Doubt about what people said, about their explanations for beliefs and behavior…anthropologists had to get to the truth AIM: How did future theories help to fill in some of the holes of earlier anthropological theories? PART TWO: PATCHING THE FOUNDATION AIM: How did future theories help to fill in some of the holes of earlier anthropological theories? CONFLICT THEORY Conflict Theory Structural functionalism was dominant theoretical orientation in British social anthropology right up to the 1950s A healthy society rested on a unified set of indispensable, universal functions and equilibrium was maintained Critics complained it puts cart before the horse Structural functionalism was incapable to cope with social change Basic Features of Conflict Theory Conflict is normal and widespread Opposite to structural functionalism Conflict was viewed as abnormal and rare Conflict knits society together, and thus maintains society in a state of equilibrium Conflict with an outside group generates internal solidarity Society consists of criss-crossing identities, loyalties, and strains which ultimately nullify each other, resulting in harmony and integration Societal equilibrium is the product of the balance of oppositions KEY FIGURES IN CONFLICT THEORY Max Gluckman (1911 – 1975) Gluckman argued conflict is essential to social interaction Society achieves equilibrium, product of conflict People tend to create different sets of loyalties and allegiances which clash with each other Criss-crossing loyalties cancel each other out Lewis Coser (1913 – 2003) Portrayed conflict as normal, widespread, and positive, contributing to the integration of society and acting as a safety valve for strains that might otherwise build up and tear society apart Group cohesion due to external conflict In some cases, external conflict is intentionally fostered by societal elites in order to deflect hostility and tension within a community onto an imaginary enemy Realistic Conflict Non-Realistic Conflict Arises from frustration between two or more persons Free-floating frustrations; aggression flies off in all directions, and rather than resolving the frustrations, aggression is an end in itself Criticism was conflict model was disguised as an equilibrium model, slightly different then structural functionalism Evaluation During the several decades in which structural functionalism had dominated, conflict and strain had been ignored Conflict theorists emphasize interests which divide people in society unite them, not common values AIM: How did future theories help to fill in some of the holes of earlier anthropological theories? SOCIAL ACTION THEORY Social Action Theory (Interactional Theory) When conflict theory proved to be an inadequate substitute for structural functionalism, British social anthropologists began to play around with other theoretical approaches Central message in structural functionalism is that human beings conduct their behavior in accordance with the rules laid down by society Others argued social life is messy and disjointed. People say one thing but do another; rather than adhering perfectly to the rules of society, they bend, twist, and ignore these rules as selfinterest dictates Theory that emerged had the capacity to cope with both social change and conflict Basic Features of Interactional Theory Society is constantly changing Norms are ambiguous and unclear, even contradictory There is a gap between normative order and actual behavior, which means rules or norms do not explain behavior Human beings are in constant competition for scarce goods and rewards Humans must constantly choose between alternatives Emphasis on the individual as a self-interested manipulator and innovator Emphasis on reciprocity, exchange, and transaction Focus on informal (back stage) rather than formal structure (front stage) KEY FIGURES IN INTERACTIONAL THEORY F.G. Bailey (1929 - _ ) Bailey challenged assumption that there is a simple, direct relationship between normative order and actual behavior Assumption fails to take into account the degree to which individuals manipulate the world around them Most people are guided by self-interest, thread our way between norms, seeking the most advantageous route Bailey distinguishes between normative and pragmatic rules of behavior Normative rules – general guides to conduct; make up the public, formal, or ideal rules of a society Pragmatic rules – deviations from the ideal rules; tactics and strategies that individuals resort to in order to effectively achieve their goals When pragmatic rules drastically increased, the normative order, or ideals of a society, must be rebuilt to fit current realities Bailey’s assumption is that pragmatic rules more closely correspond to how people actually behave The people portrayed by Bailey are not puppets controlled by institutional framework People are active, choice-making agents locked in competitive struggle Social structure is dynamic, continuously being reshaped by shifting allegiances, coalitions, and conflicts that characterize human interaction Jeremy Boissevain (1928 - __) 1974 – Friends of Friends Social life unfolds in the informal arena, where what counts is one’s contacts – who one knows rather than what one is qualified to do In reality, people do what is best for themselves Boissevain believes structural functionalism just documents how people are supposed to behave, not how they actually behave Everyday life is acted out in an arena of competition and conflict, and social change rather than stability is the normal state of affairs Fredrik Barth (1928 - __) Describes relationship between leaders and followers as a form of transaction Leaders provide protection, followers allegiance Self-interested individuals manipulating values and norms to their own advantage, choosing between alternative strategies, and establishing relationships and alliances governed by reciprocity, with the whole process feeding back on and transforming the value system and social organization Advocated a focus on the processes that produce structural form Central to this is the capacity of people to make choices End products are patterns of behavior which are formed and reformed over time Victor Turner (1920 – 1983) Turner analyzed three types of conflict: Conflict between principles of social organization Contradictions embedded in the social structure Conflict between individuals and cliques striving for power, prestige, and wealth Inconsistent, even contradictory, norms exist side by side People must select and discard norms most advantageous to their interests Internal conflict between egoism and altruism (selfish or social motives) Max Weber (1864 – 1920) According to Weber, society consisted of 4 quasiautonomous spheres - economic, political, legal, religious – and ideas, beliefs, and values had an independent causal impact on human conduct Weber defined social action as intentional, meaningful, and oriented to others The only real or concrete phenomenon was the individual human act Social institutions are not concrete realities, instead, they consisted of a plurality of actors who only have a high probability of interacting for a particular purpose Social Relation – two or more persons guided by meaningful conduct and oriented to each other Bridged the gap between actor and social institution. Evaluation Gap between what people say and what they do, or between rules of behavior and actual behavior Incorporated conflict into framework Critique By concentrating on the intricate and complex maneuvers of individuals and coalitions, focus is lost on the larger social structural context Fail to take history into account, and the degree to which it explains the present Macro-Micro Dilemma How to achieve a sensitive, detailed analysis of the local situation while simultaneously bringing into play the wider structural-historical context AIM: What methods did anthropologists use through the second phase of theories? METHODS Methods Literature Young anthropologists began to write about their own fieldwork experiences and set off an explosion of publications on ethnographic method Qualitative methods became very popular Goal was make open and public what has been previously closed and mysterious ‘How To’ textbooks Profiled qualitative methods as a distinctive research approach, and gave it some legitimacy Students learned methods by actually doing research, which was basically the attitude of earlier anthropologists Purpose of methods literature was to demystify the fieldwork process, to render it more scientific Slight problem degree to which one’s data and interpretations are shaped by one’s informants Two different informants can result in two radically different ethnographies Also pointed out role played by chance and accident in fieldwork Cast doubt on anthropology as science Fieldwork Situation Greater emphasis was placed on theory, and fieldwork became shorter Students were encouraged to narrow the focus of their studies, and to concentrate on limited number of sharply defined problems rather then trying to cover everything Recognition that outside social and historical forces always penetrate and shape the small community and must be taken into account Recognition that cultures being studied were no longer primitive Interview emerged as a principle technique Increased emphasis on the ethics of fieldwork Greater sensitivity to ethical issues (rationalization) Anthropologists began to accept they did not have a right to intrude on people’s lives Demand for research to be useful Fieldworkers to make research goals explicit Seek permission from and respect the privacy of people New Rules of Thumb for Fieldwork Use multi-methods, not just participant observation and informants Keep daily diary on methods Appendix on methods in report, thesis, or book Keep data separated Quantitative data…more specific then “more, less, a lot, a little” Provide universities in countries where research is conducted with copies of one’s publication Leading up to WWII, anthropologists looked for virgin territory Let the research problem dictate your choice of methods Learn to count Distinction between actor’s and observer’s interpretation is usually blurred Clearly identify native analytic concepts and observer analytic concepts in report, book, or thesis Select research project on basis of a problem to be solved, rather than an area or tribe to investigate Information for the reader to understand methodological approach Part of new ethical stance Assure informants represent all sectors of a community Do fieldwork abroad and at home PART THREE: DEMOLITION AND RECONSTRUCTION Theory For the one hundred years prior to the 1970s, the discipline of anthropology of swung back and forth between hard and soft versions of science Goal throughout was of a scientific study of society Emergence of structuralism, postmodernism, and feminist anthropology basically discarded science Structuralism – questioned positivism, emphasis on empirical data, evidence, confirmation of a hypothesis Postmodernism & Feminists – questioned fieldwork. Ethnographic fieldwork accused of gender and cultural bias, as powerful and privileged academics misrepresented the lives of natives and women for the benefit of Western males. AIM: Why did structuralism appear? STRUCTURALISM Basic Features of Structuralism Deep structure vs. Surface structure Primacy of unconscious over conscious What motivates people lies beyond their consciousness at the level of deep structure Etic vs. Emic analysis Structuralists examine the underlying principles and variables (deep structure) that generate behavior instead of empirical, observable behavior (surface structure) Structuralism places priority on etic analysis. Relegates to the explanatory sidelines the individual human being, whose motives and actions are seen as largely irrelevant and merely a distraction to the researcher Reversibility of time Distinction drawn between chronological (historical) and mechanical (anthropological) time Chronological time is cumulative; events unfold across history Mechanical time is repetitive, events unfold across space According to structuralists, social organization supposedly is reproduced generation after generation Basic Features of Structuralism Transformational analysis Linguistic analogy Is there any difference between humans and other animals? Humans as classifiers Emphasis on belief systems, cognitive maps, and oral and written thought Main focus on mythology, understood as a distinctive ‘language’ or ‘code’ that reflects the way the human brain operates and articulates fundamental themes, dilemma's, and contradictions in life Nature-culture bridge Aspects of culture derive their meaning in the context of the overall system of relationships in which they are embedded Focus on mental life Assumed different institutions of human existence – economic organization, marriage systems, architecture, ritual – are transformations of each other, manifestations of the same finite set of underlying principles Central to structuralism is contention that what makes humans unique is capacity for classification Reduced models Types of culture or categories of culture reduced to most simplistic, elementary properties Primitive culture contains basic elements that characterize human existence everywhere KEY FIGURES IN STRUCTURALISM Claude Levi-Strauss (1908 – 2009) Challenged empirical, positivistic tradition, arguing that culture is more like a language or logical system of signs than a biological organism (analogy used by structural-functionalists) Several reasons, according to Levi-Strauss for not focusing on surface structure At the level of observable human interaction there are too many facts, too much going on At the empirical level there is a degree of randomness that makes systematic analysis exceedingly difficult When investigating cultural life, the focus is on underlying principles which generate the surface patterns, not the patterns themselves Best known for his imaginative analysis of mythology Assumed that myths constitute a kind of language Myths are vehicles which supposedly take the analyst close to the workings of the brain Concerned with what myths indicate about the brain ‘operations’ Not so much in what humans think as in how they think Rejected basic methodological principle beliefs and behaviors must be explained in their specific cultural context One version of a myth is not better then another Attempts to explain myths that occur in one part of the world with those that are found in other parts of the world In mechanical time, cultural materials such as myths do not progress chronologically; they are simply reproduced across space Edmund Leach (1910 – 1989) Political Systems of Highland Burma (1965) Drew a distinction between actual behavior and anthropological models used to explain it. Everyday behavior is dynamic, messy, driven by choice, contradiction, power Anthropological models, in contrast, are always equilibrium models Provide universe a sense of orderliness in an otherwise chaotic Evaluation Levi-Strauss placed big question about humankind back on the anthropological agenda…what does it mean to be human? There are no superior societies Threw out conventional, positivistic science Argued structuralism constituted the appropriate scientific procedure for the investigation of culture Defined social structure not as a general representation of the empirical world, but rather as an abstraction or model in which variables consist of logical relationships between things instead of things themselves Given his popularity, it is amazing how quickly structuralism fell out of favor Dealt almost exclusively with mentalist data, failed to relate data to material world, and sidestepped major social and political issues AIM: Why did Feminist Anthropology appear? FEMINIST ANTHROPOLOGY Feminist Anthropology Academic feminism has been paralleled and fuelled by the ongoing actions and changes in the empirical world, notably in connection to the women’s movement. Anthropology has provided the basis for exploring numerous issues significant to feminism, such as whether gender roles and female oppression have been universally the same or culturally diverse. Basic Features of Feminist Anthropology All social relations and knowledge is gendered Distinctive epistemology Research should be a collaborative, dialogical affair Subjectivity (bias) is associated with females, and is superior to ‘male’ objectivity (neutrality) Urges female scholars to incorporate their own subjective experiences of oppression into their research projects Distinctive ethics Gender must be included alongside class, status, role, power, and age as a basic term Primary purpose of research is to empower women and eliminate oppression Anti-positivism Language of science is regarded as the language of oppression. Positivistic research is said to serve the interest of elites. Value-neutrality, even if possible, would be ruled out, because feminist research unapologetically promotes the interests of women Basic Features of Feminist Anthropology Preference for qualitative methods Empathy, subjectivity, and dialogue supposedly allow the investigator to understand the inner worlds of women, helping them to articulate and combat their oppression Female essence Provides a counter-balance to misogynist representations Universal sexual asymmetry Anthropology has proved to be fertile ground for examining two key questions. Has gender inequality existed in all cultures at all times? Has gender inequality increased or decreased as human societies have moved through history? KEY FIGURES IN FEMINIST ANTHROPOLOGY Elvi Whittaker Concerned with the representation of women by men Relationship between men and women is comparable to that between the colonized and colonizer. In both, Western, white, heterosexual males have imposed their world view on the other (women and colonial peoples) Feminism and Postmodernism Both concerned with the issue of representation Feminism – woman’s voice Postmodernism – multiple voices Evaluation Although there are a several varieties of feminism, they all start off from the assumption that conventional social science has been male-biased Four reactions to this… Don’t do anything How Add most social scientists have responded women when convenient to one’s analysis Women-centered research Non-sexist research
