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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND REVIEW OF INTERNATIONAL LITERATURE REVIEW OF NATIONAL LITERATURE GENERAL ACCOUNT OF STUDY ANIMALS The Deer Species Spotted Deer (Axis axis) Brow Antlered Deer (Cervus eldi) Sambar (Cervus unicolor) The Antelope Species Black Buck (Antelope cetvecapra) Blue Bull (Boselaphus tragocamelus) STATUS AND MANAGEMENT OF ANIMALS IN CAPTIVITY Zoo Concept Development Caging Space and Environment Food and Nutritional Supplementation Social Structure and Breeding Requirements Man-Animal Relationship ZOOS IN INDIA Status of Sakkar Baug Zoo, Junagadh Animal rescue, health and welfare Educational activities Research and training activities Conservation breeding program Visitors Issues Related to Management OVERALL UNDERSTANDING AND LACUNAE OF KNOWLEDGE INITIATION OF RESEARCH IDEA OBJECTIVES Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity. Page 1 INTRODUCTION The land use pattern variations over past few decades have alarmingly altered the environment for all the inhabitants including humans. The anthropogenic activities further modified it consequently resulting into intense degradation making it conspicuously unsuitable for the animals. The studies on animal ecology have guided the development of strategies for conservation of animals in their natural habitat. However, ex-situ conservation is also one of the important components of long term management planning. The animals execute wide range of strategies for survival and successful reproduction in the wild since they are exposed to comprehensive array of ecological, environmental, evolutionary etc factors. In the natural habitat the occurrence of and defense against the influencing factors is mastered by different species and exhibited as typical behavioral responses. Such factors may be coexisting and corroboratively influencing the routine activities of an individual since these induce individual-specific responses; although species-specific strategies may exist. The conservation inputs in wild therefore, need to be multi facet and widely displaced to include greater range of species inhabiting a particular habitat; indicating ecosystem specific conservation inputs. The conservation model, on the other hand, in captivity may be distinctly different. The animals in captivity are not exposed to natural threats, community interactions or risk of reproductive failure. However, the influencing factors may be different and may be integrated differently with other such factors leading to much variable set of conditions. The influencing factors may be acting simultaneously increasing the stress and burden on a species in captivity. The mechanisms of physiological homeostasis in captivity may not be easily identifiable since the environment is almost constant, as against the dynamic environmental conditions of wild, leading to a state of allostatic burden. It may eventually result into suppression of growth, reproduction, development etc. The stress intensity in captivity cannot be measured by any units but can be observed/studied/analyzed/interpreted in terms of behavioral responses of the animals. The appropriate evaluation of Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity. Page 2 behavior displays can indicate/advise/guide the personnel about the changing conditions and requirements of animals. The formation of zoos has been one of the older concepts of animal conservation and research so far has also generated huge data on animal ecology and behavior in captivity. However, since the conditions/conservation strategies/short term-long term management pians/etc in distant part of the world may not be applicable to the captivity status in India/Indian states. Therefore, such comprehensive studies are encouraged by the Department of Environment and Forests/Centrai Zoo Authority of India to generate data that may contribute to the conservation and management in captivity in Indian zoos. The literature survey is suggestive of several lacunae in the essential research components and demand1 comprehensive analysis of animal behavior in captivity. Conservation needs were felt for the first time in the country in 1965. After a detailed study that was conducted countrywide, the Government of India came out with the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 with an aim to conserve the depleting flora and fauna of India. Since then'this act has been amended and changed to accommodate more variety of flora and fauna to protect them by law. Due to continuous increase in number of endangered species of plants and animals steps have been taken to protect and manage the wildlife of the country. The wildlife management aims at sustainable protection of natural habitats through controlled, limited exploitation of species and maintenance of the viable number of species in protected areas like the sanctuaries, national parks, biosphere reserves and reserve forests. Herbivores are one of the important species that inhabit any ecosystem and their diversity in a particular area often is a biological indicator to measure the health of that ecosystem. Extinction of a species from any ecosystem is today viewed as a result of major human-induced changes in the world’s ecosystems. These ecosystems provide vital services such as maintaining global climate patterns, mediating the carbon cycle, safeguarding watersheds etc. To prevent extinction we need better knowledge of threatened species, Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity. Page 3 effective legal and social actions and better sustainable use of natural resources. Conservation of a species requires knowledge of its physiological responses to environment and comprehensive behavioral displays. Behavioral studies of species ranging from various non chordates to chordates have been conducted in laboratory and field to sketch the range and specificity of responses of animals to variety of stimuli. These studies are also aimed at assessing the process of species extinction through inbreeding often caused due to domestication. Recent studies on conservation biology are well beyond cataloguing and describing few basic animal behaviours and the methodology involves comprehensive and integrated behavioral response evaluation using extensive scientific and statistical analysis aimed at better understanding of animal life (Millspaugh and Washburn, 2004; Buchholz, 2006). Laboratory studies, e.g. on smaller mammals, however may bypass the natural behavioral patterns that are unique in wild conditions (2005). Present investigation aims at studying animals in park/enclosures that are ‘controlled’ conditions with ample ‘natural element’ to it. Present study analyses various behavioral patterns of rare/endangered ungulate species in ‘man-made’ habitat with comparatively less intensive methods and human disturbance. A comparison of behavior of population of ungulates inside zoo enclosures, with the existing data on ‘natural’ groups observed in wild may reveal potential variables that manifest changes in behavioral patterns and reproductive cycles. Captive conditions like limited foraging space, super abundance of food, protection against natural predators and overlapping territory for bucks during breeding season may greatly alter the time activity budget for each species of ungulates being studied. A comprehensive study for two years would probably define variations in reproductive performance and behavioral of ungulates due to the captive conditions. Since the population in captivity share many features with those inhabiting isolated forest fragments, this Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity. Page 4 study will also enable us to predict behavior and reproductive success of fragmented populations in wild. The ungulates are most common animals of attraction in a zoo. Among these Spotted deer/Chital (Axis axis), Schedule III (5), Manipur Broantlered or Sangai deer (Cervus eldi eldi), Schedule I (3), Sambar (Cervus unicolor), Schedule III (16), Blackbuck (Antelope cervicapra), Schedule I (3) and Blue bull or Nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus), Schedule III (6) are selected for present study. The Sangai deer is of course restricted to Manipur and found only in captivity in Gujarat. Black Buck is predominantly distributed in districts of Bhavnagar, Ahmedabad, Surendra Nagar and Kutch. Axis, Sambar and Nilgai are found all over Gujarat. REVIEW OF INTERNATIONAL LITERATURE The ungulates form social groups of different types and age/sex ratios in wild, in polygynous ungulates, sexual segregation is influenced by social, spatial and temporal factors such as the periodicity of mating opportunities, population densities, resource distribution and environmental conditions (Bowyer, 1984; Verme, 1988; Main and Coblentz, 1990; Koga and Ono, 1994). Sexual segregation, therefore, is a behavioral pattern that may occur at different scale at different ecological scenarios. The sexual segregation may be explained by three most common hypotheses; Reproductive strategy, Sexual dimorphism or Social factors hypotheses (Beier and McCullough, 1990; Weckerly, 1993; Main et al, 1996). Reproductive strategy hypothesis, the most accepted one, is based on the fact that the groups of females and young offspring will be restricted to habitats that provide adequate forage and water resources for offspring raising and security (McCullough et al, 1989), while the groups of males segregate to prepare for the energetic demands of competing for mates or to recover from the energetic drain of rut (Koga and Ono, 1994; Main, 1994). The foraging behavior among ungulates, therefore, Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity. Page 5 exhibit age and sex related variations. It implies to other behavior patterns also. However, in captivity some of these peculiar events are altogether absent and, therefore, the study of behavioral patterns in captivity provide new dimensions of understanding animal behavior. Studies carried out in wild and captivity suggested that in ungulates the reproductive strategies, mating success, fawn sex ratio, survival rate and growth of fawn-sex wise, milk production and lactation duration etc. play significant role in overall behavior displays. Understanding of these patterns, distinctly and discriminately, can give an insight into the biology of these animals and be suggestive for defining conservation management strategies (Kelly et al, 1987; White et al, 1995; Birgersson and Ekvall, 1997; Hosack et al, 1997; Deem et al, 2001; Jiang et al, 2002; Olson et al, 2005; LandeteCastillejos et al, 2008). Male cervids in captivity exhibit a protracted reproductive season compared to their wild counterparts and the unmated captive female exhibits repeated estrus cycle for 4-7 months (Knox et al, 1988; Wemmer and Grodinsky, 1988; Hosack et al, 1997). The influence of photoperiod, exogenous hormonal stimuli, estrus modifications etc. were studied both in temperate and tropical species which indicated that the tropical species have little reproductive seasonality in native habitats and remain alseasonal when translocated to temperate zones probably due to an absence of strong circannual photoperiodic rhythms (Verme and Ozoga, 1981; Loudon and Brinklow, 1992; White et al, 1995). Fluctuations in local food and habitat resources rather than photoperiod may be influencing factors in tropical species (Wemmer and Grodinsky, 1988; Hosack et al, 1997). The group composition is reported to influence the sex ratio of offspring; with few mature males, there may be an increase in the reproductive fitness for female to produce more male offspring (Verme and Ozoga, 1981; White et al, 1995). Successful captive breeding and the development of sustainable musk extraction methods from living Alpine musk deer has significant implications for the conservation of deer resources (Meng et al, 2006). Major failure is due Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity. Page 6 to high neonatal mortality, shortening of life span and low production of musk (Parry-Jones and Wu, 2001; Yang et al, 2003; Meng et al, 2006). It was realized that appropriate understanding of behavioral responses of the animal may provide clues for better management in captivity (Meng et al, 2003; Holand et al, 2006). Meng et al. (2008) recommended that these behavior patterns could be utilized as the behavior criteria to differentiate the potential reproductive success in the next year. The huge literature on ungulates is species specific and related to temperate zone. During almost one and half decade much work has been carried out on endocrinology and reproduction using modern technological advances to enhance reproductive success, increase fawning ratio and survival rate. Deer farming is approved in several countries and therefore, the literature is over burdened by reports attributing reproductive performance and management of farm species. At large, temperate species are being farmed the most and now tropical deer species are also being used for farming (Chappie, 1989; Semiadi, 1994). High fawn mortality was seen in farming experiments with Axis, Cervus and Antelope species in different countries (Kelly and Drew, 1977; Mylrea, 1991; Semiadi, 1994). The studies on general behavior, feeding, antler cycle, breeding and health status were indicative of normal patterns and encouraging for Cervus and Axis deer farming. The studies in captivity, therefore, are better correlated with farming and the findings may be used as indicative only because the basic aim of behavior and captive breeding studies in India is focused towards conservation and management of species, most of which are protected by law in India. Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity. Page 7 REVIEW OF NATIONAL LITERATURE India’s rich biodiversity resources have given it a place as one of the 12 mega-biodiversity countries in the world. The ungulate diversity in India is represented by 2 orders, 7 families, 23 genera and 34 species: Orders: Artiodactyla and Perissodactyla. Families: Bovidae, Cervidae, Equidae, Moschidae, Rhinocerotidae, Suidae and Tragulidae. In India the ungulates are distributed in about 360 Protected Areas (PAs) spread over approximately 111296 Km2 land cover (Kathayat and Mathur, 2004). The representation of species under present study in PAs is: Axis axis-176, Cervus eldi eldi- 01, Cervus unicolor- 217, Antelope cervicapra- 64 and Boselaphus tragocamelus-148. State-wise, distribution of maximum number of Ungulate species is seen in Uttar Pradesh (12), and Gujarat stands third with 10 species. The distribution is presented in the graph below: Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity. Page 8 Westbengal Uttar Pradesh Uttaranchal Tripura Tamil Nadu Sikkim Rajasthan Punjab Orissa Nagaland Mizoram Meghalaya Manipur Maharashtra Madhya Pradesh Kerala karnataka Jharkhand Jammu & Kashmir Himachal Haryana Gujarat Goa Chhatisgarh Bihar i Assam Arunachal Pradesh Andhra Pradesh cn 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 Bibliographic survey of literature published on ungulates in India has been prepared by Agarwal et al. (2004). This is the first compilation on Ungulates of Peninsular India that contains 1101 references published between 1867 and 2005, almost 139 years. Publication articles in the bibliography have been categorized into 14 broad subject headings. The distribution of number of publications is presented in the graph below: Taxonomy Wildlife trade Ecology Reproduction Habitat Captivity Population' Wildlife Health Status Distribution Morphology Natural Hist Conser& Manag Behavior 50 100 150 200 250 Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity. 300 Page 9 The database cover total 18 species of Indian ungulates and the literature categorization is presented in the graph below: Sus salvamus Tragulus merninna Equs hamionus Tetracerus quadricornis Axis porcinus Sus scrota Muntiacus muntjac j**3®* j" -i I1""1""........ Cervus eldi 0 50 100 150 200 The distribution of number publications for the species under present studies is: Axis axis-137, Cervus eldi- 40, Census unicolor-130, Antelope cervicapra-161 and Boselaphus tragocamelus- 74. Over 861 authors have been indexed in the bibliography (Agarwal et al, 2004) and their contributions in-terms of number of publication ranged from 1 to 21. The leading authors who contributed 10 or more articles were: A.J.T. Johnsingh, A.R. Rahmani, C.G. Rice, H.S. Panwar, E.P. Gee, E.R.C. Davidar, K. Sankar, K.U. Karanth, L.N. Acharjyo, P.C. Kotwal, R. Gopal, R.C. Morris and R.K. Pandey. The trends in the chronological development of Indian literature are shown below: Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity. Page 10 CO o oo o ooN o oo o o in fO in in tr- 2001-2005 1991-2000 1981-1990 1971-1980 1961-1970 1951-1960 1941-1950 1931-1940 1921-1930 1911-1920 1901-1910 1867-1899 in Ungulates have been studie^ mostly in the tiger reserves, since they form the prey base for large carnivores (Schaller, 1967; Johnsingh, 1983; Karanth, 1988; Chakraborty, 1991; Johnsingh et al, 1993; Sankar, 1994; Khan et al, 1995; Sanquist et al, 1999; Bagchi et al, 2003; Kotwal and Mishra, 2004; Edgaonkar, 2008). Other studies exhibited interest in the ungulate habitat, habitat utilization, density and composition dynamics, and distribution, reproduction, social organization, ecology and group conservation management etc (Dharmakumarsinhji, 1978; Menon, 1982; Ranjitsinh, 1982; Chattopadhyay and Bhattacharya, 1986; Karanth and Sanquist, 1992; Bharucha and Asher, 1993; Shankar Raman et al, 1996; Gangadharan, 2005). A detail survey of Indian literature is described with the general account of study animals. Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity. Page 11 GENERAL ACCOUNT OF STUDY ANIMALS The Deer Depending on their species, male deer are called bucks, harts or bulls, and females are called hinds, does or Cows. Young deer are called fawns or calves. The highest concentration of large deer species in temperate Asia occurs in the mixed deciduous forests, mountain coniferous forests, and taiga bordering North Korea, Manchuria (Northeastern China), and the Ussuri Region (Russia). The highest concentration of large deer species in the tropics occurs in Southern and Southeast Asia; in India, Nepal, and at one time, Thailand. Northern India's Indo-Gangetic Plain Region and Nepal's Terai Region consist of tropical seasonal moist deciduous, dry deciduous forests, and both dry and wet savannas that are home to Axis, Hog Deer, Barasingha, Indian Sambar, and Indian Muntjac. Axis and Barasingha live in large herds, and Indian Sambar may also be found in large groups. Of all these deer species, Hog deer are solitary and have the lowest densities. All these deer can coexist in one area because they prefer different types of vegetation for food. These deer also share their habitat with various herbivores such as Asian elephants, various antelope species (such as nilgai, four-horned antelope, blackbuck, and Indian gazelle in India), and wild oxen (such as gaur, banteng, and kouprey). Deer generally have lithe, compact bodies and long, powerful legs suited for rugged woodland terrain. Deer are ruminants, selective feeders, are usually browsers, and primarily feed on leaves. The teeth of deer are adapted to feeding on vegetation, and like other ruminants, they lack upper incisors, instead having a tough pad at the front of their upper jaw. Nearly all deer have a facial gland in front of each eye. The gland contains a strongly scented pheromone, used to mark its home range and to express aggression. Deer also have a Tapetum lucidum which gives them sufficiently good night vision. Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity. Page 12 Doe usually come into heat (estrus), and remain in heat for about 24 hours. If she is not bred, a second heat cycle occurs around 22 days later. Estrous cycles can occur well into January, gestation generally lasts 200 days, and a single fawn is normal in the doe's first birth. Male newborn fawns are larger than female fawns. Newborn fawns are subject to predation, and the doe immediately licks the fawn clean, in order to protect it from detection by predators. Healthy fawns nurse immediately; usually 2-3 times a day. During the first 24-36 hours of life, the colostrums in the doe milk provides essential anti-bodies to help fight off disease. Doe milk is far richer in protein, fat, energy, Vitamin A and dry solids than cow's milk. Fat and vitamin A levels decrease quickly in early lactation. Surprisingly, the quality of milk in a starving doe does not decrease rnyeh; but the quantity of milk production does. Fawns double their birth weight in the first two weeks, and triple it in the first month. Fawns are able to walk soon after birth, and are often seen grazing with the doe after they are only one month old. Fawn rumination begins at about 2 weeks, and by 10 weeks of age most fawns are completely weaned. Axis axis (Erxleben, 1777) Order: Artiodactyla Family: Cervidae Sub-Family: Cervinae Genus: Axis Species: A. axis Common name: Spotted deer or Chital Conservation Status: WPA (1972): Schedule III (5) IUCN RED DATA BOOK: Not listed Cites: Not listed Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity. Page 13 Axis axis is the third largest deer (height 90 cm at the shoulder) inhabiting the plains and undulating terrain of India. The coat is reddish-fawn, spotted with white, and with white under parts. The curved antlers have up to three branching points. It is an endemic species of south Asia, occurring in India, Sri Lanka, Nepal and Bangladesh (Prater, 1934; Schaller, 1967). In India it is distributed along the foothills of Himalaya from Uttaranchal to western Assam, Eastern Rajasthan, and Gujarat and sporadically in forested areas of peninsular India (Prater, 1934; Schaller, 1967). Although dry deciduous scrub/forest is preferred habitat, they are distributed in moist deciduous, thorn and mangrove forests also (Eisenberg and Seidensticker, 1976). The mean home range of Axis buck is around 3.5 Km2, doe is around 2.5 Km2 while, estimated annual horag..range is around 16 Km2 (Sankar 1994; Moe and Wegge, 1994). Axis deer have declined drastically throughout their range, and are now only locally abundant within Protected Areas of India and some forest tracts. They have been studies by many researchers in National Parks; mainly tiger reserves, and Sanctuaries: Corbett (De and Spillit, 1966), Kanha (Schaller, 1967), Bandipur (Johnsingh, 1983), Nagarahole (Karanth and Sunquist, 1992), Sariska (Sankar,1994), Gir (Khan et al, 1995), Guindy (Raman, 1997), Pench (Biswas and Sankar, 2002), Ranthambore (Bagchi et a!, 2003) in India, Chitwan (Mishra, 1982) and Karnali-Bardia (Dinerstein, 1980) in Nepal, and Wilpattu (Eisenberg and Lockhart, 1972) in Sri Lanka. Introduced Axis deer populations occur in USSR, Yugoslavia, USA, Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, Australia, Hawaii and several private ranches in the Western Cape, South Africa (Lever, 1985). ,, Axis is known to feed on more than 160 species of plants (Schaller 1967; Johnsingh and Sankar, 1991). Rodgers (1988) had categorized Axis as a generalist feeder, with a diet consisting of grasses, forbs, and leaves of woody plants. Axis usually drinks water once a day but more frequently in summer. In wild they are therefore, distributed in regions which may have distantly located water points. Axis spends a major portion of their life in foraging, resting, and wandering within their ranges, though the extent of Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity. Page 14 these activities determined by season (Schaller, 1967). In a day, peak feeding times are around dawn and dusk. They usually have two major resting periods - before dawn and mid-day, expected to vary in captivity. Axis deer are essentially social animals and rarely seen as solitary individuals. The usual herd is composed of two or more family units and is often accompanied by individual deer of mixed sex and age-classes. The basic social unit is a matriarchal family group, normally consisting of an adult doe, her offspring from the previous year, and a fawn (Schaller, 1967; Abies 1974; Mishra, 1982; Barette 1991). The group size is widely variable from one to 150 or more individuals (De and Spillit, 1966; Schaller, 1967; Eisenberg and Lockhart, 1972; Krishnan, 1972; Fuchs, 1977). Under various conditions throughout the year and during different seasons the group size and composition changes (Schaller 1967; Eisenberg and Lockhart 1972; Dinerstein, 1980). The information on group size is summarized in the following table: Group Size (Range) Group Size (Average) Reference Location Texas, USA. 2 to 15 “ Abies (1974) 01-91 05-10 10.7 7.5 Dinerstein, 1980 Mishra 1982 02-125 4% 1-50 02-88 12 6 Barrette 1991 Karanth and Sunquist 1992 Khan et ai 1995 Sankar199 Biswas and Sankar 2002 Bagchi et ai. 2004 Karnaii-Bardia, Nepal Chitawan National Nepal Wilpattu, Sri Lanka Nagarahole Gir Sariska Pench Ranthambore Park, - - 7 3.4 4.6 The development, growth and annual cycle of antlers are indicators of reproductive and breeding states of Axis deer. However, the onset and peak of rut is reported to be variable at different locations. Gestation period is 210225 days, after which a single fawn is born. Fawns are weaned off at about six months, and sexual maturity is reached by the 12th-14th month (Prater, 1971 ).ln Texas, USA, breeding season lasts from late May till August, which Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity. Page 15 included one breeding peak (Abies, 1974). In Hawaii, USA, the rut was seen in April through August with sporadic mating observed throughout the year. At Kanha, breeding continued throughout the year with greater frequencies during March to June and peak in May (Schaller, 1967). In Karnali-Bardia, 53% of bucks were observed with hard antlers up to one meter size in July (Dinerstein, 1980). The peak rut varied between April-May at Chitwan (Mishra and Wemmer, 1987), April- July at Bandipur (Sharatchandra and Gadgil, 1975; Johnsingh, 1983), March-July at Guindy (Raman, 1998). At other places breeding season was reported to be occurring during the entire year. These observations suggest that the captive conditions influence the breeding season and is distinctly variable at different places. However, a precise pattern is usually seen in the wild. The sex ratio is generally seen to be biased towards female in Axis deer. An account of the sex ratio and fawning ratio is presented in the table below: -Location Hawaii Corbett National Park Keoiadeo Sanctuary Kanha Karnali Bardia Bandipur Nagarahole Sariska Gir Hawaii Buck: Doe Ratio 0.7:1 0.6:1 0.7:1 0.7: 1 0.5-1 0.6:1 0.7: 1 0.4:1 0.4: 1 0.7:1 Doe: Fawn Ratio - Reference Graf and Nicholas, 1966 - - 1:.5 1-.4 0.4: 1 1: 0.2 1: 0.2 - Schaller, 1967 Dinerstein 1980 Johnsingh 1983 Karanth and Sunquist 1992 Sankar1994 Khan et al. 1995 Graf and Nichols 1966 In wild the main reasons for Axis mortality are predation and diseases or during an accident; which occur rarely within protected areas. (Johnsingh, 1983; Patel 1992; Karanth and Sunquist,1995). Rate of predation was reported to range to about 31-52% by tiger and 44-59% by leopard in different Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity. Page 16 Pas in India (Schaller, 1967; Johnsingh, 1983; Karanth and Sunquist, 1995; Biswas and Sankar, 2002; Bagchi et al, 2002). Though the species has thrived well and, is now locally abundant within protected areas, the remaining population is highly vulnerable to poaching, habitat destruction and livestock-borne diseases. The conservation measures in wild will lead to depredation of livestock and minimize conflicts with human. The Axis deer is considered well adaptive to the captive conditions and in most of the zoos they breed easily. Cervus eldi eldi (M’ Cielland, 1842) Order: Artiodactyia Family: Cervidae Sub-Family: Cervinae Tribe: Bovini Genus: Cervus Species: C. eldi eldi Common name: Sangai, Manipur Brow antlered deer Conservation Status: WLPA (1972): Schedule I (1) IUCN RED DATA BOOK: Critically endangered Cites: Appendix l Traditional taxonomy divides Eld’s deer into three subspecies viz. Sangai or Manipur brow-antlered deer C. e. eldi: Thamin or Myanmar brow antlered deer C. e. thamin; and Siamese brow-antlered deer C. e. siamensis. It is highly endangered Southeast Asian cervid. Past distribution include areas of Southeast Asia extending from Manipur in north eastern India to Indochina Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity. Page 17 and southern China but now it occurs in patches in Northeast India, Myanmar and Southern China including Hainan islands. The Sangai deer is the rarest with a localized population of around 180 animals in the southern fringe of Loktak Lake in Manipur. The Indian subspecies was considered extinct until a small population of around 14 individual was rediscovered in the early 1950s, since then effective conservation measures have reestablished the population and are believed to be secure (Ranjitsinh, 1975). Cervus e. eldi is a medium sized deer (height 115 to 125 cm at shoulder level and weighing approximately 95 to 110 kg) with uniquely distinctive antlers, measuring 100 to 110 cm in length and an extremely long brow line which forms the main beam such that the two form a continuous curve at right angles to the closely set pedicles. The forward protruding beam appears to come out from the eyebrow signifying its name, brow antlered deer. Sangai attains sexual maturity in the fourth year and survives for approximately 20 years. The Sangai is now restricted to the Keibul Lamjao National Park (KLNP, 40 Km2) in the Southeastern fringe of Loktak Lake (286 Km2 at the elevation of 768.5 m) in Manipur valley. The habitat in Park consists of phumdi (floating vegetation), hillocks and elevated strips of land surrounding the lake. Sangai exhibits bimodal feeding activity pattern. Tombi (1991) reported that 33 species of plants are primary food plants and 21 plant species are emergency food plants. The population of C. e. eldi has increased constantly to about 100 in 1993 (38 bucks, 48 does, and 12 fawns), 180 in 2003 (65 bucks, 74 does, and 41 fawns) (Gee, 1961; Ranjitsinh, 1975; Singsit, 2003). The sex ratio varied between 55 buckf'^er'-ftfd does and 103 bucks per 100 does during 1977 to 2003 respectively. In the year 1999 the number of bucks reported was higher than the does. The mean sex ratio however was 79.4 ± 2.5 bucks per 100 does. The doe to fawn ratio was 37.1 ± 3.8 fawns. Cervus eldi eldi exhibits polygynous mating (Bronson, 1989; Monfort et al, 1990; Hosack et al, 1997). The does can begin reproducing at 4 years of Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity. Page 18 age and typically continue to reproduce until they are 10 years of age. They begin estrus in the late winter or early spring. They exhibit a long period of ovarian activity of 225 to 342 days, during which the does average 10 to 17 estrous cycles (Prescott 1987; Yan 1996, Hosack et al, 1978; Aung et al, 2001). ;r. The Sangai is a seasonal breeder with highest peak in March (Desai and Malhotra, 1978; Sanayaima 1988; Tombi 1991). In captivity the rutting occurs between January-April with peak during February (Das, 1988). Driving or following for a particular does continues for about 48 hr till the does responds to the call of the buck. A general display exhibited by Sangai at KLNP is the rubbing of the head or pre-orbital glands on the bushes, thrashing the vegetations with their antlers or forelegs. Similar display is also exhibited during the rutting season by the bucks in Manipur Zoological Garden (MZG). Like many other deer species, Sangai is seasonally monoestrous. The mature does delivers a fawn during October-November, after a gestation period of 245-273 days (Shanmugou, 1992). The sex ratio at birth tends to be equal. The minimum age of shedding of antlers is reported to be around 19 months of age (Sanayaima,1988;Tombi,1991). Cervus unicolor (Kerr, 1792) Order: Artiodactyla Family: Cervidae Sub-Family:: Gervinae v Tribe: Bovini Genus: Cervus Species: C. unicolor Common name: Sambar Conservation Status: Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity. Page 19 WPA (1972): Schedule III IUCN RED DATA BOOK Lower Risk Cites: Not listed Sambar (Cervus unicolor) is the largest deer species (Bucks: 225-320 Kg, Does: 135-225 Kg) native to South and South-East Asia (Crandall, 1964; Downes, 1983). It is closely related to the red deer (C. elaphuselephus) of Asia and Europe, the Rusa deer (C, timorensis) of Asia, and the Rocky Mountain elk (C. e. nelsoni) of North America (Whitehead, 1972). Sambar has an exceedingly wide geographical distribution that includes India, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Malay countries, Philippines and beyond (Prater, 1971). Sambar have been successfully introduced to numerous locations outside their native range e.g. into California, Gulf Prairies and Edwards Plateau regions of Texas (Abies and Ramsey, 1974), St. Vincent Islands, Franklin Country, Florida (Lewis et al, 1990), Australia (Slee, 1984), New Zealand (Kelton and Skipworth, 1987), and Western Cape Province, South Africa (Lever 1985). The Indian sub-species C. u. niger is confined to India and distributed in thorny dry deciduous forests of Gujarat and Rajasthan, moist deciduous forests throughout peninsular India, pine and oak forests at the Himalayan foothills, and the evergreen and semi-evergreen forests of north-eastern India. Sambar has been recorded to occur in 208 Protected Areas of India. The studies related to their distribution, population, and ecological aspects have been carried out in several major Protected Areas of India (Schaller 1967; Johnsingh 1983; Karanth and Sunquist, 1992; Sankar, 1994; Khan et al, 1995; Biswas and Sankar, 2002; Bagchi et al, 2003). Sambar is essentially a non-social species living a small group of less than six individuals (Schaller 1967; Prater 1971). The characteristic social unit is one doe and one fawn or one doe, one yearling and one fawn (Schaller, 1967; Kelton, 1981; Downes, 1983). Khan et al. (1995) observed Sambar group sizes ranging from one to five individuals in Gir. In most other areas the group size ranged from 1-5 in more than 70% of cases (Karanth and Sunquist, 1992; Biswas and Sankar, 2002; Bagchi et al, 2004). Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity. Page 20 /4. In Sambar, hard antlers were shed during the summer, fopwed.by emerging and velvet antlers during monsoon months gradually leaatap.to antlers. In India the peak rut of Sambar occurs between Octtpr. and December (Johnsingh, 1983; Lydekker 1916, Schaller 1967), while the from other countries indicate variations as per the onset of specific season as compared to India (Kelton1981; Shea et al, 1990). The sex ratios recorded at various locations in India are as below: Location Kanha Bandipur Nagarahole Sariska Gir Texas, USA Buck: Doe Ratio 0.2 : 1 0.3 : 1 0.4 : 1 0.1 : 1 0.5 : 1 1 : 1 Doe: Fawn Ratio 1 : 0.3 1 : 0.2 1 : 0.1 1 : 0.2 Reference Schaller, 1967 Johnsingh, 1983 Karanth and Sunquist, 1992 Sankar,1994 Khan et al, 1995 Flynn et al. ,1990 In wild, Sambar has been observed to feed, graze or browse depending upon the forage availability, on more than 139 species of plants (Schaller, 1967; Johnsingh and Sankar, 1991; Kelton, 1981; Ngampongsai 1987; Martin 1977). Richardson (1972) reported that the diet of Sambar greatly varied from large amount of browse in the dry season to an almost complete dependence on grass and herbaceous plants in the wet season in Texas. This flexibility of Sambar diet from graze to browse has enabled the wide distribution of this species. The mean home range and annual home range of Sambar bucks is 4 Km2 and 15 Km2, and 1.7 Km2 and 3 km2 in does. Extreme variations have been noted for annual home range to be 40 and 20 km2 respectively for bucks and does in Florida (Richardson, 1972). Predation (mainly by tiger, leopard and dholes) is the main cause of mortality in Sambar (Schaller 1967). The scat analysis of predators indicated presence of Sambar remains in 20-50% of tiger, 13-20 % of leopard and 5-10 % of dhole scats (Johnsingh, 1983; Karanth and Sunquist, 1995; Biswas and Sankar, 2002; Bagchi et al. 2003). Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity. Page 21 The Antelope Antelope is an inhabitant of open country grass land or scrub land. Their major assets include speed and rapid reproduction. Antelopes do not shed their horns and these are just similar in different individuals. There are no true antelope native to the Americas. Most familiar species of antelope are located in Africa, but some exist in Asia as well. The Arabian peninsula is home to the Arabian Oryx and Dorcas gazelle, while India and Southeast Asia have the Four-horned Antelope, Tibetan antelope, Saiga antelope, Nilgai, Chinkara, and Blackbuck. The Antelope have acute senses of smell and hearing, which are important for protection from predators and communication among individuals of the same species. Many antelope are sexually dimorphic. In most species, both sexes have horns, but those of bucks tend to be larger. In some species, the bucks and does have different colored pelage (e.g. Blackbuck). According to Prater (1934) and Asdell (1946), nilgai have no regular rutting season. In central India, Brander (1923) noticed calves of free-ranging nilgai in all seasons. In Bharatpur, most calves were born during the rainy season (June to October), and most breeding activity occurred from October to February, with a peak in November and December (Schaller, 1967). Data from captive nilgai in zoos throughout the world showed that peak periods of birth last for 3 to 4 months, but these peak months varied from location to location (Sheffield et al, 1983; Crandall, 1964, Prater, 1971). Antelope are polygynous with sex ratios even at birth, but become increasingly biased towards does in older age classes (Mungall, 1978). Adult sex ratios of 1:1.2, 1:1.7, 1:2.8 and 1: 3.5 have been recorded in various studies (Schaller, 1967; Isvaran, 2005). Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity, Page 22 Antelope cervicapra (Linnaeus, 1758) Order: Artiodactyla Family: Bovidae Sub-Family: Cervinae Genus: Antelope Species: A. cen/icapra Common name: Blackbuck Conservation Status WPA (1972): Schedule I IUCN RED DATA BOOK? Vulnerable Cites: Appendix III The blackbuck is a medium-sized antelope native to the Indian sub continent. Two sub species of blackbuck are currently recognized: the northwestern A. c. rajputanae and the eastern and southern A. c. cen/icapra (Groves, 1980; Ranjitsinh, 1989). Body size, horn length, and the darkness of buck coats typically decrease from north to south and from west to east (Dharmakumarsinhji and Gaekwad, 1958; Krishnan, 1972; Ranjitsinh, 1989). Blackbuck historically ranged from near Peshawar (in Pakistan) in the northwest, through the Indo-Gangetic plains, up to the plains of western Assam in the east, centrally in the Deccan, in open plains areas along the western coast.,of tlie peninsula, and along the eastgr;^ poastal plains to southern Tamil Nadu (Lydekker, 1907). Within their range, they were one of the most abundant ungulates of the plains. Herds containing many hundred animals were reported until as recently as the early part of the 20th century (Lydekker, 190; Stockley, 1928). The current distribution of blackbuck is much reduced. Within India, they are found throughout a large part of their former range (Ranjitsinh, 1989; Rahmani, 1991; Jhala, 1993a; Isvaran, 2003). However, their populations are now small, scattered, and relatively isolated Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity. Page 23 and estimated to be of 29,000-38,000 individuals, both within and outside protected areas (Rahmani,1991). Outside India, blackbucks are locally extinct in Pakistan and Bangladesh. In Nepal, only a few small populations consisting of several tens of individuals currently survive (Khanal, 2002). Blackbucks are group-living grazers that prefer relatively open, shortgrass habitats and avoid thick cover; this is most likely a reflection of both foraging preferences and predator avoidance strategies (Prasad, 1981; Ranjitsinh, 1989; Jhala, 1997). Browse can form a significant portion of their diet (such as seed pods of species like Prosopis and Acacia) in some seasons (Prasad, 1981; Goyal et ai, 1988; Ranjitsinh, 1989; Jhala 1997). They rely on early threat detection and flight to avoid predation (Mungall, 1978; Ranjitsinh, 1989) and such a strategy is thought to be most successful in open habitats (Jarman, 1974). Although blackbuck feed mostly on grasses, Browse is likely to be most important when nutritional levels in grasses are particularly low. Where easily accessible, blackbuck also regularly feed on crops, such as groundnut, wheat, barley, millet, and black gram (Prasad, 1981 ;Jhala,1993b). Historically, the cheetah was probably the main predator of blackbuck (Gee, 1969). Currently, wolves, whenever present in an area, are the main predator of both fawns and adults (Ranjitsinh, 1989; Jhala, 1991). Studies at Velavadar in Gujarat suggest that although predation by wolves may strongly influence population growth rates, it is unlikely to regulate blackbuck populations, except when they crash to particularly low numbers following catastrophic events such as floods and droughts (Jhala, 1991; Jhala 1993a). Blackbuck populations are more likely to be regulated by the quantity and quality of forage«especia!ly when populations afe> large- (Jhala, 1993a). Blackbucks are typically found in groups which are variable in size. The main types of groups are does groups (adult does and immature of both sexes), all-buck groups (adult and immature bucks), and mixed-sex groups (adults and immature of both sexes) (Mungall, 1978; Ranjitsinh, 1982; Prasad, 1983; Isvaran, 2003). Groups do not defend exclusive home ranges and are usually unstable. They may join, split and re-form several times during a day. Blackbuck show remarkably large variation in group size both between Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity. Page 24 populations and within populations. For example, group sizes vary from 2-36 animals at Mudmal (Prasad, 1983), to 2-129 at Point Calimere (Nair, 1976), and 2500+ at Velavadar (Isvaran, 2003). Such variation among populations probably arises from differences between them in ecological conditions, such as habitat structure and resource abundance (Isvaran, 2003). The mating system of blackbuck is based on the defense of mating territories by bucks. Territories are usually established in open areas. Bucks use a variety of scent marks and visual displays to demarcate the areas they defend (Ranjitsinh, 1982; Isvaran and Jhala, 2000). Blackbuck show extraordinary variation in mating system. Two main forms that are seen are resource-based territoriality and lekking. In many populations, bucks defend mating territories in areas used by does, typically along feeding circuits (Mungall 1978, Prasad 1989). In a few populations (e.g., Velavadar, Tal Chappar) bucks follow a rare and unusual mating strategy called lekking (Ranjitsinh, 1982; Isvaran and Jhala, 2000; Isvaran, 2003). Here, bucks gather on open sites .and defend small clustered territories which are devoid of resources that typically attract does, such as forage and water. These territories are visited by does solely for the purpose of mating. Such territorial aggregations are called leks. This mating system has attracted much interest because it is rare (seen in < 1 % of mammals) and because it is associated with strong sexual selection. Buck mating success is highly skewed, with a few bucks gaining most of the matings (Isvaran and Jhala, 2000). In all the Indian populations studied, blackbuck breed throughout the year. However, there are two major peaks in rutting, one from March to April and the other from August to October (Schaller, 1967; Ranjitsinh, 1989). Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity. Page 25 Boselaphus tragocamelus (Pallas, 1766) Order: Artiodactyla Family: Bovidae Sub-Family: Bovinae Tribe: Boselaphini Genus: Boselaphus Species: B. tragocamelus Common name: Nilgai, Blue bull Conservation Status WPA (1972): Schedule ill IUCN RED DATA BOOK: Lower risk Nilgai are the largest antelopes in Asia, about the size of a horse. Brander (1923) reported a 270 kg bull in central India. An adult bull stands 130 to 140 cm at the shoulder (Walker, 1968; Prater, 1971). Only bulls have horns which are short (15-20 cm), stout, conical and smooth in nature. Nilgai calves and cows are light brown in color. The light brown color of buck calves begins to darken by the tenth month and they develop black legs and brownish grey shoulders by 18 months. Adult nilgai bulls are steel-grey or blue grey iri color with black legs, which is developed by the fourth year (Sheffield et al, 1983). All individuals have dark and white markings on their heads, ears, unden-parts, fetlocks, and tail, and prominent,white vibrissa spots on the head. At the midpoint on the ventral side of the neck is a tuft of hair, more pronounced in bulls than in cows (Sheffield et al, 1983). Nilgai are endemic to peninsular India. They are found in 114 Protected Areas of the country in 16 States but absent in the north-east southernmost parts of the peninsula. Nilgai occur near human habitations and crop fields outside protected areas. They are found in a variety of habitats, from level Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity. Page 26 ground to undulating hills, in thin brush with scattered trees to cultivated plains, but not in dense forests, steep hills and true arid zones (Prater, 1971). The nilgai groups change constantly, but three distinct kinds of groups are discernible: (i) one or two cows with young calves, (ii) 3 to 6 adult and yearling cows with calves, and (iii) bull groups varying in number from 2 to 18. Sheffield et al. (1983) reported that in Texas, nilgai exhibited sexual segregation, except during the breeding season (December to March), when groups were formed with a bull, and one or more cows and their calves. During the non-breeding season, especially the monsoon in India (JulyOctober), bulls were usually found in all-bull groups of less than 10 individuals, or sometimes in groups of 10 to 23, rarely more. Non-breeding cows and their calves occur mainly in groups of less than 16, often as singles and occasionally in larger groups of 16 to 24 (Sankar, 1994). Group Size (Range) Group Size (Average) Reference Karnali-Bardia, Nepal 1-10 2.9 Dinerstein, 1980 Sariska Gir 2-43 4.0 2.2 Sankar, 1994 Khan et al, 1995 Location - Data from captive-bred nilgai indicated that the sex ratio of nilgai at birth is approximately even. Of the 535 nilgai born in zoos worldwide, 49% were bulls and 51% cows (Jarvis, 1968). The sex ratios observed in several studies are as below: Location Bharatpur Vanvihar Sanctuary Sariska Gir Texas Bull: Cow Cow: Calf Reference Ratio Ratio Schaller and Spillett, 1966 0.59:1 0.39:1 Schaller, 1967 - - 0.4:1 0.89:1 0.71:1 0.81:1 1:0.48 - 1:0.23 1:1.03 Sankar, 1994 Berwick and Jordan, 1971 Khan etal, 1995 Sheffield et al, 1983 Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity. Page 27 According to Prater (1934) and Asdell (1946), nilgai have no regular rutting season. In central India, Brander (1923) noticed calves of free-ranging nilgai in all seasons. In Bharatpur, most calves were born during the rainy season (June to October), and most breeding activity occurred from October to February, with a peak in November, arid December (Schaller, 1967). Data from captive nilgai in zoos throughout the world showed that peak periods of birth last for 3 to 4 months, but these peak months varied from location to location (Sheffield et al, 1983). Predation on nilgai by large predators like tiger and leopard in Rajaji (Johnsingh et al, 1993) and in Sariska (Sankar et al, 1993) was negligible. The same applied for the lions in Gir (Chellam, 1993). Due to large body sizes and gregarious habits of adult nilgaif'leopards (Panthera pardus) may find it very difficult to hunt them down. The preference of nilgai for humandominated habitats makes them less vulnerable to predation by tiger. Studies on nilgai food habits showed that they are browsers (Berwick, 1974; Mirza and Khan, 1975; Dinerstein, 1979; 1980) or mixed feeders (Haque, 1990; Sankar, 1994). Nilgai can thrive upon variable proportions of grass, herbs, and browse, subject only to a minimum requirement of protein, which must not be below 8 per cent of their intake. During the breeding season, mature bulls maintain an area of dominance around themselves, whether or not cows are present. Breeding bulls respond to intrusions into these areas from other bulls by displays, threats, and chases, Which either results in the intruding bulls leaving, or remaining in the area in a subordinate status. Courtship in nilgai is simple and involves a ne'dk-strfetched-forward, tail erect display bf the’tlulir showing the conspicuous white ventral side, and following the cow in oestrus during a slow, sedate mating march. Although normally silent, nilgai have several vocalizations. Adults of both sexes, and calves as young as 5 months of age, sometimes utter a guttural alarm, more frequently when nilgai detects a hidden motionless observer, and especially when the wind direction is not in its favor. The alarm Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity. Page 28 call of cows is of a higher pitch than that of bulls. Calves also call in a higher pitch, but much more softly (Sheffield et al, 1983). Adult bulls display their dominance in many ways. A ‘head-up’ display consists of a raised muzzle exposing the white throat patch to adversaries. Another display is the ‘horizontal-neck’ display, where the head and neck is held stiff and stretched horizontal with the gular hair tuft and pinnae completing the picture. A bull would also exhibit a ‘lateral display’ when another buck challenges him or when walking towards a subordinate (Sheffield et al, 1983). During this process, the neck is stretched forward (Sheffield et al, 1983). Nilgai have a characteristic habit of defecating repeatedly in the same location, resulting in the formation of large faecal piles or lavatory sites of nearly a meter in diameter (BraQd.gr, 1923; Dharmakumarsinhji, 1959; Schaller, 1967). Schaller (1967) suggested that these piles might function as territorial markers, since the behavior is characteristic of several species of African antelopes (Leuthold, 1977). Although there has been a reduction in the overall range of nilgai, the existing populations seem to be doing fairly well. Moreover, gradual degradation of dense forests into open scrub and thickets, increasingly bordered by agricultural fields, has offered favorable habitat conditions for the increase of nilgai numbers. STATUS AND MANAGEMENT OF ANIMALS IN CAPTIVITY Zoo Concept Development The concept of keeping animals in captivity is very old and dates back to about 1500 BC. Zoo was the first place to stu^y"'‘fiih'iMais in detail by contemporary naturalists. Animals were kept in captivity for gaming purpose and to introduce new species from different parts of world to Europe. Innovations in zoo keeping and use of animals of wider aspects of scientific studies began about 200 years before. The summary of development of zoos and management of animals in captivity is given below: Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity. Page 29 1500BC First known Zoo- built by Egyptian Queen Hatshepsut 1000BC First known animal collection for study: “Garden of intelligence”- finding, by Chinese emperor Wen Wang 1000 to 400BC Greeks had public ‘zoos’ to study animals and plant life. Aristotle was a notable teacher at a zoo. Roman kept wild animal collection for gladiatorial combats. A record of Greeks importing peacock from India, and then charging admission fees as people came in hordes to see it. 280BC Alexandria ‘Zoo’ established by Ptolemy II. 1300 to 1600AD Menagerie in Britain established by King Henry-I at Woodstock, England. Global explorations brought strange animals from other part of the world to Europe, renewing interest of Royalty and wealthy to keep animals. The development of modem zoos dates back to 18th century; although significant advancement occurred during 20th century. Some details of modern zoos are given below: 1752 First modern zoo and zoo keeping started - Imperial Menagerie (Now Schonbrunn Zoo) at Vienna, Austria, established by Hasborg Monarch and opened for public in 1-765. 1793-94 First zoo established for scientific study, part of the Botanical Gardens of Paris. 1826 Zoological Society of London (ZSL) was founded. The term ‘Zoo’ formed as a short form of Zoological Garden. Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity. Page 30 1828 ZSL formed an animal collection at Regent Park, London, taking the idea from the Paris zoo. 1830s Circuses in US started giving way to zoos. 1854 First zoo established in India- Marble Palace Zoo of Kolkata. 1860 First zoo established in Melbourne (Australia); and in New York (US Central Park Zoo). 1863 Sakkarbaug Zoo established. 1889 First zoo setup to save animals on brink of extinction: the National Zoo (now Smithsonian Zoo). 1907 First zoo without bars established near Hamburg (Germany), by Carl Hagenback, an animal dealer. He used moats, shrubbery, artificial rocks, and walkways to provide visitors a more natural experience, and give outdoor access to animals. Early 1900s Efforts started by Willium Hornaday (Founder Director of New York Zoological Society, now known as Wildlife Conservation Soc.) to show what zoos can do for conservation. He also started efforts to restore the nearly extinct American Bison to western plains. His research led US Congress to pass the ‘Alaskan Game Act’ and ‘Migratory Birds Treaty’. 1950s The zoo boom: entrepreneurs saw the earning potential of zoo as entertainment. Zoos became recreational centers and advancement of science took a back seat. 1970s Start of concern for welfare of animals, triggered by the human suffering in war and captivity during World War II. Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity. Page 31 Public opinion started building for the animals physical and psychologica! needs. The environmental movement started gaining speed. It led zoos themselves as modem ‘Noah’s Arks’ that would rescue endangered species from the approaching flood of extinctions through captive-breeding programs and reintroductions. 21st Century Zoos started moving beyond the Ark approach, and towards protecting wildlife in wild places. The changes in social and scientific study aspects of zoos led to further modification of captivity conditions. The 3 major evolutionary changes the zoo and management of zoo went through were as below: A. Zoos as menageries for entertainment. In the 19th century the zoos were mainly crowded cages, and animals were subject of curiosity and study for their different structure and physiology, i.e., the diversity of species. B. Zoos as zoological parks: a place to study animals and their behavior. By the early 20th century, the zoos became true zoological parks. After world war- II, there was a rise in concern for animal welfare, and the cages of the zoos became larger and sometimes open but fenced enclosures. This allowed them more freedom to move about and display their behavior. This triggered an interest in the study of animal behavior, their habitats, and how they lived. C. Zoos as centers of conservation of ecosystem Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity. Page 32 Today, the zoos have become centers for environmental study and conservation. This happened when cages gave way to open, bar-less enclosures with moats, providing more natural habitat to the animals. With this, the animals became the subject for study of ecosystems;f:and species survival, and the zoos became conservation centers. Since zoos are being seen as frontline agencies to play role in conservation; efforts at the national, regional and international levels are essential for further coordination. Various organizations are working at the international level to address the global issues of conservation. Some of these are: UNEP (United Nations Environment Program, IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature), SSC'fipecies Survival Commission), WCPA (World Commission on Protected Areas), CEM (Commission on Ecosystem Management); Cl (Conservation International), WAZA (World Association of Zoos and Aquarium) etc. There are various regional associations of zoos, like AZA (American Zoo Association), EAZA (European Association of Zoo and Aquaria), SEAZA (South-East Asian Zoos and Aquaria), SAZARC (South Asian Zoo Association for Regional Cooperation) to tackle regional level issues. Central Zoo Authority of India (CZA) evaluates, regulates and monitors the functioning of Indian Zoos, allowing only those zoos to operate that maintain animals as per prescribes standards. Its functions include regulating. animal acquisition, identifying endangered species and overseeing their captive breeding execution, encouraging related research, and providing technical and'financial assistance to zoos for their develbpfhiiit and scientific management. The zoo conditions are very typical and widely variable in minor to major zoos. The conditions have changed over the years, particularly with reference to caging facilities. Emphasis is made, during past over a decade, on developing natural environmental conditions in captivity and therefore, Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity. Page 33 large open enclosures have come into existence. Following are the important features of consideration for management of captive animals. Caging Space and Environment -f The habitat or territory has important consequences for the animals in captivity and defines correct handling and design of captive environments. The animals can live normally in captivity if the near natural conditions are provided; however, only limited natural simulations can be made in captivity. The range of tolerance to alterations in the environment is variable for different species and individuals with in a species, including age and sex variability since Normal Adaptive Range for particular stress factor is different for individuals. Beyond these limits the animal becomes uncomfortable and at greater extremes of stress it may become susceptible to disease and injury. There cannot be a standard set of parameters to check vulnerability for all the animals but only understanding of animal’s natural state and behavior help to improve the conditions. The positive factors may be enhanced and those which impart certain non acceptable conditions should be avoided or restricted. Food and Nutritional Supplementation The animals must have an adequate diet nutritionally to maintain a healthy and thriving condition. The food must be of the correct bulkiness for the digestive system. The food should be presented in such a way that the animal spends as much time eating as it would be in the wild- The herbivores normally spend considerable time feeding throughout the day while the carnivores feed following hunting and then spend large time resting. Social Structure and Breeding Requirements Some animals are solitary, except when the does comes into season. Some animals form single buck bachelor groups, except during the breeding season, and many matriarchal groups consist of the older does and their Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity. Page 34 offspring. In any group of animals a social organization evolves, often an elaborate hierarchical structure, especially in buck groups, involving ritual behavioral displays. It is important to understand the social structure and breeding requirements if the animal is to reproduce in captivity. Many species do not come into breeding condition without the stimulus of introduction to the opposite sex. Some species rely on the stimulus of day length to come into season or rut. Others do not need this stimulus and are able to breed throughout the year. An example of a problem of breeding that was solved by studying the animal’s social structure and behavior was seen in a small herd of Father David's deer. Man-Animal Relationship When an animal is moved from its own environment into captivity, it must reconstruct a whole new world and this is an enormous task. Two types of behaviors emerge: 1. The animal may settle down in its new environment. This is often seen in the undeveloped, still adaptable young wild animal. 2. The animal may never settle down, even if kept in captivity for a long time. In man's mind, the amount of space at an animal’s disposal is often regarded as the most important consideration. It has been mentioned already that a free animal has a specialized and limited territory, so the quality of the space for the animal is more important than the quantity. When an animal is in captivity there are both primary effects and secondary effects of space restriction. The primary effect is the restriction of movement and the secondary effects fndlude lack of diversion and occupation, no food choice, impossibility of avoiding its own species at will, possible unsuitable differentiation of space, anti-social behavior etc. Then there is the problem of deciding what amount and design of space is necessary for an animal. The flight reaction is the most significant behavior pattern of the wild animal’s life in freedom so it should be of prime concern in captivity. In theory, the smallest cage should have a diameter twice the flight distance (F.D.), in this way, an Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity, Page 35 animal could retreat to the centre of the cage away from man, who appears as an enemy. This is often impossible to accommodate so the solution is to reduce the flight distance and so neutralize the animal’s desire to escape. This is possible by taming. Zoos now often receive animals bred in captivity, whose flight distances are greatly reduced from their wild ancestors. The layout of many zoos is dramatically changing and new zoos are trying to approximate the open condition of the wilds. Other suggestions include teaching animals tricks so they can perform, training them to work for food and environmental comforts; all this helps fill in time and provides activity. More common now is the philosophy that different zoos should become specialist centers for certain groups of animals, rather than every zoo keeping just one example of a species. In this way certain zoos could specialize in rare species both for replenishing their own exhibits and for replenishing wild stocks. There is the question of zoo animals living to old age and suffering various ailments. This is actually unnatural in the wild where survival of the fittest is the rule. The excessive reproduction of a species may pose several questions since it is difficult to release them in the wild. The final question asked by many people is: Is it really necessary to keep animals in captivity? In some part of world the entertaining/gaming property of animals in captivity is considered important to attract people. In India such acts are banned by law. People will probably always go to zoos to see the animals, so in the process they should be educated also, and it is the behavior of the animals that provides the education. Progressive zoo management should promote animal behavior as a scientific field of study. The management of animals in zoo is aimed at supporting the conservation of endangered species by giving species, which have no chance of survival in wild, a last chance of survival through coordinated breeding under ex-situ conditions. Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity. Page 36 ZOOS IN INDIA The major objective of the zoos shall be to complement and strengthen the national efforts in conservation and rich biodiversity of the country, particularly the fauna. Protocols to achieve the objectives by Central Zoo Authority, India are: 1. Supporting the conservation of endangered species by giving species, which have no chance of survival in wild, a last chance of survival through coordinated breeding under ex-situ condition and raise stocks to rehabilitate them in wild as and when it is appropriate and desirable. 2. To inspire amongst zoo visitors empathy for wild animals, an understanding and awareness about the need for conservation of natural resources and for maintaining the ecological balance. 3. Providing opportunities for scientific studies useful for conservation in general and creation of database for sharing between the agencies involved in in-situ and ex-situ conservation. 4. Besides the aforesaid objectives, the zoos shall continue to function as rescue centers for orphaned wild animals, subject to the availability of appropriate housing and upkeep infrastructure. Where appropriate housing and upkeep is not available, State Government and the Central Government would ascertain setting up rescue facilities in off-the-display areas of the zoo, subject to the availability of land. More than three hundred zoos have been established in India including various small Deer Parks. A list of early established zoos is presented below: Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity. Page 37 1. Marble Palace Zoo, Calcutta --1854 2. Lalbaug Zoo, Bangalore --1855 3. Sakkarbaug Zoo, Junagadh - 1863 4. Kota Zoo, Kota -1865 5. VJB Udyan Zoo, Mumbai -,4873 6. Alipur Zoo, Calcutta --1875 7. Jaipur Zoo, Jaipur - 1877 8. Hyderabad Zoo, Hyderabad - 1877 9. Udaipur zoo, Udaipur --1878 10. Sayajibaug Zoo, Vadodara --1879 11. Shivaganga Gardens Mini Zoo, Tanjore --1882 12. Trichur State Museum and Zpp, Trichur - 1885 13. Chamarajendra Zoological Gardens, Mysore --1892 14. M. S. Chattrapadhy Zoo, Kholapur --1893 15. Maharaj Baug Zoo, Nagpur --1894 16. Prince of Wales Zoo, Lucknow --1921 17. Gandhi Zoological Park, Gwalior - 1922 18. Bikaner Zoo, Bikaner - 1922 19. Jodphur Zoo, Jodphur - 1936 The other zoos in Gujarat are listed below: 1. Kamala Nehra Zoological Garden, Ahmedabad - 1951 2. Bal Bhavan Children's Dreamland, Rajkot - 1956 3. Indroda Nature Park, Gandhinagar - 1978 4. Sundervan Nature Discovery Centre, Ahmedabad - 1979 5. Fertilizerhagar Deer Park, Vadodara - 1983 6. Surat Municiple Zoo, Surat - 1983 7. Rajkot Municiple Zoo, Rajkot - 1987 8. Nature Education Centre, Jamnagar - 1989 .... . QHHBHMj Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity. Page 38 Status of Sakkar Baug Zoo, Junagadh Junagadh (21:31: N latitude, 070: Hg: E longitude; t 05:30 time zone, 82 m to 92 m above MSL) is one of the major cities of Saurashtra province of Gujarat state, Sakkarbaug Zoo (SBZ) is situated on the outskirts of Junagadh city in the western foothills of mount Girnar (Fig. 1, Plate 1), The Sakkarbaug Zoo was established in 1863 by erstwhile Nawab of Junagadh, H, H. Mahobatkhan Babi-II. It is the third oldest and second largest zoo in India and the only major zoo of Gujarat state. Although, it is one of the oldest zoos in the country the cages meet the present caging requirements prescribed by the Central Zoo Authority of India. The area of old zoo is six hectares while the recently acquired area between the old zoo and Girnar foothills encompasses to 192 hectares of land1 (Plates 1). The Sakkarbaug zoo accommodates 29 species of mammals, 30 species of birds and 11 species of reptiles. It also houses aquaria. Thus a total of 1043 wild fauna are housed in different enclosures. The new area was degraded forest land, completely devastated because of years of uncontrolled black stone mining. The new area is being utilized for herbivore enclosures and moated enclosures for carnivores. Each of the enclosure, in the old zoo, is having a fairly large outer space with some grass on the floor and enough vegetation in and around.the cage, providing adequate sunlight and shade to the animals. The outer enclosures are connected to a sufficiently large animal house, and individual feeding cells. Many of the enclosures are having underground breeding den, which providesgan. .excellent site to a shy feline for mating,,and subsequent rearing of newborns. The zoo maintains all the predator species like, Asiatic Lion (Panthera leo persica), Panther (Panthera pardus), and Crocodile (Crocodylus palustris), whereas, prey species are represented by Spotted Deer (Axis axis), Sambar (Cervus unicoior), Nilgai (Boselephus tregocemeius), Four Horned Antelope (Tetracerus quadricornis) and Chinkara (Gazella bennettii). In addition, the Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris tigris), various species of primates, ungulates, bears, snakes, birds, as well as Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity. Page 39 aquarium fishes are exhibited for educational purposes. Recently two pairs of Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) were included and thus SBZ is the first Indian zoo to cage Cheetah. Sakkarbaug Zoo is one of the few Zoos in the country that interacts with a wildlife sanctuary. From its inception, the zoo has rendered health, medical and rescue services for the last surviving group of Asiatic Lion in India of the Gir Sanctuary and National Park. Sakkarbaug zoo is a “specialist zoo”, concentrating its space, attention and resources on local fauna typical of the Gir forest and surrounding western India. The Sakkarbaug zoo has maintained the purity of its stock of Asiatic Lion (Panthera leo persica) and this is recognized the world over. This zoo has bred more than 200 lions in captivity over past 30 years. Sharing the fruits of success and to achieve a healthy captive population of this species over the world, this zoo has supplied around 150 lions in last 50 years to different Zoological collection of India and abroad. Similarly the Sakkarbaug zoo is renowned for the breeding of other highly endangered species of wild animals like Indian Wild Ass, Indian Wolf and Four Horned Antelope. At present it is proudly holding a healthy population of these species in captivity. The SBZ has been allotted special grants by CZA, India, for development of Vulture Breeding Centre, the second of its kind in India. Since its inception the Sakkarbaug Zoo has developed ahead of time and emerged as one of the important zoos of India. Some details of SBZ timeline as follows: Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity, Page 40 1863 Establishment of Sakkarbaug Zoo by Nawab of Junagadh. 1867-1947 Management of Zoo by Zoological Superintendent, Junagadh State. 1947-1960 Management of Zoo by Zoo Superintendent, Education Department, Mumbai State. The zoo had total 144 animals including 9 Asiatic Lions, 6 African Lions, 4 Tigers, 1 Leopard, 1 African Cheetah, Otter and Rattle. 1960 The Zoo management landed over to Gujarat State Forest Department. 1985-1990 Protest against stone mining activity in Girnar foothills and periphery. Judicial action to ban the mining. 1990-1992 192 hectares of reserve forest adjoining zoo campus allotted to SBZ for further development. Following the formation of Central Zoo Authority in 1991 and the new zoo policy, SBZ adopted modern development approaches. Mining areas utilized to develop moated enclosures for carnivores. Recognized as Large Zoo by CZA. 2006-2007 2 hectare land allotted by Junagadh Agriculture University to develop herbivore enclosures. Animal rescue, health and welfare: The zoo provides very essential rescue and treatment services to wild fauna of Gir lion Sanctuary and other parts of Gujarat, Capturing of wounded or sick wild animals through remote darting equipment is a routine service being extended by this zoo to the wildlife of Gujarat. Artificial rearing of orphan young ones is yet another success story of Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity. Page 41 this zoo. Quite often young ones of different animals are brought from the wild for further nursing and care at the zoo. In a similar manner some of the wild animals at the zoo are negligent to their newborn and for the survival of such animals it is required to nurse them by artificial means. Within last 5 years, young ones of 15 lion, 3 leopards, ,6 hyenas and 6 ungulates have been successfully reared at the zoo. Hygiene is maintained in the cages and random fecal samples are examined for parasitic infections. All the animals are treated for deworming at regular intervals and the young ones and birds are periodically vaccinated. Scientific disease investigation and diagnosis is carried out at the zoo laboratory and all routine investigations like hematology, serum chemistry, bacterial culture, drug sensitivity and histopathology are carried out on routine bases. The zoo has a well equipped veterinary hospital where all routine treatments and surgeries are carried out. For specific diagnosis and major surgical interventions, expert help is sought from College of Veterinary and Animal Husbandry, Anand, Gujarat. Educational activities: The zoo has developed an orientation centre that describes the peculiarities and status of wild animals in simple educational modes (Plate 2). Due to encouraging floral and faunal diversity and beautiful landscaping, site for nature education camps has been developed, where regular nature education camps are organized to create environmental awareness in the society. Sakkarbaug zoo is deeply involved in the promotion of conservation education activities like, Nature Education Camps for school and college children and celebration of special events such as Wildlife Week, World Forestry Day, World Environment Day, Animat Welfare Fortnight etc., with a variety of competitions and programmes. The involvement of people from the villages surrounding the Gir is encouraged. Research and training activities: The Sakkarbaug zoo is actively involved in various kinds of research, and till date it has published more than 20 scientific articles related to various diseases in wild animals, breeding biology of some species of birds in captivity, roosting of bats and presence of heronry in Zoo Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity, Page 42 premises, checklist of resident and migratory species of birds in the zoo etc ( Patel, 1998; Sabapara and Singh, 1998; Devkar et al, 2006 a-d). Students from different colleges are encouraged to take up their post graduate research project on various aspects of wildlife biology at the zoo and so far 6 students have successfully completed their studies (Khanpara, 2004: Devkar et al, 2006 a-d). Sakkarbaug zoo in collaboration with Animal Husbandry Department of the state offers a short-term training course to veterinarians. During the training a fundamental knowledge about wildlife management and diseases, with a special emphasis on the wildlife capturing techniques are imparted to the trainees. Up till now, around 100 qualified veterinarians have under gone the training programme. Students of the veterinary collages accomplish their internship programme and learn basics of the diseases and management of wildlife in the zoo. Till date more than 200 students have been given such training. Students from the wildlife and forest institutes of India are also trained in wildlife and forest management. Zoo offers a special training to the employees of the State Forest Department on wildlife capturing technique and first aid to wild animals. Conservation breeding program: Breeding for conservation is a major objective of any zoo in recent years; going on the same line this zoo is using more of its space and resources for the conservation of endangered species like Asiatic lion, Indian wild ass, Indian wolf, four horned antelope, Royal Bengal tiger, Chinkara etc. The following table indicates the abstract of zoo animals housed from the year 2001 -2006. Species Mammals Birds Reptiles Total 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 315 587 040 942 346 592 045 993 365 665 051 1081 378 563 49 990 417 564 62 1043 Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity. Page 43 Visitors: This Zoo witnesses a heavy inflow of visitors throughout the year, especially during winter season that coincides with various religious fairs arranged locally in Junagadh. Following is a table showing month wise number of visitors visiting this zoo in last ten years. Month 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Jan 64591 97354 86902 48359 83945 75640 70038 Feb 81272 77114 48233 27318 40901 40468 69621 Mar 49210 56499 65239 17070 17493 85201 38135 Apr 47958 45253 39509 31472 32839 25985 32038 May 60464 82055 80098 35634 39505 48323 64509 Jun 40539 77253 58852 • . *31687 26267 38284 44431 Jul 27549 36200 31679 23097 27602 18686 28937 Aug 86219 53525 70007 49446 26350 46798 29681 Sep 40614 84925 41424 27356 57423 25806 63378 Oct 87008 39601 35777 21141 21056 53927 23888 Nov 89014 167414 96309 113477 125469 104164 159689 Dec 89014 76143 59198 70855 60412 97984 74302 Total 763452 893336 713227 496912 559262 661266 698647 Issues Related to Management The sprawling urbanization of Junagadh city has now engulfed the Sakkarbaug Zoo from two sides and the Zoo is facing related problems of security. Nearly eight lakh visitors visit the Zoo ^ery l’year. This puts tremendous pressure on wildlife that breeds within the enclosures. High tourist inflow during the breeding seasons of majority of wild animals is another issue of serious concern. Increase in lamp posts and illumination within the zoo for security reasons raises concerns of its effect on circadian rhythm of wild animals and birds. The Zoo hospital and laboratory needs Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity. Page 44 upgradation and advancement. An occasional seasonal flood in adjacent Sonrakh River spells danger for the captive wildlife. OVERALL UNDERSTANDING AND LACUNAE OF KNOWLEDGE The survey of Indian literature oiearly reveals that although extensive work has been carried out on ungulates, it is mostly concerned with the wild ungulates and primarily in the tiger reserves. Even other wilderness areas of India have been less explored for basic research. In Gujarat, the Black buck in Velavadar National Park and Spotted deer and Sambar in Gir Sanctuary and National Park were studies for their ecology in considerable details more than two decades before. However, the information on captivity condition influences is rather very sparse. At international level, the captivity studies are focused not for conservation but also for commercial purposes. The animals under study are protected by law in India while in most other countries they are treated as cultivable animals. The findings of international studies, therefore, cannot be replicated in India for conservation and management considerations. We need to generate first hand information and our own strategy and action plans for management of animals in captivity. The lacuna of information is, therefore, very wide. Gir PA has generated research outcome in the form of several Ph. D. dissertations and also Master’s projects. Although, Sakkarbaug Zoo, Junagadh, is of equal significance and an equivalent partner in the conservation of Asiatic lion such studies had not been initiated so far, although, routine activities of the Zoo produces extensive data on captive breeding of. birds,, and^mammals, health status of various captive animals and animals under treatment from various areas of Gujarat. Since Sakkarbaug Zoo is one of the oldest and second largest zoo of our country, it has most recent and modern facilities developed for captive animals as per the guidelines of CZA, it has initiated several innovative steps in conservation, education and awareness programmes; it was thought worthwhile to initiate research on the behavioral aspects of captive ungulates Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity. Page 45 so as to generate significant data that can comprehensively compare and correlate it with data generated so far for wild ungulates and help in defining the better captive conditions and understand responses of animals to the influences of captivity. Present work outcome appears'tb me as huge data; however, it is only a bit with reference to the understanding and knowledge essentially required to actually study the captive conditions, their influences and behavioral responses of ungulates. INITIATION OF RESEARCH IDEA 'Mr Wildlife studies have always been my hobby and subject of interest. Although curious about it, however, I had no idea on behavioral aspects of zoo animals. My visits to zoo and the Gir forest had been primarily for bird watching and secondarily to know and understand the ecology, and environment. During post graduation studies, I worked on the topic “Residential and migratory birds of Sakkarbaug zoo of Junagadh”. This gave me an opportunity to stay in the zoo for an extended time period, few hours a day, and brought me more close to the captive animals. I realized that the Central Zoo Authority has laid down several regulative measures for the management of zoo animals; however, people’s participation is essentially required to enforce them. Unfortunately, people both knowingly and unknowingly disturb the animals by providing variety of food stuff and even non palatable items. The teasing of animals is most common in any zoo, even though the security'Ts alert. I found during my stayr-MII&4fiit at times the visitors enjoyed by being cruel to the animals. In India the educational institutions are closed for several days during October to December and hence maximum visitor density is seen during this time period. This unfortunately coincides with the breeding season of most of the animals. The disturbance to animals hinders their routine activities as well as breeding performance. Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity. Page 46 Sakkarbaug zoo is associated with Gir sanctuary and National Park for conservation and management of animals and also it is the prime centre for animal’s health surveillance. Research on general ecology to animal specific studies has been carried out over past three decades in Gir forest area. A few sporadic studies on carnivores in Sakkarbaug zoo assessed the blood chemistry and endoparasitic load. However, the studies directly supporting or strengthening the routine management of animals in captivity are lacking. A discussion with authorities of zoo and Department of Forests, Government of Gujarat suggested that such studies were very few even at national level. The herbivores, particularly deer species which are the animals of people’s attraction, were probably negligently spared. My year long association with the birds during post graduation studies, however, forced me to look at these more vulnerable species in cages. The activity patterns and behavioral displays of these animals further attracted me towards this particular area of research. Being enthusiastic I wanted to study many more animals but had to restrict for the ungulate species. Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity. Page 47 Plate 1 A. Location of Sakkarbaug Zoo in Junagadh city. B. Visitors in zoo near ungulate enclosure. Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity. A. yp Jtm^ JLVJH JRS0 y y « OBJECTIVES 1. To monitor general behavior and related changes on a seasonal basis. 2. To assess changes in dietary requirements and food preferences on a seasonal basis. 3. To monitor reproductive cycles of various ungulate species in captive environment on a seasonal basis. 4. To monitor Annual antler cycles of the deer species. 5. To assess fawning ratio and neonate mortality. 6. To develop a management strategy for ungulate species in captivity. Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity. Page 48