Download The history of the discovery of blood circulation

Adv Physiol Educ 36: 77– 82, 2012;
doi:10.1152/advan.00123.2011.
Historical Perspectives
The history of the discovery of blood circulation: unrecognized contributions
of Ayurveda masters
Kishor Patwardhan
Department of Kriya Sharir, Faculty of Ayurveda, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi;
and Institute of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine, Bangalore, India
Submitted 29 November 2011; accepted in final form 13 February 2012
Patwardhan K. The history of the discovery of blood circulation:
unrecognized contributions of Ayurveda masters. Adv Physiol Educ
36: 77– 82, 2012; doi:10.1152/advan.00123.2011.—Ayurveda, the native healthcare system of India, is a rich resource of well-documented
ancient medical knowledge. Although the roots of this knowledge date
back to the Vedic and post-Vedic eras, it is generally believed that a
dedicated branch for healthcare was gradually established approximately between 400 BCE and 200 CE. Probably because the language
of documentation of these early textbooks is in Sanskrit, a language
that is not in day-to-day use among the general population even in
India, many significant contributions of Ayurveda have remained
unrecognized in the literature related to the history of medicine. In this
communication, the discovery of blood circulation has been taken up
as a case, and a few important references from the representative
Ayurveda compendia that hint at a preliminary understanding of the
cardiovascular system as a “closed circuit” and the heart acting as a
pump have been reviewed. The central argument of this review is that
these contributions from Ayurveda too must be recorded and credited
when reviewing the milestones in the history of medicine, as
Ayurveda can still possibly guide various streams of the current
sciences, if revisited with this spirit.
Indian medicine; cardiovascular physiology; Charaka Samhita; Sushruta Samhita; Bhela Samhita
ALTHOUGH THE ROOTS OF AYURVEDA, the native Indian system of
healthcare, date back to the Vedic and post-Vedic eras, prominent
historians such as G. J. Meulenbeld and K. G. Zysk regard 400
BCE as the approximate period during which a systematic medical theory started emerging (7, 24, 35). The knowledge base of
Ayurveda is documented in the form of compendia known as
“Samhitas.” These compendia are composed in Sanskrit, a language that is not in day-to-day use among the general population,
even in India. Therefore, one needs to have a working knowledge
of Sanskrit, along with the associated sociocultural contextual
understandings to comprehend and interpret the documented material sensibly. However, the many unclear and confusing translations and interpretations of these compendia have given rise to
a general perception that the basic facts related to human physiology were largely unknown when these compendia were documented. This probably is also the reason why some of the
important contributions of Ayurveda have gone unnoticed and
unrecognized in the process of documentation of the history of
medicine. In this communication, the discovery of blood circulation has been taken up as a case, and it is argued that Ayurveda
masters, who authored different compendia, such as the Charaka
Samhita, Bhela Samhita, Sushruta Samhita, Ashtanga Hridaya,
Address for reprint requests and other correspondence: K. Patwardhan, C/1,
New Medical Enclave, Banaras Hindu Univ., Varanasi U.P. 221005, India
(e-mail: [email protected]).
and Sharngadhara Samhita, too need to be credited for their
contributions in this area along with personalities like Hippocrates, Aristotle, Erasistratus, Galen, Vesalius, Servetus, William
Harvey, and others.
Generally Documented Milestones of the Discovery of Blood
Circulation
When examining the documented historical milestones, it becomes evident that the expansion in the knowledge of human
cardiovascular physiology occurred in a stepwise fashion not
attributable to a single discoverer. It was William Harvey, who,
for the first time, compiled these different bits of information in a
logical sequence and drew a convincing big picture delineating the
complete process of circulation. In fact, before William Harvey
described circulation, there were many errors in the understanding
of the facts, and three of them were the most important ones: 1)
the arteries contained air that was derived through the act of
respiration; 2) the interventricular septum was porous and facilitated the movement of contents between the left and right ventricles; and 3) the veins, instead of bringing blood from the periphery, carried it to all parts of the body (12).
William Harvey, in his work “On the motion of the heart and
blood in animals,” effectively refuted all these erroneous ideas
while supporting his arguments with a strong mathematical
model and with observations derived out of robust experiments
that he had conducted (11, 16, 21, 31). Table 1 shows the
prominent contributors who helped in resolving these errors.
These contributions are generally well recognized and are
mostly cited by authors when they review the history of the
discovery of blood circulation (1a, 4, 10, 12, 13, 19 –23, 30).
However, upon careful consultation of the diverse sources of
mainstream medical literature in an attempt to list these prominent contributions, one does not come across with any of the
contributions credited to Ayurveda literature. For instance, a
search on PubMed does not give any results that satisfy the
criteria of crediting Ayurveda literature for its contribution in
the process of the discovery of blood circulation when the
keyword “Ayurveda” is entered in combination with search
items such as “discovery blood circulation,” “circulation physiology,” and “cardiovascular physiology.” This communication is an attempt to review some of the important contributions
of Ayurveda masters to understandings related to blood circulation in human beings.
A Brief Introduction to the Representative Compendia
of Ayurveda
Charaka Samhita. Charaka Samhita (17a) primarily deals
with the principles of internal medicine also known as Kayachikitsa. Four authors have contributed to what is available as
1043-4046/12 Copyright © 2012 The American Physiological Society
77
Historical Perspectives
78
DISCOVERY OF BLOOD CIRCULATION: CONTRIBUTIONS OF AYURVEDA
Table 1. Prominent and recognized contributions in the history of the discovry of blood circulation in chronological
sequence
Author/Investigator
Time Period
Contributions
Egyptian physicians in medical papyrus
Hippocrates
1500 BCE
460–370 BCE
Aristotle
384–322 BCE
Erasistratus
304–250 BCE
Proposed the importance of the arterial pulse, its character, and its force in understanding health.
A clear description of the ventricles, the vessels (recognizing the difference between arteries and
veins), and the semilunar valves is found in his writings.
Described that the heart was central, mobile, and well supplied with structures that served to
communicate between it and the rest of the body.
Air, attracted by the lungs, passed into the pulmonary veins, from there into the left ventricle,
and from the left ventricle it passed into the arteries, which distributed it to all parts of the
body.
Stated that the arteries contain blood, not air.
Stated that the interventricular septum is not porous and proposed the existence of the
pulmonary circulation.
He established through experiments that air doesn’t enter heart from lungs. He also proved
conclusively that the valves allowed the blood to pass in only one direction and prevented its
regurgitation.
Observed that the interventricular septum is not perforated.
Described the pulmonary circulation.
He independently discovered the pulmonary circulation. He also discovered that the heart’s four
valves permitted the flow of blood in only one direction.
Described the passage of the blood from the right heart through the lungs to the left heart and
used the term “circulation” to describe this process.
He discovered the valves in the veins. He noticed that the blood cannot move from the heart
toward the periphery through the veins.
Explained the complete process of circulation.
He established the presence of capillaries with the help of a microscope. He proposed that
capillaries are the connections between arteries and veins that allow blood to flow back to the
heart, thus completing the gap in the knowledge of circulation.
Claudius Galen
Ibn al-Nafis
129–217 CE
1213–1288
Leonardo da Vinci
1452–1518
Andreas Vesalius
Michael Servetus
Realdus Columbus
1514–1564
1511–1553
1515–1559
Andreas Caesalpinus
1524–1603
Hieronymus Fabricius
1537–1619
William Harvey
Marcello Malpighi
1578–1657
1628–1694
Charaka Samhita today. The original source of this compendium is Agnivesha Tantra, which was based on the teachings of
Punarvasu Atreya to his students, including Agnivesha. Charaka (200 BCE) is said to have redacted this work, and, much
later, another scholar, Dridhabala (4th century CE), further
supplemented this by rewriting certain portions of the text and
by providing with some new sections (25). Therefore, it is clear
that the material available in this textbook today was documented before 500 CE.
Bhela Samhita. In Charaka Samhita, it is stated that Bhela
was a direct disciple of Punarvasu Atreya and was one of the
six disciples who composed their own compendia. Therefore,
Bhela Samhita (20a) is to be placed in parallel to Charaka
Samhita from a historical perspective (14). The only problem
with this compendium, however, is that it is not available in its
entirety, and the available version contains many errors (20a).
Sushruta Samhita. The contributions of Sushruta are well
known in the field of surgery. This compendium, authored by
Sushruta, mainly deals with the clinical specialty called Shalya
Tantra, i.e., clinical surgery. At least three authors have contributed to what is available as Sushruta Samhita (1) today. The
original textbook written by Sushruta (around 400 BCE) was
redacted by Nagarjuna (400 –500 CE) and was later amended
by Chandrata (10th century CE) (25).
Ashtanga Hridaya. Ashtanga Hridaya (17b) is a summarized
work on all eight major clinical specialties of Ayurveda (25).
The author of this textbook was Vagbhata (600 CE), and the
contents of this text are largely based on Charaka Samhita and
Sushruta Samhita.
Sharngadhara Samhita. Sharngadhara Samhita (20b) is a
comparatively recent textbook that was composed in 1300 CE
by the author Sharngadhara. This text, although dealing mainly
with the principles of pharmaceutics, also contains some information on physiology and clinical methods (25).
Physiology and Ayurveda
Generally, physiology is considered to be the function of
biological structures. This structure-oriented definition of
physiology assumes that a function can be understood only in
terms of structures (anatomy). It is interesting, however, to
note that many of the descriptions on human physiology
recorded in Ayurveda literature are considerably accurate, even
though they are not based on a precise knowledge of anatomy
(18). Although Sushruta Samhita describes the method of
cadaveric dissection, the anatomic details available in this
textbook are not sufficient to draw a clear and convincing
picture of the human body (7). A few researchers have discussed the subject of “human anatomy” as it was perceived in
Ayurveda at length, and interested readers may refer to their
works, as these details are beyond the scope of this communication (5–7, 15, 32, 33).
Physiology in Ayurveda is essentially based on the theory of
three entities known as Doshas (often mistakenly translated as
the theory of “three humors” or “three fluids”), namely,
“Vayu” or “Vata” (often incorrectly translated as “wind”),
“Pitta” (often wrongly translated as “bile”) and “Kapha” (often
erroneously translated as “phlegm”).
In this context, it is to be noted that the scholars of ancient
Greek medicine considered the four humors to be the regulators of all physiological processes: 1) blood, 2) phlegm, 3)
yellow bile, and 4) black bile. In fact, it is actually on this
similarity that historians compare Ayurveda theories with ancient Greek medical theories (7, 34). Most of the historians
have suggested the possibility of various interactions having
taken place between the scholars of ancient Greece and ancient
India, especially when Alexander the Great (326 BCE) visited
the places around Taxila, one of the ancient seats of learning
(3). A few historians, on the other hand, have suggested that
Advances in Physiology Education • VOL
36 • JUNE 2012
Historical Perspectives
DISCOVERY OF BLOOD CIRCULATION: CONTRIBUTIONS OF AYURVEDA
such interactions must have taken place even before Alexander
the Great visited India (9, 17). One cannot deny the fact that there
are striking similarities between some of the theories in these two
streams of medical knowledge; however, the question as to
“which system got influenced by the other” has been a matter of
debate, as no system mentions these facts (7, 24, 34). Whatever
may be the case, it is to be noted that the theory of Tridosha is
not simply a “humoral theory”; rather, it is based on a considerably precise understanding of homeostatic principles (29).
79
different contextual meanings as well, rather than simply
“breath.”
Despite of these similarities, it is to be noted that Ayurveda
goes a step further ahead and states that Rasa reenters the heart
once again, after being carried to all tissues. This explanation
is explicitly found in Bhela Samhita (Sutra Sthana, 20/3). In
addition, in Charaka Samhita (Chikitsa Sthana, 15/21), an
expression similar to that of “circulation” has been used while
explaining that the process of tissue nourishment may be
compared with a rotating wheel.
Cardiovascular Physiology in Ayurveda
In Ayurveda literature, the heart and the different vessels
attached to it have been described to transport the following
four vital entities: 1) “Rasa” (often wrongly translated as
“Chyle”), the nutrient fluid that nourishes rest of the tissues;
2) “Rakta,” the red fraction that is very essential for life; 3)
“Ojas,” a white fraction, the functions of which are closely
associated with immunity; and 4) “Prana,” a fraction that is
derived through the act of respiration. Therefore, the tissue
that is today known as “blood” should include all these
components, and, hence, one should be careful when translating terms such as Rasa, Rakta, Ojas, and Prana. In this
context, however, it is to be noted that most of the prominent translators have committed an error of translating only
Rakta as blood and not others. This is probably one of the
important reasons for some of the vital contributions of
Ayurveda having gone unnoticed.
Similarities between Ayurveda and Galen’s model of cardiovascular system. There are some very important similarities between ancient Greek theories of medicine, especially
those proposed by Galen, and Ayurveda with respect to the
physiology of cardiovascular system. Galen believed that
the digested food, called Chyle, reached the liver from the
intestines, and it was then converted into blood there. Galen
also described that the blood, after reaching the heart, was
carried to all parts of the body through veins and was then
converted into flesh. Thus, the blood got “consumed” in this
process and was not “conserved.” Furthermore, he believed
that the blood was continuously being produced from the
food that a person ingested. According to him, the vital
spirit, “Pneuma,” was derived through the act of respiration
and was mixed with the blood in the left ventricle, and a
portion of this passed through the septal pores into the
venous blood of the right ventricle. In fact, Galen proposed
that the function of arteries was to carry this Pneuma to the
different parts (10).
On similar lines, in Ayurveda, it has been explained that
“Ahara” (food), after undergoing complete digestion, gets
converted into the nutrient fluid called Rasa and that this Rasa
is then transformed into Rakta in “Yakrit” (the liver) and
“Pliha” (the spleen) (Sushruta Samhita, Sutra Sthana, 14/4-5;
Sushruta Samhita, Sutra Sthana, 21/10). Thereafter, Rakta
enters the heart (Sharngadhara Samhita, Purva Khanda, 6/9).
Prana derived through the act of respiration follows this Rakta
(Caraka Samhita, Sutra Sthana, 24/3; Sharngadhara Samhita,
Purva Khanda, 5/48-49). This Rakta is then transformed into
“Mamsa” (flesh) and other bodily tissues (Charaka Samhita,
Cikitsa Sthana, 15/16). On the basis of this similarity, scholars
often translate Rasa as Chyle. Similarly, Pneuma and Prana too
have a very close resemblance; however, the term “Prana” has
Circulation: Major Contributions of Ayurveda Masters
With this background, the prominent contributions of
Ayurveda masters (shown in Table 2) are described in the
following paragraphs. The information shown in Fig. 1 is an
effort to present a preliminary sketch of cardiovascular physiology as understood in Ayurveda.
General organization of the cardiovascular system. In Charaka Samhita (Vimana Sthana, 5/7) it is described that the heart
and the 10 prominent blood vessels attached to it form the basis
of cardiovascular system (“Rasavaha Srotamsi”), which is
responsible for the distribution of nutrients to all parts of the
body. Charaka explicitly explained the importance of the heart
as an organ: “Even a minor damage to the heart can lead to
fainting, and a serious injury can lead to death” (Charaka
Samhita, Sutra Sthana, 30/10 –11).
Vagbhata documented that the 10 prominent blood vessels
connected to the heart carry the essential principles called Rasa
and Ojas to different parts of the body (Ashtanga Hridaya,
Sharira Sthana, 3/18). He also described that the blood vessels
go on giving branches, and, as they do so, they go on becoming
narrower and narrower in a fashion similar to that observed in
the venation of the leaves (Ashtanga Hridaya, Sharira Sthana,
3/18 –19).
Control of circulation. Charaka describes that “Vyana
Vayu” a component of Vayu, continuosly ejects the blood out
of the heart and distributes it all over the body (Charaka
Samhita, Chikitsa Sthana, 15/36). Vagbhata, in Ashtanga Hridaya (Sutra Sthana, 12/5), further clearly stated that the “Prana
Vayu,” located in the head, controls the activities of the heart.
In this context, Vyana Vayu and Prana Vayu denote the
nervous control of circulation because Vayu, in general, represents all neural mechanisms (18, 29).
In Sushruta Samhita (Sutra Sthana, 14/3; and Nidana Sthana,
1/17), Sushruta explains that, after the complete digestion of
food, the absorbed material known as Rasa reaches the heart
and, thereafter, is distributed to all other parts of the body with
the initiating act of Vyana Vayu.
The heart as a pumping organ. The forceful ejection of Rasa
from the heart and the role of Vyana Vayu in making its
ejection possible further hint at a preliminary understanding of
the heart as a pumping organ (Bhela Samhita, Sutra Sthana,
20/3; Charaka Samhita, Chikitsa Sthana, 15/36; and Ashtanga
Hridaya, Sutra Sthana, 12/7).
The pattern of blood flow. Sushruta identified that “the
pattern of the blood [Rasa] flow is comparable with the
movement of sound, fire and water” (Sushruta Samhita, Sutra
Sthana, 14/16). It is interesting to note that the mean flow
velocity of the blood goes on decreasing as it flows from the
heart toward the periphery. Similarly, the sound moves fastest
Advances in Physiology Education • VOL
36 • JUNE 2012
Historical Perspectives
80
DISCOVERY OF BLOOD CIRCULATION: CONTRIBUTIONS OF AYURVEDA
Table 2. Major contributions from Ayurveda to understandings related to circulation
Classical Textbook
Author
Time Period
Vital Information on Circulation
•Describes that the heart and the 10 prominent blood vessels attached
to it form the basis of the cardiovascular system (“Rasavaha
Srotamsi”) responsible for the transportation of nutrients to all parts
of the body.
•Describes that “Vyana Vayu,” a component of “Vayu,” constantly
forces the blood out of the heart and distributes it.
•Explains that all parts of the body are nourished in a circular
fashion, similar to that of a rotating wheel.
•Proposes that three different kinds of blood vessels exist: “Sirah”
(vessels that carry the contents without pulsating), “Dhamanyah”
(vessels that pulsate), and “Srotamsi” (vessels from which fluids
can move out).
•Described that the breath (“Prana”) follows the blood in the body.
Describes the systemic circulation explicitly. He says, “The blood
[Rasa] is first ejected out of the heart, it is then distributed to all
parts of the body, and thereafter, is returned to the heart through
the blood vessels known as ‘Sirah.’”
•Documented that “The successive manner in which the blood moves
is similar to the manner in which sound, fire and water move,”
hinting at the changes in mean flow velocity as the blood moves in
the cardiovascular system.
•Explained that after the complete digestion of food, the absorbed
material reaches the heart and, from there, is propelled to other
parts of the body.
•Described that 10 prominent blood vessels connected to the heart
carry the blood (“Rasa” and “Ojas”) to all parts of the body.
•Observed that blood vessels go on giving branches, and as they do
so, they go on becoming narrower and narrower in a fashion
similar to the one observed in the pattern of venation on the leaves.
•Described the importance of the clinical examination of arterial
pulse.
•Described that “Samana Vayu” controls the transportation of the
blood (“Rasa”) toward the heart.
Charaka Samhita
Agnivesha
Composed between 400 BCE and 500 CE
in several stages
Bhela Samhita
Bhela
Composed in parallel with Charaka
Samhita
Sushruta Samhita
Sushruta
Composed between 400 BCE and 1000
CE in several stages
Ashtanga Hridaya
Vagbhata
600 CE
Sharngadhara Samhita
Sharngadhara
1300 CE
among the three symbols that Sushruta has used to compare the
movement of blood. The speed with which the fire spreads is
dependent on the velocity of the wind, which is less than that
of sound but greater than that of water.
The three segments of the vascular tree. Charaka documented three different kinds of blood vessels: “Sirah” (vessels
that carry the contents without pulsating), “Dhamanyah” (vessels that pulsate), and “Srotamsi” (vessels from which fluids
move out) (Charaka Samhita, Sutra Sthana, 30/12). This explanation is important because it assumes the presence of three
distinct segments in the vascular tree: the pulsating (arteries)
segment, the exchange (capillaries) segment, and the transporting (veins) segment.
Bhela too explained that the 10 great vessels called Dhamanyah arise at the heart and then divide to give rise to another
set of blood vessels known as Sirah (Bhela Samhita, Sutra
Sthana, 20/1–3). Therefore, it may be inferred that Bhela
possibly knew the differences between arteries (Dhamani) and
veins (Sira).
Closed circuit. Bhela Samhita is important from a historical
perspective, because Bhela was the first individual in the
history of Indian medicine who described the process of greater
circulation explicitly for the first time. He said that “The blood
[Rasa] is first ejected out of the heart, it is then distributed to
all parts of the body, and thereafter, it returns back to the heart
through the blood vessels known as ‘Sirah.’”
Charaka also used an expression similar to that of circulation
when explaining that all parts of the body are nourished in a
circular fashion, similar to that of a rotating wheel (Charaka
Samhita, Chikitsa Sthana, 15/21).
Sharngadhara described that “Samana Vayu” helps in the
transportation of Rasa toward the heart (Sharngadhara Samhita, Purva Khanda, 6/9).
Arterial pulse. In Sharngadhara Samhita (Purvakhanda,
3/1), Sharngadhara described the importance of examination of
the arterial pulse in clinical medicine, including a description
on various characters of the radial pulse.
Inadequacies
Across all Ayurveda textbooks, the following inadequacies are found in relation to cardiovascular physiology.
First, anatomic details pertaining to the chambers of the
heart, atrioventricular valves, and semilunar valves are
missing. Second, the presence of valves in the veins is not
mentioned. Third, the specific number, origin, and course of
the great blood vessels are not documented. Fourth, terms
(such as Sira and Dhamani) are often used interchangeably.
Fifth, the heart is considered to be the seat of higher mental
functions, although the “head” too received equal importance. Hence, a few Dhamanyah have been described to be
carrying certain sensations, like hearing and smell. Sixth,
details of pulmonary circulation are not documented. Finally, explanations are scattered at various places and are
not arranged in a sequence.
Advances in Physiology Education • VOL
36 • JUNE 2012
Historical Perspectives
DISCOVERY OF BLOOD CIRCULATION: CONTRIBUTIONS OF AYURVEDA
81
Fig. 1. Preliminary sketch of Ayurveda perceptions of human cardiovascular physiology. Cha., Charaka Samhita; Su., Sushruta Samhita; A.H., Ashtanga
Hridaya; Sha., Sharngadhara Samhita; Bh., Bhela Samhita.
Conclusions
Despite some gross inadequacies pertaining to the anatomical
details of the heart and the blood vessels, it can be said that the ancient
Ayurveda masters had acquired considerable understanding related to
the blood circulation in the human body. Therefore, these masters
deserve to be recognized for their contributions in this area. It is also
suggested that efforts should be made to review and recognize other
contributions of Ayurveda to various streams of biology and medicine in a systematic manner, as Ayurveda can possibly still guide
further advances in biomedical sciences, if revisited with this spirit.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author thanks Namyata Pathak, Madan Thangavelu, Vishnu Joglekar,
and Medha Dongre for providing feedback on the various issues addressed in
Advances in Physiology Education • VOL
36 • JUNE 2012
Historical Perspectives
82
DISCOVERY OF BLOOD CIRCULATION: CONTRIBUTIONS OF AYURVEDA
this article. Himanshu Joshi helped in verifying the original references and in
conceptualizing the preliminary drawing. The author thanks the Department of
AYUSH and the Institute of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine for the
assistance received under the Vaidya-Scientist Fellow program.
DISCLOSURES
No conflicts of interest, financial or otherwise, are declared by the author(s).
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
K.P. conception and design of research; K.P. prepared figures; K.P. drafted
manuscript; K.P. edited and revised manuscript; K.P. approved final version of
manuscript.
REFERENCES
1. Acharya JT (editor). Sushruta Samhita of Sushruta. Varanasi, India:
Chaukhambha Surbharati Prakashan, 1994, The Chaukhmbha Ayurvijnan
Granthamala no. 42.
1a.Aird WC. Discovery of the cardiovascular system: from Galen to William
Harvey. J Thromb Haemost 9, Suppl 1: 118 –129, 2011.
3. Aziz W. Taxila: a meeting ground of nations. In: Encyclopaedia of Higher
Education: the Indian Perspective, edited by Sharma SK, Sharma U. New
Delhi, India: Mittal, 2005, vol. 1.
4. Azizi MH, Nayernouri T, Azizi F. A brief history of the discovery of the
circulation of blood in the human body. Arch Iran Med 11: 345–350, 2008.
5. Bhattacharya J. Epistemological encounter in anatomy and health: colonial experiences in India. Indian J History Sci 43: 163–210, 2008.
6. Bhattacharya J. Epistemological Encounters: the Rise of Hospital Medicine in India (online). http://www.authorsden.com/ArticlesUpload/
62198.pdf [1 March 2012].
7. Bhattacharya J. The Knowledge of Anatomy and Health in Ayurveda and
Modern Medicine: Colonial Confrontation and Its Outcome (online).
http://www.ea-journal.com/art/The-knowledge-of-Anatomy-and-Health-inayurveda-and-Modern-Medicine.pdf [1 March 2012].
9. Filliozat J. Communications between Greece and India before Alexander.
In: The Classical Doctrine of Indian Medicine: Its Origins and Its Greek
Parallels (1st ed.), translated by Chanana DR. Delhi, India: Munshiram
Manoharlal, 1964, p. 238 –257.
10. Flourens P. A History of the Discovery of the Circulation of the Blood,
translated by Reeve JC. Cincinnati, OH: Rickey, Mallory & Company,
1859.
11. Harvey W. On the motion of the heart and blood in animals, translated by
Willis R. Buffalo, NY: Prometheus, 1993.
12. Johnson C. History of the Discovery of the Circulation of the Blood.
Baltimore, MD: The Class, 1867.
13. Katz AM. Knowledge of the circulation before William Harvey. Circulation 15: 726 –734, 1957.
14. Kutumbiah P. Ancient Indian Medicine. Chennai, India: Orient Longman,
1969 (reissued 1999).
15. Loukas M, Lanteri A, Ferrauiola J, Tubbs RS, Maharaja G, Shoja
MM, Yadav A, Rao VC. Anatomy in ancient India: a focus on the Susruta
Samhita. J Anat 217: 646 – 650, 2010.
16. McMullen ET. Anatomy of a physiological discovery: William Harvey
and the circulation of the blood. J R Soc Med 88: 491– 498, 1955.
17. Muthu C. A short review of the history of ancient Hindu medicine. Proc
R Soc Med 6: 177–190, 1913.
17a. Pandey G (editor). The Caraka Samhita of Agnivesha (5th ed.). Varanasi,
India: Chaukhambha Sanskrit Sansthan, vols. 1 and 2, The Kashi Sanskrit
series no. 194.
17b. Paradkar H (editor). Ashtanga Hridaya of Vagbhata (with the commentaries “Sarvanga Sundara” of Arunadatta and “Ayurveda rasayana” of
Hemadri). Varanasi, India: Chaukhmba Surbharati Prakashana, 2002.
18. Patwardhan K. Human Physiology in Ayurveda. Varanasi, India:
Chaukhambha Orientalia, 2008, Jiakrishnadas series no. 134.
19. Pearce JM. Malpighi and the discovery of capillaries. Eur Neurol 58:
253–255, 2007.
20. Salem MR. Discovery of the pulmonary circulation by an Arab in the
thirteenth century. Middle East J Anesthesiol 15: 437– 440, 2000.
20a. Sharma PV (editor). Bhela Samhita, translated and commented by Krishnamurthy KH. Haridas Ayurveda. Varanasi, India: Chakhambha Visvabharati, 2008, no. 8.
20b. Shastri PP (editor). The Sharngadhara Samhita (7th ed.). Varanasi, India:
Chaukhambha Orientalia, 2008, Jaikrishnadas Ayurveda series no. 53.
21. Silverman ME. De Motu Cordis: the Lumleian Lecture of 1616: an
imagined playlet concerning the discovery of the circulation of the blood
by William Harvey. J R Soc Med 100: 199 –204, 2007.
22. Singer C. Discovery of the pulmonary circulation. Br Med J 2: 375–376,
1955.
23. Singer C. The Discovery of the Circulation of the Blood. London: Bells
and Sons, 1922.
24. Smith FM, Wujastyk D. Introduction. In: Modern and Global Ayurveda:
Pluralism and Paradigms, edited by Wujastyk D, Smith FM. Albany, NY:
State Univ. of New York Press, 2008.
25. Srikanthamurthy KR. Biographical History of Indian Medicine. Varanasi, India: Chaukhambha Orientalia, 2005, Jaikrishnadas Ayurveda series
no. 137.
29. Tripathi P, Patwardhan K, Singh G. The basic cardiovascular responses
to postural changes, exercise, and cold pressor test: do they vary in
accordance with the dual constitutional types of Ayurveda? Evid Based
Complement Alternat Med; doi:10.1155/2011/251850.
30. Trueta J. Michael Servetus and the discovery of the lesser circulation.
Yale J Biol Med 21: 1–15, 1948.
31. White JS. The 1653 English edition of De Motu Cordis, shown to be
Harvey’s vernacular original and revealing crucial aspects of his precirculation theory and its connection to the discovery of the circulation of
the blood. Hist Philos Life Sci 21: 65–91, 1999.
32. Wujastyk D. A body of knowledge: the wellcome Ayurvedic anatomical
man and his Sanskrit context. Asian Med 4: 201–248, 2007.
33. Wujastyk D. Interpreting the image of the human body in premodern
India. Int J Hindu Studies 13: 189 –228, 2009.
34. Wujastyk D. The science of medicine. In: The Blackwell Companion to
Hinduism, edited by Flood G. Oxford: Blackwell, 2003, p. 393– 409.
35. Zysk KG. Mythology and the brahmanization of Indian medicine: transforming heterodoxy into orthodoxy. In: Categorisation and Interpretation,
edited by Josephson F. Göteborg: Göteborgs Universitet, 1999, p. 125–
145.
Advances in Physiology Education • VOL
36 • JUNE 2012