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Download Learning - David Rude, Instructor
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Learning and Memory What is Learning? Learning = the process by which experience or practice results in a relatively permanent change in behavior or potential behavior All forms of learning rely on our ability to remember Memory = The ability to remember the things that we have experienced, imagined and learned What Is Learning? Learning Relatively permanent change in behavior Usually attributed to experience Excludes temporary changes Excludes more permanent changes due to disease, injury, maturation, injury, or drugs How do we learn? Social interactions The media Newest research suggests we are born with preferences, prejudices and a sense of right and wrong What Is Learning? Associative learning Formation of simple association between stimuli and responses Cognitive learning Higher-level learning involving thinking, knowing, understanding & anticipation What Is Learning? Two types of associative learning Classical conditioning Reflex responses are associated with new stimuli Operant conditioning Learning based on the consequences of responding What Is Learning? Reinforcement Any event that increases the probability that a particular response will occur again Response Any identifiable behavior Overt (Observable): Eating, scratching Covert (Internal): Faster heartbeat What Is Learning? Antecedents Events that precede a response Consequences Effects that follow a response Reflex Innate, automatic response to a stimulus Examples: eye blink or pain Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov Russian physiologist studying digestion Used dogs Saw dogs salivate before food placed in their mouth Saw dogs salivate when he entered room Live!Psych Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning and Fear Responses Phobias = Intense, irrational fears of particular things or situations Can be learned and unlearned by classical conditioning Little Albert Desensitization Therapy = A conditioning technique designed to gradually reduce anxiety about a particular object or situation Classical Conditioning Is Selective Why don’t we acquire phobias of everything that is paired with harm? e. g. Carpenter s don’t develop a phobia of hammers because they accidentally hit their fingers Two reasons: Classical conditioned responses usually require many pairings of the CS and UCS to become learned Preparedness A biological readiness to learn certain associations because of their survival advantages Operant Conditioning Learning based on the consequences of responding Operant Reinforcer Any event that follows a response and increases its likelihood of recurring Operant Conditioning Acquiring an operant response Studies with animals use special apparatus Conditioning Chamber (Skinner Box) Operant Conditioning Shaping Molding responses gradually to a final desired pattern Successive Approximations Ever-closer matches Operant Extinction When learned responses that are not reinforced gradually fade away Operant Conditioning Positive Reinforcement: When a response is followed by a reward or other positive event Increases the likelihood a response will reoccur Live!Psych Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery Learned responses sometimes weaken and may even disappear, a phenomenon called extinction Happens both in classical and operant conditioning The learning is not necessarily completely forgotten Sometimes a spontaneous recovery occurs, in which the learned response suddenly reappears on its own, with no retraining A Closer Look At Reinforcement Behaviors can be accidentally reinforced – superstitions Wearing a particular t-shirt when you get an A on a test Offering rewards for a task that should be intrinsically rewarding can undermine the intrinsic motivation to perform it Example: Getting paid to do something someone already likes to do Primary and Secondary Reinforcers Primary reinforcers A reinforcer that is rewarding in itself Examples: food, water and sex Secondary reinforcers A reinforcer whose value is acquired through association with other primary or secondary reinforcers Example: money A Closer Look At Punishment Punishment = Any event whose presence decreases the likelihood that ongoing behavior will recur Negative Reinforcement vs Punishment Negative reinforcement strengthens (or reinforces) behavior by removing something unpleasant from the environment Punishment weakens behavior by adding something unpleasant to the environment A Closer Look At Punishment Punishment must be swift, sufficient, and consistent for it to be effective Advantages: Punishment is particularly useful when the behavior is dangerous and must be changed quickly A Closer Look At Punishment Disadvantages: Punishment only suppresses the undesired behavior, it doesn’t teach the person to unlearn the behavior or teach a new one Punishment rarely works for long term behavior change Punishment often stirs up negative feelings which can impede learning of new, more desirable behaviors Frustration, resentment, self-doubt, etc. When harsh, punishment may encourage the learner to copy that same harsh and aggressive behavior toward other people Learned Helplessness = failure to take steps to avoid or escape from an unpleasant or aversive stimulus that occurs as a result of previous exposure to unavoidable painful stimuli Example: a college student faced with a series of unsolvable problems may give up trying and only make halfhearted efforts to solve new problems Cognitive Learning Cognitive learning Refers to learning that depends on mental processes that are not directly observable – how people think and solve problems Latent learning Learning that is not immediately reflected in a behavior change Cognitive map A learned mental image of a spatial environment that may be called on to solve problems when stimuli in the environment change Learning by Observing Observational (or vicarious) Learning Learning by observing other people’s behavior A form of social learning because it involves interaction with other people View video “The Magic Years” What have Carl Rosengren’s studies of magic revealed about cognitive development in children? What does the appreciation of magic depend on a person’s age? How has Renee Baillergon studied infant cognitive development? In your answer, be sure to explain her research paradigm and outline her findings. Watch video “A Change of Mind” In what ways is the mind of the typical 3-year-old unlike that of other children? What characteristics of cognition during the play years were illustrated by the preschoolers as they played the card-sorting and doll games? Why was 4 ½-year -old Patrick able to win when playing the “mean monkey game” when 3-year-old Jacob was not? Short-Term Memory (STM) Short-Term Memory Working memory; briefly stores and processes selected information from the sensory registers STM Capacity Information that can be repeated or rehearsed in 1.5 to 2 seconds Methods of Increasing STM Capacity Chunking Grouping of information into meaningful units Rote Rehearsal Retaining information in memory simply by repeating it over and over Long-Term Memory (LTM) Long-term memory (LTM) The portion of memory that is more or less permanent, corresponding to everything we “know” Can store a vast amount of information that can last for many years Most of the information in LTM seems to be encoded according to its meaning, not exact words Maintaining LTM Three ways to hold information in LTM: Rote Rehearsal Elaborative Rehearsal Schemata Rote Rehearsal Rote rehearsal Retaining information in STM simply by repeating it over and over The Serial Position Effect The finding that when asked to recall a list of unrelated items, performance is better for items at the beginning and end of the list The primacy effect describes the extra LTM rehearsal given to first words in the list The recency effect explains that end-words are still held in STM Elaborative Rehearsal Elaborative rehearsal The linking of new information in STM to familiar material stored in long-term memory We tend to remember meaningful material rather than arbitrary facts Mnemonics Techniques that make material easier to remember Schemata Schema = A set of beliefs or expectations about something that is based on experience A mental representation of an event, object, situation, person, process, or relationship, stored in memory, leads you to expect your experience to be organized a certain way i.e. going to the mall, eating at a restaurant, driving a car, attending class It provides a framework into which incoming information is fitted UNIT 4 TEST next week
