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The Bureaucracy I. DEFINITION II. The 19th-century problems III. The turn-of-the-century solution: the civil service model IV. New Problems V. Bureaucracy around the world VI. The Italian Bureaucracy I. A DEFINITION: • executive branch employees that provide & supervise government services II. The 19th-century problems • • • political spoils system of appointment goods system of selling public jobs As a result, employees often: – were politically biased AND/OR – were incompetent AND/OR – saw job as path to easy money by either: • not working • selling government services III. The turn-of-the-century solution • the modern civil service – open, competitive exams • cultivate expertise • fair recruitment to reduce politicization – tenure • continuity • end to politicized firings – regularization: “bureaucracy” • reduce favoritism &/or corruption IV. New Problems • “Red Tape” (via regularization) – complexity of procedures – employees’ ability to “hide” behind detailed rules • Lack of Political Control (via exams &/or tenure) – most of executive branch not appointed – bureaucratic expertise can be politically powerful • bureaucrats control information • often write their own evaluation procedures V. Bureaucracy around the world • Affluent countries have adopted the civil service model – but many southern European & eastern European countries have some dynamics of the spoils (patronage) model patched into a civil service framework via bypasses of civil service rules • Most middle-income & lower-income countries: – have weak civil service models with even more frequent exceptions than the experience on the “European periphery” • contemporary Russia has many offices available via “goods market” bidding • Argentina, Brazil, & Nigeria have many permanent civil servants that get in office via bypasses of weak civil service expertise requirements VI. The Italian Bureaucracy • • A. a very large & functionally diverse bureaucracy – a unitary state tradition of national scope – a region-based reality of diversity • BUR as potential agent of change/control • v. BUR as defender of regional traditions – the south has had larger bureaucracy – southerners comprise 2/3 of all bureaucrats – myriad agencies & parastatal companies – frequent calls to add new services & agencies B. a visible majority of Italian citizens are dissatisfied w/ the bureaucracy’s performance – too much red tape: • “enforce the law for enemies & interpret it for friends” – too much independence (& not enough expertise) • most civil servants have tenure (which is rarely denied or later removed) • the exams are very general (& frequently bypassed) • each agency controls its own personnel w/ minimal interference • most agencies provide sketchy information on activities to EXEC & LEG oversight bodies – politicians often prefer not to reveal political hires • many bureaucrats work short hours &/or 2nd jobs – pay is low for most posts, but benefits are good Subnational Government I. Unitary States II. Federal States III. Subnational Government in Italy I. Unitary States A. DEFINITION – national government has full, ultimate authority throughout the land B. Real-Life Conditions (e.g. France, Italy, Japan, UK) – that said, unitary governments can & do delegate some authority – the key issue is often money: • how much money is automatically distributed to the subnational units? • can the subnational units raise their own revenues? – in most unitary states, the fiscal autonomy of subnational units is fairly limited (especially compared to most federal states) – the more dominant the national government, the less extensive day-to-day political participation will tend to be II. Federal States DEFINITION – national & subnational units each have own spheres of policy-making B. Real-Life Conditions (e.g. US, Germany, India) – that said, this division of spheres is rarely clear-cut • national & subnational units often work on the same issues – the more fiscal autonomy the subunits have, the more vibrant federalism will tend to be • the less fiscal autonomy, the more dominant the national government will tend to be – the more dominant the national government, the less extensive day-to-day political participation will tend to be – federalism often makes nationwide reform harder by increasing the number of decision arenas & participants III. Subnational Government in Italy A unitary state on the road toward greater subnational autonomy 20 regional governments – authorized by 1948 constitution (in wake of fascist concentration of power) but only 5 established initially in geographic periphery • the other 15 established in 1970 – governed by largely parliamentary E-L relations – share responsibilities w/ national government but historically were dependent on national funds – 1998 tax reform created an earmarked regional VAT to pay for health & welfare services managed by the regions • made regions less dependent on annual appropriations from Rome provincial governments – – – – used to be the main subnational unit before 1948 administer responsibilities of municipal governments responsible for unincorporated areas dependent on national funds municipal governments (i.e. communes) – provide many services (some re: unfunded mandates) – dependent on national funds