Download AQA Sociology 1: Education with methods

WORKBOOK ANSWERS
AQA AS/A-level
Sociology 1
Education with methods
This Answers document provides suggestions for some of the possible answers that might be
given for the questions asked in the workbook. They are not exhaustive and other answers
may be acceptable, but they are intended as a guide to give teachers and students feedback.
Section A Education
Topic 1 The role and functions of the
education system
Introduction to the topic
1 Primary socialisation refers to socialisation which occurs within the family, whereas
secondary socialisation is socialisation which occurs outside of the family, e.g. through
education. (2 marks)
2 Consensus sociologists believe that society is built upon social order and stability for the
benefit of all its members. Most people share agreement regarding the accepted norms
and values of society. This is the view held by the functionalist perspective. By contrast,
conflict sociologists regard society as being built upon inequalities in power between
different social groups. Marxists are concerned about the conflict between the bourgeoisie
and the proletariat, whereas feminists are concerned about the conflict between men and
women. (6 marks)
The functionalist perspective of education
3 Value consensus is the general agreement between people of the accepted values of a
society. (1 mark)
4 The specialised division of labour is an economic system in which everyone has different,
specialised roles to play. (1 mark)
5 1 Teaching children History so they feel a sense of pride in their country.
1
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Section A
TOPIC 1
The role and functions of the education
system
2 Teaching subjects such as Citizenship so that children learn more about the culture of
the UK. (2 marks)
6 Ascribed status is the status awarded to children in the family, usually resulting in them
being seen and treated as special. Achieved status is the status awarded to people in
wider society, which means that people’s social status depends on factors such as how
hard they work and what they achieve. (2 marks)
7 Meritocracy refers to the idea that people get out of society what they put in. If people work
hard then they will be more successful and powerful and the opposite is true for those who
do not work hard. Education encourages students to work hard for their exams, as higher
achieving students in school will be more likely to be successful in adulthood. (4 marks)
8 1 Marxists argue that functionalists ignore the power inequalities which exist between the
social class groups and how these inequalities are reproduced by education.
2 Feminists argue that functionalists ignore the power inequalities which exist between
men and women and how these inequalities are reproduced by education.
3 Functionalists exaggerate the extent to which school effectively prepares people for their
position in the future workforce. (6 marks)
The Marxist perspective of education
9 The ruling class is the bourgeoisie and the working class is the proletariat. (2 marks)
10 Capitalism is an economic system based around private ownership of wealth and property
and competition between businesses. (2 marks)
11 False consciousness is when individuals are unable to see the extent to which they are
being exploited within society. (2 marks)
12 A formal agent of social control is an organisation which can exercise official controls over
a person’s behaviour, for example the legal system. An informal agent of social control is
an institution which has unofficial controls over a person’s behaviour, for example their
family unit. (4 marks)
13 1 Schools prepare people to be obedient low-level workers by teaching them to follow
orders from authority figures.
2 Schools select people for the different social class groups: some children are
encouraged to achieve highly and fill higher job roles in future while others are prepared to
accept low-level job roles. (4 marks)
14 1 Functionalists argue that education is a meritocracy and it gives people opportunities to
better themselves and achieve social mobility.
2 Many popular subjects, including sociology, encourage pupils to develop skills such as
critical thinking rather than encouraging them to be passive and obedient. (4 marks)
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Section A
TOPIC 1
The role and functions of the education
system
Marxist theorists
15 Ideological state apparatuses can include the law, religion and the family. (3 marks)
16 Pupils are encouraged to believe that people’s achievements are based solely on hard
work and that those who do not succeed in society have only themselves to blame. (2
marks)
17 1 In the world of work, employees answer to employers; in schools pupils answer to
teachers.
2 In the world of work, employees will have a rota or daily schedule to follow; in a school
pupils have a timetable to follow. (4 marks)
18 1 The lads placed little value on academic qualifications.
2 The lads sought to be as disruptive as possible.
3 The lads wanted to fail school so they could go into manual work as quickly as possible.
4 The lads wanted to have a laugh. (4 marks)
19 1 Apart from Willis, Marxists tend to assume that school will produce passive and obedient
workers.
2 Employers have actually criticised the education system for not providing them with a
well-equipped workforce.
3 Marxists attribute much of the blame for working class underachievement to the
education system, downplaying the extent to which individuals may be responsible for their
performance. (6 marks)
The New Right perspective of
marketisation and vocational education
20 1 GNVQs were rebranded as vocational GCSEs and A-levels to make them more
desirable to young people.
2 More funding and promotion of apprenticeships has offered young people an alternative
to sixth form education.
3 The government have made it compulsory for all young people to be in education or
training up to the age of 18, so non-academic young people may have to pursue
vocational courses. (6 marks)
21 1 Vocational qualifications are regarded as having a lower status compared to academic
qualifications.
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Section A
TOPIC 1
The role and functions of the education
system
2 Career and money-making opportunities are more restricted for those who pursue
vocational qualifications.
3 Training schemes are regarded by Marxists as being a way for employers to take on
cheap or free labour. (6 marks)
Exam-style questions
1 Functionalists regard education as performing important functions which meet society’s
prerequisites.
One function of the education system according to functionalists is to bridge the gap
between the particularistic values of family life and the universalistic values of wider
society. In the family, children have an acquired status. This means that they are seen as
special in the eyes of their parents and are often regarded as being fairly central to family
life. Children learn how to behave according to their family’s rules. When they go to school
they learn that in wider society they are not special. Children are encouraged to work hard
to achieve status, as this is what wider society will expect of them when they hit adulthood.
A second function of the education system is role allocation. Through school processes
such as examinations, children develop an understanding of their own ability levels. How
effectively they work in school will determine how highly they achieve in their exams, and
how highly they achieve in their exams will determine their future career paths. Those
pupils who work hard and perform highly are likely to be allocated the best jobs in wider
society. Those pupils who do not work hard and underperform at school will be allocated
jobs with lower status and lower pay. (10 marks)
2 Functionalists regard education as performing important functions which meet society’s
prerequisites.
As stated in item A, one function of the education system is to prepare pupils for
adulthood. Education does this by bridging the gaps between the particularistic values of
family life and the universalistic values of wider society. Whereas children are regarded as
special and have a privileged, ascribed status in their own family units, school teaches
them that in wider society, they are not. In adulthood, they will be expected to work hard
and compete against others in order to achieve status, something which is encouraged by
schools through examinations and testing. However, sociologists from a cultural
perspective would argue that functionalists exaggerate the extent to which school can
effectively prepare pupils for the competitive nature of wider society. Children’s attitudes
are heavily influenced by the views of their parents. If the parents do not value and support
the practices of the school, it is likely that the children will not engage positively with
school either. This could lead to pupils being underprepared for the adult world when they
leave school.
A second function of the education system is role allocation. As stated in item A, education
provides pupils with equal opportunities and creates the potential for upward social
mobility. If pupils work hard in school they are likely to be allocated the best job roles in the
future, whereas those pupils who do not work hard will end up in lower-level job roles. As it
also states in item A, any inequalities in performance are due to differences in ability level
and work ethic. However, sociologists from both material and Marxist perspectives would
criticise this view. They would argue that class inequalities in performance may be due to
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Section A
TOPIC 1
The role and functions of the education
system
parents having a lack of finances to be able to effectively fund and support their children’s
education, leaving working class pupils disadvantaged and more likely to underperform.
(10 marks)
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Section A
TOPIC 2
Differential educational achievement across
social groups
Topic 2 Differential educational
achievement across social groups
Social class differences in educational
achievement
1 Cultural capital refers to having the appropriate knowledge and skills which are valued by
the middle classes and tend to benefit young people in education. (2 marks)
2 Parents may not be able to afford to spend money to send their children on school trips
which could help to develop their knowledge and skills. (2 marks)
3 The restricted code is more likely to be experienced by working class pupils, whereby they
have a more limited range of spoken and written vocabulary. The elaborated code is more
likely to be experienced by middle class pupils, whereby they have a much broader range
of linguistic skills which benefits their performance in education. (4 marks)
4 1 Setting and streaming seem to disadvantage working class pupils as they are more likely
to be placed in low level groups who are given less encouragement. 2 Working class
pupils may be negatively labelled by teachers who hold low expectations of them, causing
them to underachieve. (4 marks)
5 1 Functionalists would argue that inequalities in achievement are a result of differing levels
of effort being put into education by different pupils.
2 Marxists would blame the education system for operating in such a way that it
disadvantages working class pupils and reproduces class inequalities.
3 The New Right would argue that schools which apply a ‘one size fits all’ approach put
less academic working class pupils at a disadvantage. (6 marks)
Gender differences in educational
achievement
6 The feminisation of the workforce refers to the rapid rise in service sector jobs which are
regarded as being more suitable for female workers. (2 marks)
7 Genderquake refers to the changing priorities of women in today’s society; women now
seek to pursue an education and a career before settling into family life. (2 marks)
8 1 Girls are more likely to read, which means they are more likely to have an elaborated
code which advantages them in education.
6
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Section A
TOPIC 2
Differential educational achievement across
social groups
2 Girls are more likely to support and encourage each other with school work, which
motivates them to succeed. (2 marks)
9 The crisis of masculinity has been caused by a decline in traditional masculine industries
which used to be central to men’s identity. A lack of work opportunities may demotivate
boys at school. (2 marks)
10 As there has been a rise in the female-dominated service sector, girls may be more
inclined to study subjects which will enable them to pursue a career in the service industry.
Courses such as Health and Social Care are popular with females who wish to go into the
health service. (3 marks)
11 1 Boys’ behaviour is more likely to be disruptive and take up teacher attention, meaning
girls get less support in the classroom.
2 Girls may experience the male gaze and find their education is distracted by harassment
from boys. (4 marks)
12 1 Girls learn to be nurturing and caring, which could encourage them to study subjects
such as Health and Social Care.
2 Boys learn to have an interest in technical issues, which could encourage them to study
subjects such as Science and Technology.
3 Girls learn to be more domesticated, which could explain why, when it comes to
technology, girls are more likely to study Food Technology. (6 marks)
Ethnic differences in educational
achievement
13 The ethnocentric curriculum refers to the idea that the subjects and topics studied in
school tend to focus on the culture and values of the White British population and
disregard the minority ethnic population. For example, focusing on the study of Christianity
in RS. (3 marks)
14 Institutional racism refers to any organisation which fails to effectively support minority
ethnic groups. In education, this can be seen through the way in which some teachers
apply negative labels to some minority ethnic pupils, particularly Black Caribbean boys. (3
marks)
15 Lone parenthood is significantly more common in the Black Caribbean community. This
may mean that boys in particular lack a positive male role model to provide them with the
support needed to succeed at school. (3 marks)
16 1 If the child’s parents do not speak English as their first language, they may find it harder
to support their child with school work.
2 If the parents lack a full understanding of the British education system, they may find it
harder to support their child with school work. (4 marks)
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Section A
TOPIC 2
Differential educational achievement across
social groups
17 1 Pakistani and Bangladeshi families may lack the money required to pay for educational
resources for their children.
2 Pakistani and Bangladeshi families may live in poorer-quality or overcrowded housing,
which could cause health problems in children, requiring them to take time off school.
3 Pakistani and Bangladeshi children may be demotivated in school due to the high levels
of unemployment which they can see affects the adult members of their community. (6
marks)
Exam-style questions
1 Cultural factors include issues such as values, attitudes and abilities of pupils and their
parents which could impact upon pupils’ performance at school.
One cultural explanation for working class underachievement is parental attitudes towards
education. Research by Douglas demonstrated that the level of interest and support
parents show for their child’s education will heavily affect how well or poorly they perform
at school. In some working class families, parents may show less interest in their
children’s education. This may be because they had a poor experience of school
themselves, and this memory impacts upon the way in which they view their children’s
experiences. Additionally, working class parents may be less bothered about pushing their
children to stay on in education or training when they get older, so children may not value
education and instead look to go into employment from a much younger age. This means
they are less interested in educational success.
A second cultural explanation for working class underachievement in education relates to
speech codes. Bernstein’s research showed that working class pupils are more likely to
communicate using the restricted code. This is a more casual form of language that is
often used when communicating with friends, for example using slang terms. Bernstein
believed that the restricted code is more likely to be used by working class young people
even in more formal settings like at school. This may reduce the quality of both their
written and verbal communication, impacting negatively on their performance at school.
(10 marks)
2 There are broadly two main factors which can impact upon the performance of working
class pupils in education. External factors are issues which occur outside of school in the
pupil’s home life, whereas internal factors are issues which occur inside school.
One reason for working class underachievement at school may be due to external cultural
factors such as linguistic ability. As stated in item A, working class pupils are more likely to
start school with limited reading abilities. This is what Bernstein refers to as the restricted
code. The restricted code is a way of communicating with others more casually, e.g. by
using slang terms. While this is acceptable between friends, if used at school it can have a
negative impact on pupils’ reading and writing abilities and then negatively affect their
performance. However, it is important to note that some pupils from middle class
backgrounds may also use this speech code frequently. Bernstein has been criticised for
falsely claiming that middle class pupils have superior abilities to working class pupils with
little evidence to back up his claims.
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Section A
TOPIC 2
Differential educational achievement across
social groups
An alternative reason for working class underachievement at school could be due to
internal rather than external factors. As stated in item A, factors within school may be
disadvantageous to pupils from working class backgrounds. Labelling theorists point out
that working class pupils are more likely to be placed into lower sets and streams at
school, meaning that from an early age they are negatively labelled as being low
achievers. This affects how teachers treat them, as they are likely to presume that they are
both academically weak and likely to be trouble makers. Pupils who are constantly faced
with negative reactions from teachers may begin to accept that they are not cut out for
school, leading to a negative self-fulfilling prophecy occurring and eventually educational
failure. However, this approach places much of the blame for working class
underachievement onto teachers and schools and fails to consider that some of the
responsibility for underachievement may lie with the pupils themselves. (10 marks)
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Section A
TOPIC 3
Relationships and processes in schools
Topic 3 Relationships and processes in
schools
The impact of the hidden curriculum on
pupils
1 Pupils face consequences for failing to adhere to school rules, for example, detentions. (1
mark)
2 Pupils may be encouraged to take part in gender-appropriate activities e.g. football for
boys. (1 mark)
3 Pupils learn the importance of organisation and time management while at school. (1
mark)
The impact of teacher stereotyping and
labelling on pupils
4 1 Ideal pupils usually come from a middle class background.
2 Ideal pupils are more likely to be female.
3 Ideal pupils are more likely to be obedient and hard-working. (3 marks)
5 If a pupil has been positively labelled, for example as being ‘hard-working’, this may
encourage the pupil to continue to work harder. They eventually internalise the view that
they are a good student, resulting in educational success. However, if a pupil has been
negatively labelled, for example as a ‘trouble maker’, they may become demotivated and
disruptive at school. They begin to see little point in working hard, resulting in educational
failure. (6 marks)
The impact of setting and streaming on
pupils
6 Setting is when pupils are placed in ability groups for specific subjects. Streaming is when
pupils are placed in ability groups which stay together for all lessons. (2 marks)
7 Educational triage is a process in which teachers make judgements about students: are
they guaranteed to achieve highly, are they likely to do reasonably well or are they ‘lost
causes’? Those students who fall into the former categories will get more teacher
10
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Section A
TOPIC 3
Relationships and processes in schools
attention, as these are the pupils who will get the grades which make the school look
good. (3 marks)
8 An advantage of segregating pupils according to ability level is that those in higher groups
are more likely to succeed due to there usually being fewer behavioural issues in the
classroom. A disadvantage of segregating pupils by ability level is that pupils in lower
groups tend to be negatively labelled and are less likely to be encouraged to succeed. (4
marks)
9 One advantage of mixed ability classes is that those pupils who are more capable can
provide extra support and encouragement to those pupils who are less able. One
disadvantage of mixed ability classes is that behavioural issues may impact upon the
lesson, limiting the amount of attention teachers can pay to high-achieving pupils. (4
marks)
The response of pupils to school
processes
10 A subculture is a group within a larger culture which tends to hold values and beliefs which
contradict those of the larger culture. (2 marks)
11 Anti-school subcultures tend to be made up of pupils who have been negatively labelled
as failures or trouble makers by teachers. They go on to live up to this label by
demonstrating resistant behaviours such as refusing to do homework. (3 marks)
12 An example of a study is Sugarman’s work (1970). He found that social class factors can
determine whether a pupil joins a pro-school or anti-school subculture. Children from
working class backgrounds are more likely to demonstrate attitudes such as fatalism and
present-time orientation. They accept that they will end up in working class job roles in the
future and no amount of hard work will change that. By contrast, middle class children are
more likely to work hard and stay on into further and higher education in the hope of
advancing themselves in the future. (6 marks)
Exam-style questions
1 A self-fulfilling prophecy is when a pupil internalises a particular view of themselves which
they have picked up from other people.
One school process which could result in a negative self-fulfilling prophecy occurring is
individual teacher labelling. Teachers will often hold a particular view of what the ‘ideal’
pupil ought to be like. Typical characteristics of the ideal pupil include pupils from middle
class backgrounds, pupils who are white and often pupils who are female. How a pupil is
labelled by their teachers can create the halo effect, which refers to whether the teacher
treats the pupil positively or negatively. Pupils who come from working class backgrounds,
pupils who are Black and pupils who are male are more likely to be subjected to negative
labels and negative treatment from teachers. This may cause negative relationships to
develop between pupils and teachers and result in the pupils misbehaving and acting
uncooperatively with certain members of staff.
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Section A
TOPIC 3
Relationships and processes in schools
A second school process which could cause pupils to develop a negative self-fulfilling
prophecy is the process of banding, setting and streaming. For pupils who find themselves
placed into the lowest sets or streams, they may feel very demotivated about education.
Pupils in lower sets may find that they are less challenged and stimulated by education as
teachers offer them only very basic information in lessons. They may also find themselves
being punished more harshly for misbehaving as teachers view them in a more negative
way compared to higher-ability groups. Pupils in lower-ability groups may accept quite
early on that they are not cut out for education, and so they give up trying to succeed. (10
marks)
2 School processes include factors such as the overall organisation of a school and the
performance of its teachers. How a school treats individual pupils can have a significant
effect on how pupils view themselves.
One school process which can affect pupils, as stated in item A, is segregation of classes
according to ability level (also known as setting or streaming). This can affect pupils in two
ways, known as polarisation. If a pupil is placed into a higher set or stream, this is likely to
have a positive effect on the individual. They are likely to be given access to more detailed
knowledge and will probably be praised and pushed more by their teachers. This creates a
positive self-fulfilling prophecy in which the pupil views themselves as capable and
successful. They will probably join pro-school subcultures which abide by the norms and
values of the school. By contrast, pupils who are placed into lower sets or streams may
find the opposite happens to them. They view themselves as failures and see little point in
school, so join anti-school subcultures which reject the norms and values of the school.
A second school process which can affect pupils relates to the roles of individual teachers.
As stated in item A, individual teacher reactions can have an impact upon pupils’ selfperceptions. Teachers may hold a stereotype of the ideal pupil, which typically includes
pupils who are white, middle class and female, while pupils who are black, working class
and male are regarded negatively. The initial judgement a teacher makes about a pupil
can create a halo effect, whereby the future relationship between the teacher and pupil is
either positive or negative depending on the judgement made. Evidence shows that middle
class pupils generally outperform working class pupils, and girls generally outperform
boys, which serves as evidence that these pupils are being treated favourably by their
teachers. By contrast, the underperformance of many working class and minority ethnic
pupils may be linked to the fact that these pupils are more likely to be regarded
unfavourably by their teachers. (10 marks)
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Section A
TOPIC 4
Educational policies
Topic 4 Educational policies
Selective education policies
1 The exam in the tripartite system was called eleven plus. (1 mark)
2 If pupils passed the eleven plus, they would go to a grammar school. If pupils failed the
eleven plus, they would either go to a technical school or a secondary modern school. (3
marks)
3 1 Interactionists argue that pupils who failed the eleven plus would be negatively labelled
and could fall victim to a negative self-fulfilling prophecy.
2 Marxists argue that the tripartite system encouraged the segregation of children from
different social class groups.
3 Marxists argue that the tripartite system tended to result in working class pupils gaining
second-rate qualifications and having reduced employment opportunities in the future. (6
marks)
4 Covert selection refers to the idea that schools which are meant to be open to all secretly
prioritise places to pupils from more desirable backgrounds. (2 marks)
5 1 Schools may prioritise places to children from particular catchment areas.
2 Schools may prioritise places to children with professional parents. (2 marks)
6 1 Pupils who begin to develop their academic skills later in life benefit from not being
written off by age 11.
2 More pupils are given the opportunity to achieve better qualifications in a comprehensive
system. (4 marks)
7 1 High-flying pupils may be held back in comprehensive education, as teachers have to
work at a pace which suits the lowest-level pupils in their classes.
2 Comprehensive schools tend to have more conflicts and discipline problems due to there
being so many children from different backgrounds. (4 marks)
Marketisation policies
8 Parentocracy refers to an education system which caters for the demands and interests of
the parents. (2 marks)
9 1 In 1995, GNVQs were introduced so that less academic pupils had an alternative option
to studying just GCSEs.
2 In 1988, the National Curriculum was set up, which included standardised testing at
each key stage to encourage more competition between schools.
13
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Section A
TOPIC 4
Educational policies
3 From 1988, schools operated on an open enrolment policy in which parents could decide
which school to send their children to. (6 marks)
10 1 Education Action Zones were set up in 1998 to raise the educational performance of
children in deprived areas.
2 In 2002, the first Academies opened. They were initially designed to provide a better
quality of education to pupils from inner-city areas.
3 In 2004, Educational Maintenance Allowance was set up to provide extra financial help
to pupils who wanted to progress into further education. (6 marks)
11 Critics have argued that the government’s target of sending 50% of pupils to university
would simply drive down standards and devalue higher level qualifications. This could lead
to higher levels of unemployment among young people in the future. (3 marks)
12 1 Free schools were introduced in 2011 to encourage people to design schools which
cater for local needs and have more independence than schools under full state control.
2 Tuition fees for university were increased so that universities could charge up to £9,000
a year to each student, encouraging more competition between universities.
3 The pupil premium was introduced in 2011; schools with more low-income children on
their records are given extra money to provide better quality support to disadvantaged
pupils. (6 marks)
13 Critics have argued that the government’s changes to education, particularly at FE and HE
level, have put many young people off trying to aim for educational success. This has
reinforced the view that education is for the middle classes. (3 marks)
Private education
14 Public schools are the most expensive private schools which are only accessible for
children of the elite members of society. (2 marks)
15 1 Private schools tend to have smaller class sizes so children get more attention from
teachers.
2 Children who attend private schools are more likely to progress into university than
children from state schools. (4 marks)
16 1 It could be regarded as unfair that children with wealthier parents are given more
opportunities for success than those from lower-income backgrounds.
2 The top industries in the country seem to be more likely to take on employees who
previously studied at private schools.
3 Private schools encourage social segregation and reinforce the view that people with
money are superior to those without it. (6 marks)
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Section A
TOPIC 4
Educational policies
Exam-style questions
1 AS question
Education policies are laws and rules put in place by governments regarding how
education should be delivered to pupils.
One education policy which aimed to encourage equality of opportunity was the
introduction of comprehensive education in 1965. This saw the removal of the 11-plus
exam in most parts of the UK, and instead pupils of different ability levels were sent to the
same schools as each other. The aim of comprehensive schools was to give all pupils
access to the same educational opportunities. Pupils were mostly taught in mixed ability
groups and learned the same subjects as each other. This was regarded as having a
positive effect on pupils. More pupils achieve qualifications from this system compared to
the older approach and pupils who are less academic in primary school are given more
opportunities to develop themselves in secondary school, rather than being ‘written off’ by
an exam by the age of 11.
A more recent policy that aimed to encourage equality of opportunity in education was the
introduction of the Education Maintenance Allowance in 2004. This was a weekly payment
made to pupils from low-income backgrounds who wanted to attend sixth form or further
education upon leaving school at 16. The aim of the policy was to encourage more 16year-olds from disadvantaged backgrounds to stay on in education. The money could be
used to pay for things such as transport and educational resources. This meant that postschool education was no longer seen to be something that only middle-class pupils could
afford to do.
A-level question
Education policies are laws and rules put in place by governments regarding how
education should be delivered to pupils. One education policy which aimed to encourage equality of opportunity was the
introduction of comprehensive education in 1965. As stated in Item A, the comprehensive
system encouraged mixing of pupils irrespective of ability level. Supporters of
comprehensive education argue that this approach has a positive effect on pupils. More
pupils achieve qualifications from this system compared to the older approach and pupils
who are less academic in primary school are given more opportunities to develop
themselves in secondary school. However, critics of comprehensive education argue that
mixing pupils by ability level is damaging to those who would ordinarily be high flyers.
Teachers of mixed-ability groups have to teach to the ability of the lowest pupil, meaning
that more able pupils are under-taught and under-challenged. There are also more
disciplinary issues in comprehensive schools, which may disrupt the learning of all
pupils.
As stated in Item A, more recent policies have focused on ensuring that pupils from lower
socioeconomic backgrounds are not disadvantaged in education by material factors. In
2004, the Labour government introduced the Education Maintenance Allowance (EMA).
The aim of the policy was to encourage more 16-year-olds from disadvantaged
backgrounds to stay on in education by paying them a weekly sum of money ranging from
£10–30, depending on household income. The money could be used to pay for such
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Section A
TOPIC 4
Educational policies
things as transport and educational resources. However, critics of the EMA regarded it as
something of a bribe. It influenced many less academic young people to pursue further
and higher education when they would have ordinarily gone into employment or workplace
training. This has led to a reduction in standards of further and higher education, as too
many people are now in possession of poor quality A-levels and degrees which have not
enabled them to pursue appropriate employment.
2 Cultural deprivation is when individuals are lacking in knowledge, skills and values which
are regarded as important by society, leaving them disadvantaged. This is typically held by
working class people.
3 One external factor which could cause some ME pupils to underachieve is material
deprivation. ME parents are more likely to have a low income, so they cannot afford
educational resources for their children. A second external factor which could affect ME
achievement is language barriers. If children do not speak English as their first language
this could cause them to struggle with schoolwork and underachieve.
4 One criticism which has been made of comprehensive education is that teachers have to
teach to the ability level of the lowest pupil, meaning stronger pupils are not challenged
enough. A second criticism which has been made of comprehensive education is that
discipline problems are more common, meaning that teachers are distracted by bad
behaviour and the learning of all pupils is disrupted. A third criticism of comprehensive
education is that many comprehensives are covertly selective and cream off the most able
pupils, meaning they only really allow the brightest and most able pupils to attend.
5 What is this question asking you to do?
Note that the question is asking you to ‘evaluate the view’. This means that your answer
must include arguments and evidence that both support and critique the view stated in the
question. As this question is about functionalism, you should ensure that your answer
includes the main functions of education as identified by functionalists. These should be
clearly identified and explained using appropriate concepts (to achieve AO1 marks for
knowledge and understanding). Ideally, for each function you identify, you should illustrate
how this can be demonstrated in a real-life educational setting (to achieve AO2 marks for
application). Finally, you must ensure that your answer contains criticisms of the
functionalist views regarding the roles of education (to achieve AO3 marks for analysis
and evaluation). Criticisms should not be opinion-based but should be based on
alternative sociological perspectives of education, such as Marxist or Feminist ideas.
How do the AS and A-level questions differ?
The key difference between the AS and A-level question is the amount of depth and
detail you would be expected to go into, as in the A-level exam there are more marks
available and you have more time to spend on your answer. Additionally, your quality of
written communication should be more sophisticated by the time you sit your A-level
exam, so the organisation and ‘flow’ of your essay should be more developed by this
stage.
Proposed plan
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Section A
TOPIC 4
Educational policies
Below is a suggested plan which you could follow when answering this question. For the
AS version you would be likely to include slightly less information, due to being more
restricted in terms of time. For example, you may only discuss three of the main functions
and your criticisms may be in slightly less detail compared to the A-level answer.

Introduce your essay by presenting a brief overview of what functionalism is and how
functionalists generally perceive the role of the education system within society. Quote
the item by referring to the statement regarding prerequisites.

Identify and explain fully one function of education according to functionalists, e.g. that
education passes on a shared culture and encourages social solidarity. Use the item
by referring to the statement regarding keeping society running smoothly. Apply the
function to examples of educational practices.

Evaluate the content of the previous paragraph by criticising the idea that education
encourages social solidarity and passes on a shared culture. You could do this by
making reference to the concerns of Marxists and feminists, who regard education as
passing on values which benefit powerful groups within society, rather than benefiting
society as a whole. Refer to the second paragraph of the item.

Identify and explain fully another function of education according to functionalists, e.g.
that education bridges the gap between the ascribed status children have in family life
and the achieved status they will have in wider society. Use the item by referring to the
statement regarding how education is meritocratic and status achieved is based on
level of effort. Apply the function to examples of educational practices.

Evaluate the content of the previous paragraph by criticising the idea that education
really prepares people for the achieved status of wider society. You could do this by
making reference to the concerns of conflict sociologists, who regard certain groups as
being more likely to hold a high status in society irrespective of how hard they
work.

Identify and explain another function of education according to functionalists, e.g. that
education provides society with a qualified workforce. Apply the function to examples
of educational practices. Hint: you could relate this paragraph to other topic areas,
such as education policies relating to vocational education. This would be a
particularly good skill to demonstrate in the A-level paper.

Evaluate the content of the previous paragraph by criticising the idea that education
provides society with a qualified workforce. Point out that many employers have
specifically stated that young people are poorly equipped to cope with the world of
work when they leave school. You could also bring in Marxist concerns that young
people may be open to exploitation by employers who hire trainees and apprentices
for a low wage.

Identify and fully explain another function of education according to functionalists, e.g.
that education encourages appropriate role allocation. Use the item by referring to the
statement regarding education providing an opportunity to all. Apply the function to
examples of educational practices.
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Section A
TOPIC 4
Educational policies

Evaluate the content of the previous paragraph by criticising the idea that education
encourages role allocation in a fair way. You could bring in interactionist concerns that
pupils from certain backgrounds are more likely to be prone to negative labelling from
teachers or may be disadvantaged by school processes. Use the item by referring to
the statement that there are distinct inequalities in achievement between pupils from
different social groups.

Conclusion: In general, does education benefit all members of society or does it
reproduce inequalities in opportunity and performance? Try to be neutral in your
conclusion by avoiding phrases such as ‘I think’. Instead, you could close your essay
by saying ‘Based on the evidence above, it can be concluded that…’
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Section B
TOPIC 1
Distinction between data types
Section B Theory and
methods
Topic 1 Distinction between data
types
Primary and secondary data
1 Four examples of primary research methods: questionnaires; interviews; observations;
experiments. (4 marks)
2 Four examples of secondary sources of data: personal/private documents; public/official
documents; media documents; official statistics. (4 marks)
Quantitative and qualitative data
3 Positivist researchers prefer to use methods which are objective and scientific. Methods
which produce quantitative data tend to be more detached and they allow the researcher
to observe clear patterns and trends in social behaviour. Interpretivist researchers prefer
methods which enable them to gain a rich and detailed insight into their participants’ lives.
(4 marks)
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Section B
TOPIC 2
The relationship between positivism,
interpretivism and sociological research
Topic 2 The relationship between
positivism, interpretivism and
sociological research
Positivism
1 Social facts are wider structural forces such as norms, values and institutions which,
according to Durkheim, play a role in shaping human behaviour. For example, education.
(3 marks)
2 A macro approach to research refers to the study of the wider social structure and its
influence on human behaviour, on a large scale. (2 marks)
3 1 Official statistics.
2 Structured interviews. (2 marks)
Interpretivism
4 Symbolic interactionism is the analysis of human interactions, taking into consideration
how people apply subjective meanings to other people, objects, symbols and situations.
Interpretivists are interested to know how people behave depending on how they have
interpreted a particular situation. (3 marks)
5 A micro approach to research involves studying human behaviour and social interactions
on a much smaller scale. (2 marks)
6 1 Qualitative documents.
2 Unstructured interviews. (2 marks)
Comparing positivism and interpretivism
7 ‘Methodological pluralism’ refers to the use of multiple methods in a piece of research,
usually to enable the researcher to build up a fuller understanding of social life. Often this
will involve the use of a variety of data sources, including primary and secondary data and
qualitative and quantitative data. For example, a researcher may look at official statistics
on a key social issue before commencing with more detailed first-hand research such as
conducting unstructured interviews. (4 marks)
Exam-style question
Interpretivist sociologists are highly critical of the approaches taken by positivist
researchers when studying social life. First, they point out that positivist researchers try to
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Section B
TOPIC 2
The relationship between positivism,
interpretivism and sociological research
take a detached, scientific approach to research, believing that it is possible to study
society in the same way that natural scientists study the natural world. Positivists regard
human beings as social puppets whose behaviour is shaped and controlled by wider social
influences. They therefore use methods such as questionnaires and structured interviews
to gather quantitative data that shows correlations between social influences and human
behaviour.
This approach has been rejected by interpretivists, who stress that humans are reflective
individuals who respond in different ways to different social scenarios. Gathering statistical
data do not help us to fully understand how and why people behave in the ways that they
do. Intepretivists would argue that such methods are lacking in Verstehen, as the
researcher does not get a full understanding of how their participants view the world
around them.
Second, interpretivists criticise the methods used by positivists on the grounds that they
create artificial scenarios which are not appropriate for the study of society. Methods such
as questionnaires, structured interviews and experiments are unnatural, and people may
respond to them with a degree of suspicion or uncertainty. For example, people may
withhold information about themselves or amend their behaviour or responses in order to
manage the impression that the researcher gets of them. How a participant comes across
in a brief positivist investigation may not be reflective of how they think or feel in a real-life
setting. Interpretivists argue that this significantly reduces the validity of the data
generated by positivist methods, as there is no guarantee that the data are painting an
accurate picture of the topic being studied.
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Section B
TOPIC 3
Practical, ethical and theoretical considerations
Topic 3 Practical, ethical and
theoretical considerations
Practical considerations
1 1 Finances. If a researcher has a large budget, they can be much more flexible with the
methods they use. However, researchers with limited budgets may be more restricted.
2 Time. Some methods can be done very quickly, whereas others may require more longterm dedication from the researcher. (4 marks)
2 One example of a straightforward method is questionnaires. Compared to other primary
research methods, they can be completed fairly quickly on a relatively low budget. (2
marks)
3 Participant observations can be challenging as the researcher may find it difficult to access
the group they want to study. (2 marks)
Ethical considerations
4 Confidentiality is when a researcher guarantees to keep particular details about a
participant secret, usually to ensure that their identity does not get disclosed. (2 marks)
5 Having the right to withdraw means that participants have the right to pull out of the study
at any time. (2 marks)
6 One way in which researchers can protect their participants is to ensure that all
confidential information is kept private so that they do not suffer any repercussions later. (2
marks)
7 Deception implies that a researcher has not been fully honest to their participants, for
example by not disclosing the true intentions of the study. (2 marks)
8 If a person consents to take part in a study, this simply means that they have agreed to be
a participant. However, for the participant to be able to give full informed consent the
researcher must be fully honest with the participant about the true intentions of the study
so that they know exactly what they are agreeing to take part in. (4 marks)
Theoretical considerations
9 If a method is reliable, it means that the study could be replicated and achieve the same
results each time. (2 marks)
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Section B
TOPIC 3
Practical, ethical and theoretical considerations
10 If a study is representative, the sample should accurately reflect the wider research
population and the data generated should be generalisable to the wider research
population. (2 marks)
11 Verstehen is when a researcher attempts to fully understand their participants by seeing
things from their point of view. (2 marks)
12 Validity refers to how accurate or truthful the data generated from a study actually is; does
it depict an accurate picture of the topic being studied? (2 marks)
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Section B
TOPIC 4
Strengths and limitations of research methods
and data sources used by sociologists
Topic 4 Strengths and limitations of
research methods and data sources
used by sociologists
Secondary sources of data
1 Interpretivists believe that official statistics are not objective facts. Instead, they argue that
statistics are the end product of a series of interactions and decisions made between
various groups of people, particularly those in positions of authority. (3 marks)
2 The statistical iceberg metaphor refers to the idea that statistical data only includes
information which has been formally recorded by official organisations. However, there
may be many more unreported factors which never appear on official records. (3 marks)
3 1 Diaries
2 Letters (2 marks)
4 1 Newspapers
2 Televised adverts (2 marks)
5 If a document is authentic, it means that it is a genuine copy and not a forgery or fake. (2
marks)
6 Personal documents such as diaries may be regarded by some as being high in validity
because they are written privately at the time, meaning that the author is likely to be
honest. However, they could be seen as low in validity as the content is biased and simply
reflective of one person’s opinion of a particular issue. (4 marks)
Sampling techniques
7 A research population is the group of people that a researcher wishes to study, from which
a sample will be selected. (2 marks)
8 A sampling fame is a list of names of all of the people in the research population, which
the researcher then uses to select their sample. For example, the Electoral Register. (2
marks)
9 Random sampling techniques give every member of the research population an equal
chance of being picked to participate in the study. Non-random sampling techniques mean
that only people who are in ‘the right place at the right time’ have a chance of being picked
to take part in a study. (4 marks)
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Section B
TOPIC 4
Strengths and limitations of research methods
and data sources used by sociologists
10 Systematic sampling involves the researcher using an interval number to select names
from a list until their sample is complete. For example, they may pick every third person to
be a participant. (3 marks)
11 Snowball sampling involves the researcher winning the trust of one or a small number of
volunteers to take part in their study. The people in the original sample will then go and
recruit their friends or peers to take part, so the sample grows over time. (3 marks)
Questionnaires
12 Postal questionnaires have a low response rate, which means that they are unlikely to be
returned to the researcher. (2 marks)
13 The imposition problem is when the researcher selects questions and optional answers
which they view as important; they are imposing their views onto their participants. (2
marks)
14 Questionnaires could be regarded as ethically sound because they are completed
individually, meaning that anonymity is guaranteed. (2 marks)
15 1 A researcher should avoid using leading questions, which is where the wording of the
questions guides respondents into picking a particular answer.
2 A researcher should ensure that the language used in their questions is not too
technical, as people may not understand what the question is asking them to do. (2 marks)
Interviews
16 1 The characteristics of the interviewer could create bias. For example, children may not
feel comfortable speaking honestly to an adult researcher.
2 Participants may feel under pressure to gain the approval of the interviewer, so they tell
the interviewer what they think they want to hear. (4 marks)
17 A group interview involves an interviewer directing questions at more than one person in
the same interview sitting. A focus group interviewer involves the researcher taking a more
detached role; the participants engage in a discussion with each other and the interviewer
keeps a record of the outcomes of the discussion. (4 marks)
Observations
18 Going native (1 mark)
19 The Hawthorne effect may occur when people are aware that they are being studied and
so they change their behaviour in response to this. This undermines the validity of the
data. (2 marks)
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Section B
TOPIC 4
Strengths and limitations of research methods
and data sources used by sociologists
20 Participant observations can be time consuming because the researcher first has to ‘get in’
to the group. This can take a while as they gain the trust of the group they wish to study.
They then have to maintain this trust in order to stay in the group, before figuring out a way
of leaving safely. (3 marks)
21 An example of a covert observational study is Patrick’s ‘A Glasgow gang observed’. An
example of an overt observational study is Venkatesh’s ‘Gang leader for a day’. (2 marks)
22 1 Deception occurs because the researcher has to lie about their identity.
2 Legality may be an issue if the researcher has to engage in illegal activities with the
group in order to keep their identity a secret.
3 Consent is not achievable because the group being observed are not aware that they
are being researched. (6 marks)
Experiments
23 Extraneous variables are factors which are not a part of an experiment that can have an
impact on the outcome of the experiment, for example the participant’s mood. (2 marks)
24 An independent variable is something which the experimenter manipulates or changes in
the study. The dependent variable is the outcome of the experiment or the thing which the
investigator is measuring. The dependent variable is assumed to be affected by the
independent variable. (4 marks)
25 The comparative method involves a researcher analysing pre-existing data in an
experimental way:
1 The researcher looks at data relating to different social groups.
2 The researcher makes comparisons between the groups to look for conditions that are
present in some groups but not others.
3 The researcher isolates a cause of particular behaviours or social events. (6 marks)
Exam-style question
1 Covert participant observation involves the researcher joining in with the activities of the
group which they are studying and keeping their identity as a researcher a secret.
Covert participant observation has been heavily criticised on ethical grounds. First,
because the researcher does not disclose their identity to the people they are observing,
this means that deception has occurred. The entire basis of the research revolves around
the investigator lying to the group about who they are and why they are there. The issue of
deception also creates problems with consent, as the people being investigated are given
no opportunity to agree to take part in the study. A further ethical issue which is likely to
arise relates to the legality of the behaviour of the researcher. This method is often used to
study illegal activities, and the investigator may find that they have to participate in illegal
activities so as to keep their identity a secret.
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Section B
TOPIC 4
Strengths and limitations of research methods
and data sources used by sociologists
Covert participant observation has also been criticised on theoretical grounds by positivist
sociologists. Positivists point out that this method is highly subjective, as it involves a
researcher interpreting the behaviours and actions of a group in their own way.
Furthermore, by joining in with the group, the researcher runs the risk of becoming too
friendly with the people they are studying. This is known as going native, and if it happens
it means that the researcher will struggle to write up their report in an objective way.
Positivists also add that participant observations are not reliable, as the method is
completely unstructured and can never be repeated. Additionally, because they are done
on such a small scale they are not representative of the population and the data generated
from them cannot be generalised. (10 marks)
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Section B
TOPIC 5
Sociological theories of society
Topic 5 Sociological theories of
society
Structuralist perspectives
1 Conflict perspectives of society focus on the inequalities that occur within the wider social
structure, e.g. according to social class or gender. Consensus perspectives of society
focus on how most people have a broad agreement with one another regarding social
norms and values, thus maintaining social order for the benefit of all. (3 marks)
2 The organic analogy (sometimes referred to as the biological analogy). (1 mark)
3 The base of society is known as the infrastructure. This is the economy, which includes
the means of production which are owned and controlled by the bourgeoisie. The second
part of society is the superstructure. This refers to all of the social institutions which help to
reproduce ruling class ideology and maintain the mechanisms of the infrastructure. (4
marks)
4 1 Liberal feminists believe that equality for women is achievable by working collaboratively
with those in power so as to make appropriate legal and political changes.
2 Marxist feminists believe that women are exploited by both patriarchy and capitalism;
they take on roles such as housewives which benefits both men and the economy.
3 Radical feminists believe that patriarchy is a problem which is central to men’s innate
need to be dominant over women. (6 marks)
Social action perspectives
5 A social construction is any idea which has been created through social interactions within
a society and given a particular meaning or understanding in that society. (2 marks)
6 Labelling refers to defining an individual as being a particular type of person and putting
them into a category or pigeonhole. (2 marks)
Modern and postmodern perspectives
7 Metanarratives refer to the big theories of how society works, for example Marxism or
functionalism. (2 marks)
8 Postmodernists have been criticised for exaggerating the extent to which people are
individuals and downplaying the extent to which structural factors still shape people’s lives.
(2 marks)
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Section B
TOPIC 5
Sociological theories of society
Exam-style question
1 The idea that society is characterised by individualism, whereby people can create a
unique identity for themselves, and choice, whereby people have the freedom to do as
they please, is promoted by postmodernists. However, not all sociologists agree with these
ideas.
First, Marxist sociologists accuse postmodernists of exaggerating the extent to which
people are consumers within society. In order to be individualistic, people need money to
be able to pay for the consumer goods which enable them to shape their identity.
However, significant numbers of people in society continue to live below the poverty line.
Marxists blame this on the fact that society is capitalist and that wealth and power is
dominated by a small number of people who exploit the labour of the rest of the
population. Working class people continue to have limited funds and limited opportunities
in life because of restrictions imposed upon them by the wider capitalist economy.
Second, Feminist sociologists accuse postmodernists of exaggerating the amount of free
will women have in society. Feminists believe that society continues to be patriarchal, and
that patriarchal ideology still heavily controls the experiences of women. Although more
and more women do choose to pursue education and careers, the majority of women still
find that their freedom later in life becomes restricted due to cultural expectations that they
should eventually get married, have children and put their careers on hold. Additionally,
many women from particular religious or ethnic backgrounds are still very likely to conform
to traditional values due to influences from external social and cultural forces. (10 marks)
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Section B
TOPIC 6
Key debates in sociology
Topic 6 Key debates in sociology
Sociology as a science
1 Scientists ought to look for evidence which could prove their hypothesis to be incorrect. If
they cannot falsify their ideas then they can declare that they are probably (but not
definitely) correct. Sociology is not scientific because the falsification principle cannot be
applied to it. (3 marks)
2 A paradigm is a widely accepted theory or set of ideas which impacts upon the practices of
current scientists, who will do research and interpret findings in a way which reflects the
paradigm. Sociology is not scientific because in sociology there are no paradigms. (3
marks)
3 Positivists place too much emphasis on the importance of reliability in research. Many
scientific discoveries occur accidentally, but scientists write up in their reports ‘what should
have happened’. They get away with it because nobody checks or replicates their work. (3
marks)
4 Many scientific theories are based on things which are not easily observable or testable,
for example studies of the universe. In this sense, sociology could be regarded as
scientific as it too is the study of phenomena which are not always observable, e.g. the
impact of patriarchy. (3 marks)
The relationship between sociology and
social policy
5 Social policies are sets of guidelines or legislation for people to follow. (1 mark)
6 A social problem is an issue which impacts upon wider society, for example educational
underachievement. A sociological problem is any behavioural pattern or social issue which
a sociologist wishes to explain, for example why some groups are more likely to
underachieve in education than others. (4 marks)
7 1 Electoral popularity. If a policy is likely to be unpopular with the voting public, it is unlikely
to be pursued by the government for fear of losing votes in an election.
2 Funding. If a policy would be too costly to implement, the government may decide not to
pursue it. (4 marks)
8 Sociologists can work alongside governments to produce policies which benefit
disadvantaged members of society, e.g. feminist campaigns for legal equality for women.
(2 marks)
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Section B
TOPIC 6
Key debates in sociology
9 Marxist sociologists argue that social policies never have the interests of the people at
heart. Rather than collaborate with government, sociologists should expose their
exploitative ways to the people. (2 marks)
Value freedom in sociology
10 Value freedom is the idea that a sociologist’s personal beliefs should not influence their
research in any way. (2 marks)
11 1 A researcher’s theoretical background will impact upon the topics and projects which
they choose to study.
2 Researchers are conducting research on behalf of the organisation which pays them, so
the values of the funding body will impact upon the research even if the researcher
remains neutral.
3 Researchers who attempt to be value free are spiritless technicians who have lost sight
of what sociology is all about. (6 marks)
Exam-style question
1 Value freedom refers to the idea that a sociologist’s personal values and beliefs should
never affect the research that they do. Positivists believe that value freedom is achievable
and desirable, however, many sociologists reject this view.
First, it has been argued that a sociologist’s theoretical background will undoubtedly have
an impact upon the research that they decide to undertake and the way in which they will
approach the methodology and data interpretation. For example, a sociologist from a
Marxist perspective will always elect to study social issues which relate to class and
wealth inequalities, whereas Feminist sociologists will be more likely to pursue research
which enables them to explore the experiences of women. When it comes to interpreting
the meaning of data, it is unlikely that a sociologist will be able to remain fully objective in
their explanations. For example, in Durkheim’s analysis of suicide statistics he reached the
conclusion that suicide rates were linked to levels of social integration in society. It is
highly unlikely that this conclusion was fully objective, as Durkheim’s functionalist belief
that social integration is the main social force which shapes people’s behaviour will have
affected the way in which he interpreted the data.
Second, the researcher’s personal background may also have an impact upon the
decisions they make when it comes to social research. If a researcher is offered a role in a
study which will earn them a substantial sum of money or may elevate their career in some
way, it is highly likely that they will be persuaded to conduct the work. By contrast,
research opportunities which offer limited funding or may discredit the sociologist in some
way may be less likely to be taken up by the researcher. In this instance, the personal
values of the researcher are very much influencing their actions, as they are basing their
decision on how it will benefit them on a personal level. (10 marks)
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Section C
Methods in context
Section C Methods in
context
Exam-style question
1 When studying the effects of parental attitudes on pupils’ achievement, a researcher may
decide to use a structured interview. A structured interview would involve the researcher
reading out a list of questions to parents and possibly their children as well, and asking
them to provide an answer which the researcher would keep a record of.
A practical strength of using structured interviews, as stated in the item, is that they are
fairly quick to complete compared to other styles of interviews. This is due to the fact that
the questions are pre-prepared so there are no opportunities to go off on a tangent during
the interview. This would be advantageous for the participants, as parents are obviously
busy people who will have to juggle the responsibilities of domestic life, childcare and
possibly paid employment. They may be more willing to participate in the research if they
do not think it will take up much of their time. Additionally, because the interviews can be
completed quickly, the researcher may decide to interview both parents and their children.
This would be useful for the researcher’s data as it would allow them to compare the
responses of the parents and their children to see how they interpret the amount of
support which is provided for schoolwork. The researcher can then identify if the parents
and their children have similar or contrasting views to one another regarding the level of
support being offered with school work.
Ethically, interviews are useful in that the researcher can brief the parents in advance
regarding the aims of the research and how the data will be used. The researcher can also
reassure the parents that the data will be confidential, meaning that their identity will not
be traceable. By maintaining high ethical standards, this can also impact positively on the
researcher’s data. If parents are assured that the information they give will not be linked
back to them, they may be more likely to admit to the researcher if they ‘lack an interest in
their [children’s] school work or … have negative attitudes towards school’ (item). This
would heighten the validity of the data, as if the parents are being honest about their
negative attitudes towards schooling this will allow the researcher to build an accurate
picture of how negative parental attitudes may impact upon pupils’ achievement.
Additionally, if the researcher is interviewing children as well, the children may be more
willing to be critical about their parents’ attitudes towards education if they are assured that
the information they give will remain private. Once more, this could heighten the validity of
the data.
Positivist researchers prefer to use structured interviews because, as stated in the item,
they generate a good amount of quantitative data. This is because the majority of
structured interviews involve the use of closed questions such as tick boxes and rating
scales. With regards to studying the impact of parental attitudes on pupils’ achievement,
the use of structured interviews would enable the researcher to make comparisons
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Section C
Methods in context
between parental attitudes across social groups. As it states in the item, there are
inequalities in achievement across different social groups and some sociologists believe
this is due to pupils’ home lives. The researcher could keep a record in their data of the
family’s characteristics, particularly regarding the social class and ethnic backgrounds of
those being interviewed. The researcher could then identify any correlations in their data
between social background and parental attitudes, for example to see if parents from
middle class backgrounds are generally more supportive of their children’s education than
parents from working class backgrounds. They could also gather data on the level of
support parents provide to their sons and daughters to see if there are any differences
between the attitudes of parents towards children of different sexes. Evidence suggests
that girls generally outperform boys at school, so perhaps some of this may be down to
differential treatment from parents.
Additionally, the structured nature of these interviews makes them highly reliable. This
means that they can be replicated to gain the same results. A researcher may decide to
reuse their interview schedules again in the future. For instance, they may decide to
repeat their study on an annual basis in order to see if the typical level of parental support
offered to pupils by their parents is changing and evolving over time. Alternatively, they
could turn their study into a longitudinal one, meaning that they use the same sample at
regular intervals over a longer period of time. This could be useful for the researcher as
they could see if the same parents change their attitudes towards their children’s
education over time. For instance, they could determine if some parents become more
interested in their children’s education during significant periods in their child’s academic
career such as during their GCSEs or A-levels.
However, structured interviews do have some limitations as well.
Interpretivists dislike the structured nature of these interviews because they generate the
imposition problem. This means that the questions and optional responses provided in the
interview schedule impose upon respondents things which the interviewer regards as
important. When studying parental attitudes towards education, the interviewer may have
very different views to the parents as to what counts as being supportive or unsupportive
towards their children. As a result, the questions asked may not allow the parents to fully
elaborate on the ways in which they show an interest in their children’s education. This
would have a negative impact on the data as it would reduce the validity, meaning that the
data does not paint an accurate picture of the parents’ level of support and interest in their
children’s academic careers.
Another major problem with interviews generally is the fact that they can create interviewer
bias. This is when the presence of an interviewer, including their characteristics and
mannerisms, can affect and influence the way in which participants respond to questions.
This could create problems if the interviewer was trying to see if parental attitudes are
linked to ‘inequalities in the performance of students from different social backgrounds’
(item). Sociological researchers are usually middle class and well-educated people, so if
they were conducting an interview with parents from a working class background, the
parents may feel uncomfortable or intimidated by the presence of someone from a higherclass background. They may feel like they are being judged for having less academic
interests than the researcher, so they may give socially desirable answers which make
them appear to be more academically minded. This would reduce the validity of the data
as the parents are not being honest about their attitudes towards education. Some parents
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Education with methods
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Section C
Methods in context
may even refuse to cooperate, as stated in the item, ‘given the nature of the subject, some
parents may be unwilling to discuss their role …’
Additionally, if the researcher decided to interview children as well as their parents,
problems could emerge due to the fact that the interviewer is an adult who the children
may also regard as something of an authority figure. This could make the children feel less
willing to cooperate with the interviewer, as they may be concerned that the information
which they share will be passed back to their parents. Once again, the children may give
socially desirable answers which create the impression that their parents are fully
supportive of their education even if they are not. This would once more reduce the validity
of the data as the interviewer is not getting a real understanding of how children feel about
the impact of their parents’ attitudes on their own academic performance.
Finally, a major problem of structured interviews is that people may interpret the meaning
of the questions and optional answers in different ways to each other or the wording of the
questions could be too complex for all people to understand. This could be problematic
once again if the researcher is focusing on ‘inequalities in the performance of students
from different social backgrounds’ (item). If the interviewer uses questions which are too
technical, parents who speak in the restricted code (who are more likely to be from
working class backgrounds) may not fully understand the meaning of the question. If they
are too embarrassed to ask for clarification, they may just give any response, reducing the
validity of the data. Likewise, if the interviewer is interviewing the parents of minority ethnic
children, there may be issues with language barriers or the parents may interpret the
terminology in a different way from what the researcher intended. The researcher could
overcome this by employing a translator, but this would increase the costs of the research
overall.
Overall, it can be concluded that structured interviews are mostly useful for studying the
impact of parental attitudes on pupils’ achievement, but the effects of interviewer bias may
be problematic. This could be overcome by using a questionnaire instead.
AQA AS/A-level Sociology 1
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Education with methods
Philip Allan for Hodder Education
34