Download here - The University of Sydney

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Providing our Food for the weekend.
Dr Karl Kruszelnicki
Books for the Receipt Number Lucky Draw.
TROY CAPITAL
(dealing with Financial planning)
First Aid for the Challenge
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Welcome
In 1985 Professor Veronica James set up and ran the first of what
became the Annual Science Camp for Hearing Impaired Children.
Veronica herself very clearly explained why she began these science
camps and why they needed to continue. “I became aware that very
few hearing impaired students actually progressed to tertiary studies,
particularly in the sciences. Hearing impairment is no barrier to
studying these subjects and, because language is acquired as needed,
these are some of the easier subjects for a hearing impaired student to
study. Times have not changed. Hearing impaired students are still
often deprived of the chance to study science and mathematics
because their teachers consider that extra time is needed to help
develop language and assume that these students will never need
mathematics or science skills.”
Many people have brought this weekend into being and we need to
mention the following:
The Committee of Volunteers who make it all happen.
Dr. Murat Kekic, Helen and David Hammersley, Marjorie and
Geoffrey White, Shane Hengst, Mikayla Keen, Shila Jeram, Sally
Peacock, Ankur Chaudhary, Pia Doss, Dr. Hooi Toh, Gregory Staib,
Louise Rakowski, Juliet Schumacher, Sue Boyd and Bryan Johnson.
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The Head Tutors who prepare and lead the Lessons and the Tutors
who assist them.
The ladies of Quota International 35th Division for providing us with
delicious, much needed, food.
And most important thanks go to the University of Sydney, Faculty of
Medicine, Discipline of Pathology, for accepting responsibility for the
Science Challenge.
Currently there are many hearing-impaired and deaf tutors helping out
and, most importantly, going to university. University is not the
answer for everyone, but it should not be dismissed as a legitimate
option for those people who would like to go. Deafness and wearing
of hearing aids is definitely not a barrier, so make sure that you don’t
make it become a barrier, as the biggest limitation to your future will
be the limits you put on yourself.
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A Message from the Faculty of Medicine
By Dr. Murat Kekic
The Faculty of Medicine (Discipline of Pathology) is proud to host
the 2009 Veronica James Science Challenge for Hearing Impaired
Children.
The Faculty of Medicine at the University of Sydney is Australia's
oldest and largest medical faculty undertaking teaching and research
in health and medicine of international standing.
The Faculty of Medicine is part of the University's College of Health
Sciences, the largest and most comprehensive grouping of health and
medical education research in the Asia Pacific region.
The Discipline of Pathology is Part of the Faculty of Medicine. It has
been teaching Pathology to students since 1883.
Dr Murat Kekic is the Department Manager of Pathology, as well as
the Curator of the Pathology Museum.
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In Memory of Judy Gray
20 July 1961 –9 March 2009
! " # $% % &
'% ' ' " ( )""
'I do not have to live forever to have lived my fairy tale. Every day is a bonus - Judy'
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Maps for Science Challenge 2009
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Lesson Index
No.Lesson
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Location
Art
StarLab
Web2Spider
Mirrors
Kidney Dissection
First Aid
Viscosity
Slime
Science in the Kitchen
Molymods
Bosch, Room 192 ground floor Lecture Theatres
Bosch Foyer ground floor Lecture Theatres
Blackburn Building, Level 1, Room 110
Blackburn Building, Level 1, Room 109
Blackburn Building, Level 6, Room 625
Blackburn Building, Level 5, Room 570
Blackburn Building, Level 5, Room 565
Blackburn Building, Level 4, Room 425
Blackburn Building, Level 4, Room 425
Blackburn Building, Level 4, Room 412
Timetable
Saturday
9:30 - 10:15
10.15 - 11:00
11:00 – 11:30
11:30 – 12:15
12:15 – 1:00
1:00 – 2:00
2:00 – 2:45
2:45 – 3:30
Sunday
9:30 – 10:15
10:15 – 11:00
11:00 -11:30
11:30 – 12:15
12:15 – 1:00
1:00 – 2:00
2 :00 -
1
2
3
4
1
10
2
1
3
2
4
3
9
8
10
9
1
10
2
1
7
6
8
7
9
8
10
9
Group Number
5
6
Lesson Number
5
6
4
5
Morning Tea
3
4
2
3
Lunch
1
2
10
1
7
8
9
10
7
6
8
7
9
8
10
9
5
4
6
5
7
6
8
7
3
2
4
3
5
4
6
5
Group Number
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Lesson Number
5
6
7
8
9
10
1
2
3
4
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1
2
3
Morning Tea
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1
2
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1
Lunch
Prize-giving Ceremony in Bosch 1A LT1
Students to sit in rows according to group, starting with
Group One at Row one. Parents to sit at side or rear seats.
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Table of Contents
1. Art
… Pg. 13
2. StarLab
… Pg. 15
3. Web2Spider
… Pg. 31
4. Mirrors
… Pg. 43
5. Kidney Dissection
… Pg. 57
6. First Aid
… Pg. 65
7. Viscosity & Density
… Pg. 75
8. Slime
… Pg. 81
9. Science in the Kitchen
… Pg. 85
10. Molymods
… Pg. 95
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LESSON 1
ART
HEAD TUTORS:
KEITH AND WENDY NORRIS
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SEED SELECTION & SAVING
The seed of a plant is a very complex structure, containing a partly formed plant (the embryo
consisting of a stem bearing a bud, a root and one or more seed leaves), a food supply (the
endosperm) and a tough, protective outer covering (called the seed coat or testa).
Once a seed has been formed in a parent plant, the embryo ceases to develop and
development is not resumed until the seed germinates.
Seed sowing is by far the simplest most economical method of
propagation vast numbers of trees and produces plants with taproot systems. It is also the best means of propagating most shortlived plants (e.g. flowering annuals, biennials and vegetables).
More over, it can be used for a number of plants (e.g. eucalypts
and acacias) for which, as yet, no reliable vegetative propagation
is possible.
Collecting seeds from Australian native trees and shrubs is a simple exercise and can be done
through the year. Some plants (e.g. acacias and eucalypts) release their seeds only at certain
times, others (e.g. callistemons) have seed capsules all the year round.
The seed capsules should be collected as they mature (turn a honey colour). Placed in a
brown paper bag and hung up to dry in a warm, airy situation. After a few days the woody
case will shrink and the seeds will be released.
Collected seeds not sown immediately must be stored correctly, otherwise the germination
rate will not be as high as it should be. Although the seed is dormant (i.e. at a resting stage in
its life), it is alive and capable of developing when exposed to warmth and moisture, and
sometimes to light.
To store seeds, select a cool, dry and airy location of even temperature. Do not store selfcollected seeds in air- tight containers. Preferably, use paper bags or the boxes made of card
as shown in diagram. Label with plant name, date and place collected. It is recommended that
seeds be sown within one year of collection.
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LESSON 2
STARLAB
HEAD TUTOR: SHANE HENGST
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STARLAB
International Year of Astronomy
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The United Nations has declared 2009 the
‘International Year of Astronomy’. 400 years ago in
the year 1609, Galileo Galilei pointed his telescope
to sky for the first time and changed the way we
look at the universe. Galileo is considered to be one
of the first pioneers of ‘Science’ of the modern era.
His observations in 1610 showed bodies going
around Jupiter instead of our own Earth! Thus,
presenting evidence that falsified the geo-centric
(or Earth-centred) model that the majority of
people believed in at the time. Unfortunately for
Galileo, the geo-centric doctrine was backed by the Church and as such
was placed under house arrest for his twilight years.
Galileo was among the first people to
present evidence to falsify a theory in
order to present a new one in its
place. Thus, starting off evidencebased research that today Scientists
still use to justify their research.
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The Universe in which live
We reside on Earth, spinning on its axis (23 degrees) at approx.
1400km/hr, which is revolving around our Sun. The Earth and Sun are
part of a solar system, made up of 7 other (official) planets. Our solar
system revolves around the common centre of a spiral galaxy that
contains a few hundred billion stars. The spiral galaxy is known as the
Milky Way.
Earth and Sun relationship
In relation to the Sun’s own rotation the Earth rotates on a tilt. So, as the
Earth revolves around the Sun, the Sun’s rays penetrate different sides of
the Earth. The relative surface temperature is largely dependent on the
incident angle of the Sun’s rays. For figure below represent a basic model
of the Earth revolving around the Sun in two ‘snapshot’ positions 1 and 2.
The figure shows the relative tilt of the Earth with a dot representing a
location on the Earth, let say Sydney. In position 1, the Sun’s rays
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penetrate the atmosphere directly above Sydney. The corresponding
season for Sydney is then summer. When the Earth is in position 2, then
Sun’s ray penetrates Sydney’s atmosphere at an angle, resulting in winter.
Now, since Sydney in the southern hemisphere, cities in the northern
hemisphere result in winter at position 1 and summer in position 2.
Therefore, it is the angle of the Sun’s rays penetrating the atmosphere,
due to the Earth’s tilt, that determines the seasons on Earth.
Sydney’s latitude is about 33 degrees south of the equator, south celestial
pole: point in the sky where the stars rotate around
Why is the sky blue?
A very common question… the atmosphere that surrounds Earth contains
many types of gases, tons of nitrogen, a lot of oxygen along with other
molecules. When the Sun’s rays strike the atmosphere, it is absorbed by
the oxygen molecules and then is scattered in all directions. It turns out
that the oxygen molecules resonates with the same frequency as blue light
(see Nature of Light section), thus, blue sky during the day. Of course, the
blue sky can be hindered by clouds but that is another effect.
Furthermore, if you ever notice with sunrises and sunsets the sky around
the Sun appears redder. This is because the Sun’s rays are now resonating
with the dust molecules (corresponding to same frequency as red light) in
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the air just above the ground. As the Sun completely sets, then there is no
direct sunlight and thus a clear window to the stars can now be seen.
Night Sky
Constellations
In the modern day catalogue there are 88 constellations not all can be seen
at once. A constellation is defined by a group stars that represents an
object or living thing. The constellation of Sagittarius is roughly the centre
of our galaxy.
The Ecliptic
Currently, it is said that the Solar System consists of the Sun and
8 planets. (As of 2006, astronomers declared Pluto to be
a ‘dwarf planet’). The Sun, relatively speaking,
resides at the centre of the Solar System whilst
all the other planets roughly orbit the Sun in
concentric nearly-circular paths. (See image).
The planets don’t exactly orbit the Sun but
rather orbit around a common centre of mass
called the ‘Baryonic Centre of Mass’ (even the
Sun orbits this point!). As an observer on Earth, it
would appear that the Sun, the Moon and all the other
planets follow an imaginary line called the Ecliptic (rising in the
east and setting in the west).
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The Zodiac Constellations
The constellations of the Zodiac reside on along the ecliptic. While not
commonly referred to in the Astronomy catalogue but rather than in
Astrology; and as such an Astrologer will define your Zodiac constellation
when the Sun is in a particular constellation (viewed from the Earth) when
you are born. To an astronomer, they have a similar definition of the
Zodiac, although these constellations were made over 2000 years ago and
as such the stars, our Sun, and the planets have progressed through space
during this time. As a result, it turns out that the Sun’s path along the
‘ecliptic’ travels through an additional constellation called Ophiuchus,
known as the ‘Serpent Keeper’.
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Navigation
Sailing ship captains back in the day used the stars to navigate. In the
Northern Hemisphere it was easier to find North by using the North Star,
that corresponds to the northern celestial pole. Finding south using the
Southern Cross and the Pointers:
This method finds the south celestial pole: a point in the sky where the
stars appear to ‘orbit’. Sydney’s latitude is about 33 degrees south of the
equator and the south celestial pole is also about 33 degrees in elevation.
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Stars
An astronomer’s perspective
Cataloguing
When naming a star, it is usually done by taking the suffix to be the
constellation that they are in and the prefix is based on the Greek alphabet
– alpha = brightest, beta = second brightest and so on.
Brightness
Stars can vary from being very dim to very bright. A star is dependent on
both the amount of fuel and the distance from Earth. Stars can also vary
their brightness over time and they are known as ‘Cepheid’ variable stars.
These types of stars can determine how their distance from Earth. The
brightest star in the Night Sky is Sirius.
Colour
The colour of the stars is dependent on how hot they are. They also
indicate their relative age to each other.
Blue Stars
Hot and Young!
Surface Temp: ~25,000oC to ~100,000oC
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Yellow Stars
Warm and Middle-Aged!
Surface Temp: ~6000K
Red Stars
Cool and Old!
Surface Temp: ~3000K
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Milky Way
A galaxy is defined as a system of billions of stars, which is held together
by a mutual gravitational attraction. The larger galaxies are thought to be
driven by a super-massive black hole. The Milky Way galaxy is
approximately 100,000 light years across that has about 200 billion stars.
Our Milky Way is one of the most dominant galaxies in our local group
that contains 40 galaxies (which includes LMC, SMC and the Andromeda
galaxy). It is thought that our ‘Milky Way’ galaxy is barred spiral galaxy
that is part of local group galaxies. There are literally billions upon
billions of galaxies teaming in the Universe, the exact number, we don’t
know and probably won’t know. (see section on ‘Measuring up the
Universe’)
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Nature of Light
What is Light?
Light is usually termed to what we can see with our own naked
eyes. A scientific definition is broader and specific. When I say broader, I
mean does not just includes the visible light but also includes: radio, IR,
UV, X-rays and gamma-rays (see image); and when I say specific, I mean
that light comes in something called ‘electro-magnetic’ energy, which
come in all different ‘sizes’. These ‘sizes’ determine if they are IR, UV, etc.
To be precise, the ‘size’ is defined by its frequency (or its wavelength). To
explain: one way to ‘look’ at light is by observing its corresponding
waveform:
λ
Note that this is only model of the waveform and can be expressed
mathematically. Also, that waveform is continuous and repetitive.
Velocity = Frequency times Wavelength
V=fxλ
V = speed of light (universal speed limit)
λ = wavelength (length of waveform – i.e. length of one revolution)
f = frequency (how often the wavelength passes a specific point in space
per second)
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Measuring up the Universe
Distances:
A light year is the common unit we use to measure distances to the stars.
A light year is defined by how far light travels in one year. The speed of
light is approximately 300 000 00 metres per second (or 1.8 million km/h).
Our closest star called Alpha-Centauri (one of the pointer stars) is about
4.3 light years away. It takes a finite time to reach us, which means that it
took four-and-a-bit years for the light from Alpha-Centauri to reach Earth.
That means we are
always looking into the
past, which also
means, that these
objects may or may not
still exist.
INTERESTING FACT:
It takes about 8
minutes for light to
reach us from the Sun,
which means that if the
Sun exploded at this
instance, we won’t
know about it until 8 minutes later.
Historical Perspective:
As a result of the finite speed of light, with all light that we see, we are
always looking into the past.
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Big Bang Theory
The general consensus now says that the universe began with a ‘big bang’
of which everything suddenly expanded from a single point.
It turns out Astronomers can look back as far 300,000 years after the big
bang where we see a glow in the microwave regime with tiny temperature
variations that corresponds to the birth places of what is thought to be
galaxies. This is known as the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB, see
image). The CMB
is
very close to the
‘edge’ of the
observable
universe and it is
determined to be
about 14 billion light years back in time. Note, again, that this is
measurement of time not distance. Thus, this there is a limit to our
observable universe. The exact size of the physical universe is not known
and probably will not know because we can look into a time ‘bubble’ of
the universe.
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Are we alone?
Scientists believe since that life evolved here on Earth, there is the
likelihood of finding life elsewhere in the universe. There are several
methods of finding the possibility of life beyond our solar system:
Our Solar System & Exoplanets
It turns out that our solar system is unique because no astronomer has yet
to discover an Earth-like planet around
another star system. A planet around a
star, other than our own Sun, is called an
extra-solar planet (or exo-planet for short).
As of March of this year (2009), there has
been a sum of 344 exo-planets discovered;
however, none as yet exhibits the same properties to that of Earth.
The Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence (SETI)
“SETI … is an exploratory science that seeks
evidence of life in the universe by looking for
signature of tis technology.” A common
example of finding such signatures is by
listening out for radio signals from distance
civilisations.
So far we haven’t heard anything…
BUT THE UNIVERSE IS REALLY, REALLY,
REALLY BIG!!!!!
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So, it begs the question: ARE WE ALONE? What are the possibilities…?
“If it is just us, it seems like an awful
waste of space”
Contact – written by Carl Sagan
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LESSON 3
WEB2SPIDER
HEAD TUTOR: GREGORY STAIB
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Web2Spider
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Lesson Objectives
Background
There are over 34, 000 identified species of spiders in the world, and, to assist scientists in
classifying species they are grouped into approximately 100 families. Australia hosts
extremely high biodiversity of spiders with approximately 80 of the recognised spider
families living here. About 3330 Australian species have been described so far; with more
than 6000 still awaiting description.
The sp ders that use their silk producing ability to construct prey-catching webs (‘orb-webs’)
are the ones of interest to us. Depending on the type of spider orb-webs can vary in size,
shape, orientation, patterns, and the type of silk used. These differences between spider webs
allow us to identify the type of spider that built it.
Today you will receive a data sheet explaining the characteristics of 19 orb weaving spiders
provided by the Australian Museum. To identify the spiders we find you will also be using a
‘dichotomous key’ which is similar to a flow chart. We will be going to a few different areas
and a data sheet has been included for you to tally up which spiders you find in each area.
Before we begin we need to learn a few spider facts so that we know what features of a
spider’s web to look out for. It is important that nobody touches the spiders in their webs.
Although the spiders we are looking at today are not poisonous to humans they play a vital
role in the ecosystem and it is important to be aware and respectful of this, and not disturb
their webs.
DO NOT TOUCH ANY OF THE SPIDERS OR THEIR WEBS!!!!!!!!!!
Identifying Elements of a Spider Web
The most basic part of a spider’s web that we may notice are the threads coming out from a
central hub, called the radius threads. Circling around the radius threads is the silk that the
spider uses to catch inscets, this is called the spiral. The basic scaffolding that the spider uses
in constructing its web to anchor it to the earth are the frame threads. Figure 1 on the
following page shows an incomplete orb-web displaying these elements. The section of a
spider’s web between two radial threads (highlighted red) is known as segment.
Some spider webs like that shown in figure 2 may have a signal line. The spider may sit
outside the web perhaps under the cover of a curled leaf to protect them from birds and wait
for insects to fly into the web. The web will start vibrating as the insect struggles, and,
because the spider has this signal line they will be able to quickly go wrap their dinner.
Figure 1 and figure 2 are examples of spider’s webs that we define as ‘incomplete’ although
in figure 2 it is only a pie slice or segment that is missing. The hub in both these figures is
approximately in the centre of the web but sometimes (as you may see in the field) it can be
quite offset.
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Figure 1
Figure 2
Some spider webs have different orientations. That is to say they may be horizontal or
vertical to us in orientation and this is due to different spider species building webs for the
capture of specific prey types. Spider webs may have different decorations in the hub and
again this depends on the type of species. Figure 3 shows some different decorations that you
may encounter in the field today. A glossary is also included at the end of this lesson with
further descriptions.
Figure 3
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Spider Identification Table (Summary)
The following table shows the most likely spider that you will find when viewing any of the
19 different web types. Some web types for example W2 have two spiders associated with it.
This is because the webs that these two spiders are very similar so that further work is
necessary before it can correctly be identified. The data sheet you will have with you in the
field will be of assistance if this happens.
Web Type
W1
W2
W3
W4
W5
W6
W7
W8
W9
W10
W11
W12
W13
W14
W15
W16
W17
W18
W19
Spider Name
Argiope keyserlingi
Araneus
Argiope protensa
Zosis
Cyclosa
Argiope
Cyclosa
Cylcosa
Austracantha minax
Phonognatha graeffei
Araneus dimidiatus
Nephila
Arachnura higginsi
Phonognatha graeffei
Philopenella
Nephila
See others
Eiophora
Tetragnatha
Leucauge
Common Name
St Andrew’s Cross spider
Young St Andrew’s Cross
spider
Jewel spider, Christmas spider
Leaf-curling spider
Leaf-curling spider
Golden orb spider
Scorpion tailed spider
Leaf-curling spider (young)
Signal-line spider
Golden orb spider (young)
Garden orp spider
Long-jawed spider
Silver orb spider
On the following page is a copy of the dichotomous key that you will be using in the field to
identify the spider from the web that you are looking at. One is to use when you are
observing a complete orb web and the other for orb webs with missing sections. We will
go through an example of a spider’s web using this key before we set of.
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Example using the Spider Key Charts:
Is it a complete web or a web with missing segments?
Missing segments
Is there a rolled leaf in the web or is it without a rolled leaf?
_________
Is there a signal line?
_________
Is there a ‘pie slice’ or missing segment?
_________
Is the hub in the centre or offset?
_________
Does it look like there are more or less than 20 radials in a 90 degree segment? (compare
with figure 2)
_________
OUR SPIDER IS….
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Web2Spider Data Sheet
Location:
Weather Conditions:
Date:
Time:
Tallies
Web Type
W1
W2
W3
W4
W5
W6
W7
W8
W9
W10
W11
W12
W13
W14
Area 1
Area 2
Area 3
Area 4
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More Field Exercises (If time permits)
Draw some decorations you see in the hub of some of your identified spiders or some of their
webs.
Spider Web Type:
Spider Web Type:
Spider Web Type:
Spider Web Type:
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Glossary
A barrier web, also known as a labyrinth, is a haphazard series of silk lines in front of and/or
behind an orb web. These are thought to help deter and detect predators. The lines may also
help to disorient flying prey, making them more likely to fly into the orb, which is the
catching part of the web.
Catching surface: the area of an orb web that is covered by spirals or switchbacks of sticky,
stretchy silk. In missing sector webs, the missing sector is defined by not having this catching
surface, although a tangle of lines may fill the gap.
Debris refers to the remains of the spider’s meals and sometimes small scraps of leaves and
bark that are incorporated into webs and retreats. Some spiders join these bits in a line and
hang it from the web, whereas others attach it to the surface of the web using conspicuous
white silk. Retreats may also be made from, or incorporate, debris.
Decorations are silk patterns, or sometimes the silk-wrapped remains of the spider’s meals
(debris), which are woven onto the surface of the orb web. If examined closely the silk
patterns often zigzag.
Fan: indicating the shape of a hand fan. Extending out from a central point.
Hammock: what we have termed here a hammock web is a sheet web that is suspended like
a trampoline or circus safety net. The main supports and stabilising lines are around the edge
and below the sheet and the centre is lower than the edges. There is often a tangle below the
sheet where the spider waits for prey.
Horizontal: see orientation
The hub is the central area of an orb web. This is typically an irregularly woven area where
the radial support lines meet and are joined together. Some spiders eat away part of this area
when they have finished making the sticky spiral.
A knockdown web is a tangle of lines above or below a sheet web which disorients or
intercepts flying insects so they land or fall onto the sheet. Like barrier webs, knockdown
webs probably also serve a protective function by preventing predators such as wasps from
easily flying in.
Lace webs do not contain sticky silk, instead they capture prey by snagging. Each line is
composed of many tiny fibres which are combed to produce an entangling fuzzy thread,
rather like a fluffed out strand of wool or cotton. The web is constructed in a characteristic
pattern of ladder-like sections with zigzag steps. New regions show this clearly, but as the
web ages, this structure decomposes, and sometimes new layers are laid over the old.
Eventually the structure of old areas of the web appears as a jumble of different-sized
squares, rectangles and circles.
A nest can be considered as a glorified retreat. Here we are specifically referring to the
densely woven home of a particular kind of spider. These are often solitary, in which case the
nest may be small, but sometimes they live communally, and the large nest may contain up to
one hundred or more spiders.
Orientation: vertical, horizontal or sloping. These are all terms used to describe how an
orb web is positioned. Using a bicycle wheel as a model, ‘vertical’ would refer to the normal
orientation with the bicycle held upright ready for use. ‘Horizontal’ would apply if the
bicycle were lying on its side, or ‘sloping’ if it were angled from being leant against a low
wall or post.
Platform webs are a kind of sheet web. The sheet is gently to steeply sloping up and out
from the spider’s retreat, which is in a silk-lined burrow. The sheet is pulled taut into a
smooth surface, which the spider runs on. This is the platform. Above the platform is a maze
of knockdown lines.
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Radials are the silk lines that radiate from the centre of an orb web to the outer frame or
support lines like the spokes of a wheel. They are the framework on which the catching spiral
is laid.
A retreat is a hideaway where the owner of the web may be lurking. This is typically a dead,
curled leaf; a hole in a dead twig; or pieces of debris joined to form a tube, which is bound
with silk. Sometimes the retreat is just a denser area of silk lines woven into a tunnel, which
is usually against a twig or leaf. Often there is a protective tangle of lines around the retreat
area, which can make it look like a separate web.
Sector: if you think of the radial lines that go from the centre of an orb web to the frame as
being like the spokes of a wheel, then the area between each spoke is a sector (like a pie
slice). ‘Missing sectors’ might be filled in with a tangle, but there are rarely any catching
spirals through them. The catching spirals either form a U-turn to either side or end abruptly.
A sheet is a closely woven mesh of non-sticky silk lines. Sheet webs can be simply guyed out
to the adjacent substrate, e.g. vegetation etc., or associated with a tangle of vertical or
haphazardly orientated lines. The sheet part can be seen as a distinct flat or curving surface
among the supporting lines. Dew, or a fine spray of water droplets, shows a sheet up clearly.
A signal line allows the spider to hide away from an orb web in relative safety, whilst
allowing it to monitor the web in case prey flies in. The signal line is usually attached in the
hub area at one end and can be followed to the spider’s retreat at the other. One leg of the
spider can often be seen resting on the line.
Silk is composed of thin, strong protein fibres. Silks are produced by a number of
invertebrates, including caterpillars such as the ‘silkworm’ and spiders. Whereas the
caterpillars and other insects mostly use silk to make a nest or a cocoon, spiders have adapted
silk for all kinds of purposes. These include the covering for egg sacs, for making secure
retreats and, of course making webs. Spider silk is spun from the spinnerets, on the tip of the
spider’s abdomen. Several different kinds are made, including combed fluffy silk (cribellate
silk) which is used in lace webs, strong non-sticky threads like those that support orb webs
and the sticky silk that is coated with viscous droplets and makes up the catching spiral on
many orb webs.
Sloping: see orientation.
Spirals form the catching surface of a typical orb web. Sometimes there is literally one
continuous spiral from the outer edge of the web into the hub. In other webs there may be
breaks, or the catching thread may reverse direction once or many times. In most orb webs
the spirals are made of sticky silk that is coated in glue-like droplets. A few kinds of orb webs
have catching silk of a different nature (cribellate silk). This cannot be as highly tensioned as
sticky silk, and so these webs often appear untidy and ‘floppy’.
A tangle is a more-or-less unstructured and haphazard collection of silk lines without other
features like an orb or a sheet. As a guide, we have defined a simple tangle web as anything
over five lines in roughly a 10 x 10 x 10 cm area. When tangles are a part of a different web
type they usually have a special name; for example, a system of haphazard lines placed on
either side of on orb or below it is usually called a ‘labyrinth’ or ‘barrier web’ and a similar
tangle above a sheet web is often called a ‘knockdown web’.
Vertical: see orientation.
References
Web2Spider package prepared by the Australian Museum.
Foelix, R.F, Biology of Spiders, 1996
Further information can be found at www.bugwise.net.au
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LESSON 4
MIRRORS
HEAD TUTOR:
SALLY PEACOCK
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MIRRORS
The “OPTICS” of EUCLID was a treatise on perspective, the geometrical
principles of vision.
Before beginning our adventure of discovering the physics of OPTICS,
let us look at some of the results which may help us.
1. “Equal magnitudes situated at unequal distances from the eye appear unequal
and the nearer always appears larger”
Do you agree with that statement?
............................................................................................................................
2. Parallax
Hold a pencil vertically at arm’s length. In your other hand, hold a second
pencil about 15cm closer than the first. Without moving the pencils, look at
them while you move your head from side to side. Which way does the nearer
pencil appear to move with respect to the one behind it when you move your
head to the left?
............................................................................................................................
Now move the pencils closer together and observe the apparent relative
motion between them as you move your head. Where must the pencils be if
there is to be no apparent relative motion, that is, NO PARALLAX between
them?
............................................................................................................................
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Experiment 1
AIM: Using the method of parallax, locate images in a plane mirror
•
Support the plane mirror vertical on table. Stand an object about 10cm in front of the
mirror.
Where do you think the image of the object is?
............................................................................................................................
Move your head from side to side while looking at the object and the image.
Is the image in front of, at the same place as, or behind the real object?
............................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................
•
What part of the mirror reflects the object?
............................................................................................................................
•
Locate the position of the image of the object by moving a second object around until
there is no parallax between it and the image of the first object. Mark the position of
the object, its image and the position of the reflecting surface of the mirror of the
paper. DO NOT MOVE THE MIRROR OR OBJECTS!
•
Now repeat this experiment for two other objects. Remove the mirror and measure
the distances from the objects to the reflecting surface and complete the following
table.
Type of object
Distance of object Distance of image
pin from mirror
pin from mirror
Object 1:
Object 2
Object 3
How do the distances of the image and object from the reflecting surface compare?
...........................................................................................................................
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Experiment 2
AIM:
(a)
(b)
To locate the position of an object by drawing rays which show
the direction in which light travels to it from our eye.
Use the method of (a) to locate the image of an object in a plane
mirror
•
Place a new sheet of paper on the table, under the mirror. Draw a line on the paper
to mark the location of the mirror
•
Stick a button onto the piece of paper. This will be the object button.
•
Establish the direction in which light comes to your eye from the object button by
sticking 2 additional buttons into the paper along the line of sight
•
Your eye should be at arm’s length from the buttons as you stick them in place so
that all three buttons will be in clear focus simultaneously.
•
Look at the object button from several widely different directions and, with more
buttons, mark the new lines of sight to the object button.
•
Use a pencil to mark the paper through the centre of the buttons.
•
Remove the mirror, then, with a ruler draw a line through each set of line of sight to
the mirror. Using a dashed line, continue the lines beyond the mirror.
•
Where do these lines intersect
...........................................................................................................................
•
THIS POINT IS THE IMAGE
•
Measure the distance of the image from the mirror and the distance from the object
to the mirror.
Distance from object to mirror: ..........................................................................
Distance from image to mirror:..........................................................................
•
Do these measurements agree with those from experiment 1?
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
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•
Repeat this experiment on a new piece of paper, but this time, when you draw the
lines-of-sight draw them to the mirror, but not past the mirror.
•
Where the lines meet the mirror, draw a line back to the original object button.
What do you conclude about the angles formed between the mirror surface and the
light paths?
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
•
Draw a line perpendicular to the mirror from the point where an incident ray meets
the reflecting surface. This line is called the normal to the mirror.
What part of the mirror reflects the light?
...........................................................................................................................
The angle between the incident ray and the normal is called the angle of incidence.
What do you think would be called the angle of reflection?
...........................................................................................................................
•
Measure the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection
•
Enter your results in the table below.
•
Repeat the experiment for 4 different angles of incidence
Experiment
Angle of incidence
Angle of reflection
1
2
3
4
What can you conclude from your table of results?
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
Can you explain why you can see
the sky in a puddle, or in a lake?
............................................................
............................................................
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The Greeks in the 4th century BC had discovered that:
1) The angle of incidence = the angle of reflection (i.e.
= , in the picture above)
2) The image is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front.
Do your results agree with these?
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Some exercises
What do you think will happen in these situations? Draw the rest of the path of light.
LIGHT
MIRROR
MIRROR
BLUE
MIRROR
RED LIGHT
MIRROR
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More exercises
What do reflections of letters look like?
1. On a new piece of paper under the mirror write the following letters. Draw the image
of the letter in the space in the following table.
A
B
G
N
2. On a separate piece of paper write the following letters, then turn the sheet towards
the mirror. Draw the image of the letter in the space in the following table
A
B
G
N
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3. On a sheet of transparent paper, write the following letters, then turn the sheet
towards the mirror. Draw the image of the letter in the space in the following table:
A
B
G
N
What do you notice about the orientation of the images?
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
What do you notice about the size of the image relative to the size of the
object?
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
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Draw a picture of how the light rays travel to reach your eyes, for each of the three
exercises. In your sketch make sure you include:
•
Where your eyes were
•
Where the mirror was
•
Where the letter was
•
Is your picture drawn from above? Or from the side?
Exercise 1
Looking down at the
mirror, and the page
Exercise 2
Reading letters on a
piece of paper
Exercise 3
Reading letters on a
transparent sheet
Questions:
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Are there any letters that look the same in mirror writing? Write them down
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
How would you write: “Seeing is believing” in mirror writing?
...........................................................................................................................
Can you write a secret message to your friend in mirror writing?
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
How might you read a secret message written in mirror writing?
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
Emergency vehicles such as ambulances are often labelled on the front hood
with mirror writing. Explain why this is so.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
Draw the lines of sight to the two ends of the arrow in the following drawing.
Use a dashed line to show the line of sight to the image beyond the mirror.
IMAGE
OF
MIRROR
ARROW
EY
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Harder Questions:
If you walk across a room at 1m/s towards a plane mirror, with what speed
does your image move? Give reasons for your answer.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
With what speed does your image approach you?
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
A piece of white paper reflects a lot of light, yet you cannot see your own
image in the paper. Explain.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
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Experiment 3
AIM: To investigate of images of images, i.e. to answer the question – “can
mirrors produce more than one image of an object?”
•
Set up 2 mirrors end to end along one of the axes of a graduated circle, and place an
object in front of the join of the mirrors – say 4cm from the mirror.
How many images do you see?
............................................................................................................................
•
Decrease the angle between the mirrors by rotating both mirrors about the join A,
while keeping your eye directly in front of A.
How many images can you see when the angle between the mirrors is 120°?
............................................................................................................................
How many images can you see when the angle between the mirrors is 90°?
............................................................................................................................
How many images can you see when the angle between the mirrors is 45°?
............................................................................................................................
What about other angles of the mirror?
Angle
120
90
Number of images
45
Can you find any relation between these numbers?
............................................................................................................................
Can you predict the angle when these will be:
1) 11 images? ...........................................
2) 15 images? ...........................................
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Some more exercises
Look in a mirror and wave to yourself. Which hand are you waving with? Which
hand is your image waving with?
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
Put two mirrors at right angles to each other. Look into the corner of the mirror. You
should see your reflection. Wave at your reflection. Which hand is your image
waving with?
............................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................
Draw in the lines of sight in the sketch to see what is happening.
MIRROR
EYE
MIRROR
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LESSON 5
KIDNEY
DISSECTION
HEAD TUTOR: TRAN LAM
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The Urinary System
The principal function of the urinary system is to maintain the volume and composition of
body fluids within normal limits. It keeps chemicals, such as potassium and sodium, and
water in balance by regulating the amount that is excreted in urine.
The urinary system plays a major role in excretion, the
removal of waste from the body, in the form of urine
The body takes nutrients from food and converts them to energy through a
process known as cellular metabolism. This results in the production of
waste that is left behind in the intestines and in the blood. Waste carried in the
blood, called urea, is produced when foods containing protein, such as meat,
poultry, and certain vegetables are broken down in the body. Urea is carried
in the bloodstream to the kidneys.
Although the urinary system has a major role in excretion, other organs contribute to the
excretory function.
Lungs
Skin
Liver & intestines
Removes bile pigments that result from the destruction of haemoglobin.
Haemoglobin is found in red blood cells, responsible for carrying and
transporting oxygen in the bloodstream.
The major task of excretion still belongs to the urinary system. If it fails the other organs
cannot take over and compensate adequately.
Other functions of the urinary system include:
-
Regulating the concentration of various electrolytes in the body fluids and
maintaining normal pH (the acidity) of blood
Controls red blood cell production by releasing a specific hormone called
erythropoietin
Maintains normal blood pressure by releasing a specific enzyme called renin
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The urinary system consists of the paired kidneys, the paired ureters, the bladder and the
urethra.
What is the function of the following organs in the urinary system?
Kidney: ___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Ureter: ____________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Bladder: ___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Urethra: ____________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Normal urine is sterile. It contains fluids, salts and waste
products, but it is free of bacteria, viruses and fungi.
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The kidney
The kidneys are located at the back of the abdominal cavity, one on either side of the spine.
The RIGHT kidney sits below the diaphragm, behind the liver while the LEFT is below the
diaphragm, behind the spleen. Due to the arrangement of the large liver the right kidney sits
slightly lower than the left.
The kidneys are purple/brown in colour and are often described to be BEAN-shaped
WHAT HAPPENS INSIDE THE KIDNEY?
Waste transported via the bloodstream enters the kidney through the renal artery which
branches off into smaller blood vessels, called arterioles. The kidney consists of millions of
tiny filtering units, called nephrons. Each nephron is made up of a very small filtering
network of capillaries called the glomerulus, which is surrounded by the Bowman’s capsule
attached to the renal tubule.
Water and waste products are separated from the blood at the glomerulus and flows into the
tubules. The bulk of water re-absorption takes place in the Loop of Henle (part of the renal
tubule) and the wastes are concentrated into urine.
Have you ever noticed the colour and smell of your own urine? Discuss the difference
between concentrated and dilute urine.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
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NEPHRON
The organs of the body all work together to maintain homeostasis. This
is changing its internal environment to maintain a stable, constant
condition for proper function.
HOW IMPORTANT ARE THEY?
The kidneys are the most important organs in the urinary system,
involved in excreting waste. If one fails the other functioning kidney can
still do the work of two kidneys. However, when both kidneys fail,
wastes and fluids accumulate in your body and you need dialysis
treatments (to clean your blood either by machine or in your abdomen),
or a kidney transplant. No other system or organ can replace the job of
the kidneys.
The kidney
normally
makes one to
two litres of
urine every
day
depending
on how
much you
drink.
The normal kidney has the ability to greatly increase its
workload. If one kidney is lost, the other kidney can enlarge and
do the work of two.
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LABEL THE KIDNEY
MEDULLA
ARTERY
RENAL VEIN
CORTEX
RENAL
RENAL PELVIS
URETER
RENAL CAPSULE
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ACROSS
1. The process of breaking down nutrients
2. Normal urine is __________
3. Tubule where urine exits the body
4. Organ that stores urine
5. Tiny filtering units in the kidney
6. Tubule where most water re-absorption occurs
7. To keep the body at a balance (stable & constant)
DOWN
1. Less water, more waste is __________ urine
3. Waste carried in blood
4. --- capsule
8. Region that consists of 6 across
9. Tubule in which urine from the kidney travels to the bladder
10. Major role of the urinary system
11. Common word:
_ _ _ _ _ artery supplies blood to kidney
_ _ _ _ _ tubule
12. Small network of capillaries in the kidney that filters the blood
1
9
8
10
2
11
5
3
4
12
6
7
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LESSON 6
FIRST AID
HEAD TUTOR: CHARLOTTE ROBINSON
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Your guide
to looking
cool and
saving lives!
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Note for Parents/Carers
We will be using the following ingredients and materials in this
class:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Plain Flour
Cream of Tatar
Cooking Oil
Salt
Food Colouring
Liquid latex
Make up palette – eyeshadow/blush
Parisian Browning Essence
Vaseline
Glucose Syrup
Sorbolene
Latex gloves
Alcohol wipes
Please make the Head Tutor aware if your child has any
Allergies, especially to the materials listed above.
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Always check for Danger to:
• Yourself
• Bystanders
• Casualty
Check to see if someone is conscious or awake by
• Squeezing the shoulders
• Asking Can you hear me?
Open your eyes.
What is your name?
If they don’t respond, call 000 or 112.
If they are unconscious, leave them on their back.
Make sure the unconscious person has a clear and open
Airway by
• Opening the mouth
• Checking to see if there are objects in there
• Scooping/Scraping any objects out of their mouth using
two fingers
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Check to see if a person is breathing by
• Looking
• Listening
• Feeling
If a person is breathing, roll them on their side into the
Recovery position.
If a person is not breathing check for signs of life (next step).
Check for signs of life from the casualty e.g. breathing,
movement, eye opening, colour of lips.
If the casualty is not breathing, commence CPR:
• Give 30 compressions
• And 2 breaths
If you have access to a defibrillator, attach pads to the casualty
and follow the prompts of the machine.
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Blood transports oxygen and nutrients to all the organs and muscles of the body via blood
vessels. Your skin is your first line of defence to protect your body from infection and your
muscles, organs and blood vessels from damage.
An object damaging the skin may cause an open wound which will bleed. There are different
types of open wounds such as:
• Abrasion or a scrape on the skin by a hard surface
• Incision or cut of the skin by a sharp object e.g. knife
• Laceration which is like a cut, but is made by something with a rough surface e.g.
barbed wire, teeth
• Puncture which is like a hole made by something sticking into the skin
• Tear when an object rips some of the skin
But no matter the cause or type of open wound, the treatment for each wound follows the
same principles which are:
1. Control the bleeding
2. Apply pressure to the wound to restrict blood flow to the area
3. Elevate the injured part to slow blood flow to the area
4. Maintain pressure on the wound
5. Minimise shock
6. Minimise the risk of infection by using protective gear and clean dressings and utensils and
cleaning the wound
7. Consider medical aid
What is Shock?
When blood doesn’t circulate properly, not enough oxygen gets to the vital organs and tissues
which can cause them to shut down. Shock can be a life threatening condition and must be
treated seriously and promptly. It can be caused by:
• Bleeding
• Pain
• Heart failure
• Trauma
• Vomiting and diarrhoea
• Infections
• Burns
• Allergic reactions
Signs and symptoms include:
• Pale face
• Cold, clammy skin
• Faintness or dizziness
• Nausea
• Weak and rapid pulse
• Anxiety
• Shallow, fast breathing
• Drowsiness, confusion or
unconsciousness
• Blue around the lips and
fingers
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Treating Shock
1. Follow DRABC
2. Reassure the casualty
3. Call 000
4. Raise the casualty’s legs (unless injured) above the level of the heart
5. Cover the casualty with a blanket to keep warm
6. Monitor pulse and breathing
Checking for Circulation
To make sure the area around a wound is receiving enough blood, check for the circulation by:
• Checking the skin colour – if it is too pale, circulation may be impaired
• Check the skin temperature - if it is too cold, circulation may be impaired
• Check for capillary refill by lightly pressing fingernails of toenails. If the colour does not
return to the finger or toe within 3 seconds, circulation may be impaired.
Treating a laceration/Incision
1. Follow DRABCD
2. Lie or sit the casualty down
3. Put on gloves and protective eyewear
4. Remove or cut clothing to expose the wound
5. Apply firm direct pressure to the wound
6. Clean the wound with saline and gauze
7. Apply a non-stick dressing to the wound and hold in place with a bandage
8. Check for circulation to the limb
9. Elevate the wound
10.Treat for shock if needed
11. If bleeding comes through the dressing/pad, add another dressing and re-bandage.
12. If bleeding comes through the second pad, replace the second pad only and re-bandage
13. If bleeding continues or if the casualty is in shock, call 000.
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VJSC 2009
Burns are injuries to the skin and underlying tissue caused by heat, extreme cold, friction,
chemicals, sun etc.
Burns are classified by their causes, and each type is treated slightly differently. But the
general principles for treating a burn are:
1. Follow DRABCD
2. Cool the burnt area
3. Cover the burnt are with non-adherent dressing
4. Prevent infection by covering the burn wound
5. Minimise shock by reassurance
When treating burns
• DO NOT apply lotions, ointments or oily dressings
• DO NOT prick or break blisters
• DO NOT give alcohol
• DO NOT overcool the casualty
• DO NOT use towels, cottonwool or adhesive dressings on wound
• DO NOT remove clothing stuck to burnt area
If a person’s clothing is on fire, remember to
Stop the casualty from running around
Drop the casualty to the ground and wrap in a blanket
Roll the casualty along the ground until the flames are smothered
Thermal Burns
Thermal burns are caused by contact with heat e.g. flames, hot objects, scalding by steam or
liquid or burning by friction.
Treating a thermal burn
1. Follow DRABCD
2. Extinguish burning clothing or remove scalded clothing
3. Hold burnt area under cold, running water for 20 mins
4. Cover burn with a non-adherent burns dressing
5. Seek medical aid
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VJSC 2009
Fake Skin (Play-dough) Recipe
Ingredients:
• 2 cups plain flour
• 4tbs McKenzie’s Cream of Tartar
• 2tbs cooking oil
• 1 cup of salt
• Food colouring (red and Parisian browning essence)
• 2 cups of water
Method:
Mix the ingredients in a saucepan
Stir over medium heat for 3-5 minutes or until the mixture congeals.
Transfer mixture to plastic board and knead in food colouring until desired skin tone is
reached. (Note: You generally need more browning essence than red food colouring. Add
colouring one drop at a time to ensure you don’t go to dark or red.)
Fake Blood Recipe
Ingredients:
• Glucose Syrup
• Food Colouring (Red, Blue, Yellow)
Method:
Add food colouring one drop at a time to glucose syrup and stir, until desired colour of blood is
reached.
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VJSC 2009
LESSON 7
VISCOSITY &
DENSITY
HEAD TUTOR: MURAT KEKIC
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VJSC 2009
Viscosity and Density
Background
Viscosity
In general terms, viscosity is the measure of how thick a liquid is. We can think of water as
being “thin”, so therefore it has a low viscosity. On the other hand we think of oil as being
“thick” and therefore it has a higher viscosity than water. In more technical terms, viscosity
measures the amount of internal friction (or resistance to flow/stress) that a liquid has. You
can try for yourself at home; if you pour water out of a glass it pours out easily, but if you pour
oil it pours a lot slower. All real fluids have some resistance to stress (or an internal friction).
The viscosity of a liquid depends on a number of things. The main factors are how big the
molecules, how quickly they move are and how strong the bonds are between the molecules.
The temperature of the liquid will also influence its viscosity.
Density
Density is the measure of mass per unit of volume. In chemistry, we often compare the density
of many substances to water. For example, if you had a glass marble and put it in a jar of water
it would sink. However, if you had a piece of foam that was exactly the same size of the
marble and put it in the jar of water it would float. Therefore, the density of the marble is
higher than the density of the foam.
Experiments
Today we will be doing 2 experiments. The first experiment will help us learn about viscosity
and the second will help us learn about density.
Experiment 1 Viscosity
Which solution is the “slowest”?
Materials
Gloves
Aprons
Measuring cylinders
Stop watch
Glycerol
Water
Empty bottles
Grapes
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Method
1. Please put on your disposable apron and gloves.
2. Take the four 250ml measuring cylinders and label them as 0%, 10%, 20% and 30%
3. Using the empty bottles, you need to mix up 4 different solutions of glycerol and water – 0%
glycerol, 10% glycerol, 20% glycerol and 30%glycerol (you will be given directions on how to
do this)
4. Pour the solutions you have mixed up into the correctly labeled measuring cylinder.
5. One student holds the stopwatch and the other holds the grape.
6. Carefully place the grape near the top of the solution labeled 0%. When you let go of the
grape you yell out go and the student holding the stopwatch starts timing. Stop the timer
when the grape hits the bottom of the cylinder.
7. Write down the time in the table provided.
8. Now swap with your partner and repeat the measurement.
9. Repeat until you have completed all the solutions.
10. Now, you will plot the time versus % glycerol on the graph paper provided. The percentage
of glycerol is on one axis and the time taken is on the other.
% Glycerol
0
Time 1
Time 2
Average
10
20
30
Questions:
Which solution was slowest?
_________________________________________________________________________________
Why do you think this one is the slowest?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
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VJSC 2009
Experiment 2 Density
Can you make an egg float in water?
Materials
Beaker
Water
Salt
Spoon
Electronic balance
Method
1. Put about 200 mL of water in your beaker
2. Weigh your beaker and record the weight
Weight =
3. Place the egg into the water
What happens?
4. Add salt to the water one spoon at a time – after you add each spoon stir until the salt
dissolves and then place the egg in the water to see if it floats. Keep adding salt until the egg
floats.
How many spoons of salt did you add?
What does your beaker weigh now (without the egg)?
Weight =
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LESSON 8
SLIME
HEAD TUTOR: ANKUR CHAUDARY
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Slimed!
What is a liquid?
To understand what a liquid is, we have to understand how scientists classify matter. Objects can be
classified into:
1. Solids
Properties of Solids:
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
(http://www.mosaicpersonnel.com.au/blockstack.jpg)
2. Liquids
Properties of Liquids:
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
(http://www.maplewoodplumbing.com/images/water.jpg)
3. Gases
Properties of Gases:
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
(http://www.steamline.com/images/steam%20kettle.jpg)
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Properties of matter
(http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/state.html)
Solids:
•
•
•
Liquids:
•
•
Gases:
stay in a fixed volume and shape (because bonds between atoms are very strong, keeping the
shape rigid), unless forced or broken
are not easily squashed (becase there is little space between atoms)
do not flow (as atoms cannot slide past one another)
•
flow into the shape of a container (as atoms can slide past one another)
are not easily squashed (there is little space between atoms, but the bonds are not as strong as
the bonds between atoms in a solid)
flow easily
•
•
•
fill the container they are in (as the atoms can freely move)
very easily squashed (there is a lot of space between atoms)
flow very easily (very little force is needed to move free atoms)
There are also some specialised classifications of matter such as:
Plasma
Bose-Einstein
condensate
(http://news.bbc.co.uk/olmedia/655000/
images/_655518_bose300.jpg)
Fermionic condensate
(http://jilawww.colorado.edu/~jin/publications/images/
3Dview-1.jpg)
(http://www.astronomycafe.net/qadir/ask/
plasmaBall.jpg)
These will not be covered today, but you can ask the head tutors about them.
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Non-newtonian liquids
Today’s investigation will be into liquids that sometime don’t behave normally. The liquid that is usually the
standard for ‘normal’ is water, so all liquids we observe today will be compared to water. In Murat’s lesson, you
will learn about viscousity, which is how sticky, or dense some liquids can be – such as tomato sauce, blood,
honey and motor oils.
A non-newtonian liquid is defined as a liquid that doesn’t have the same viscousity all the time
Prepare 2 liquids and consider their properties:
#Liquid 1
Materials:
• Corn starch
• Water
• Food colouring
This is a messy
experiment, so remember
to wear your aprons and
eye protection
Process:
1. Pour a cup of corn starch into a bowl
2. Mix in water until it forms a paste (between ½ and 2 cups of water)
3. Mix in a couple of drops of food colouring
Note the properties of this liquid:
Does the liquid flow?
If the liquid is pushed or poked, does it remain a liquid?
Can the liquid be gathered into your hand?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
#Liquid 2
Materials:
• White glue
• Borax (sodium borate) in water
• Food colouring
Borax is a mild
acid, so remember to wash
your hands before leaving
the lesson
Process:
1. Mix the white glue and borax water in equal
amounts
2. Knead the mixture till it sets, adding a couple of drops of food colouring before it sets
completely
Note how this liquid behaves, as you try to stir it, stretch it, squash it.
These two liquids are classified as such because:
• they both flow
• they cannot be squashed easily
• bonds between particles allow them to slide between each other
Enjoy playing with your sample of silly putty (which is also a liquid), and keep investigating
strange liquids!
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VJSC 2009
LESSON 9
SCIENCE
IN THE
KITCHEN
HEAD TUTOR: LIBBY CHALMERS
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Did you know that you can be a scientist in your own home? Lots of
liquids in your kitchen can have very interesting affects when added
together.
All substances can be categorized as acidic, neutral or basic. The
table below shows some properties of each.
ACID
NEUTRAL
BASE
Taste sour
Distilled water
Taste bitter
pH 0 - 7
pH 7
pH 7-14
when acids and bases Turns litmus paper
are mixed together,
blue
the product is neutral
When added to water,
When added to water,
it separates into
it separates into
+
hydroxide atoms
hydrogen atoms (H )
(OH-)
Turns litmus paper
red
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pH is a measure of how acidic or basic the substance is. It is
measured on a scale from 0 to 14. Below are some examples of
common household substances on a pH scale.
Experiment 1: Volcano
We will be starting with an acid-base reaction that will involve
creating a volcano.
Hypothesis:
________________________________________________________
_______________________________
________________________________________________________
_______________________________
(Note: If you were at last year’s Science Challenge, you might
remember how we added detergent to water in order to make bubbles,
and we will be doing similar things today)
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Procedure:
1. Put some water, baking soda and a little bit of detergent in a
bottle.
2. Add some vinegar
3. Write down what you see
Observations:
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
Why?
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
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Experiment 2: Cabbage Juice
Did you know that veggies can be used in the science lab? Here we
use cabbage to measure the pH levels of some common liquids.
Ingredients:
Red Cabbage
Grater
Water
Cups
Acidic and Basic liquids (eg.
tap water, fruit juice, vinegar,
bicarbonate of soda, detergent)
Procedure:
1. Grate the red cabbage (you don't need a lot of it)
2. Add water and the cabbage to a bowl
3. Squish the grated cabbage until you get some juice out of it.
4. Extract the juice (no pieces please!) into multiple cups
5. Put a few drops of vinegar into a cup.
6. Observe and write down the colour in the space below
7. Repeat steps 5 and 6 with different liquids and fresh cups of
cabbage juice.
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Observations:
LIQUID
COLOUR
pH
ACID or
BASE
Tap water
Fruit juice
vinegar
Bicarbonate of
soda
detergent
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Experiment 3: Diet Coke and Mentos
Mentos
Last but certainly not least – This one is my favourite!!
Aim: To observe the reaction when Mentos is dropped in Diet Coke.
Hypothesis:
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
Procedure:
1. Open packet of mentos
2. Open bottle of coke
3. Drop a few mentos into the bottle (not too many!)
4. Observe
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Observations:
+
=
Why?
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
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Word Search
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Page 94 of 101
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LESSON 10
MOLYMODS
HEAD TUTOR:
NICHOLAS GAD
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Chemistry
Chemistry is the branch of the natural sciences dealing with the composition of substances,
their properties and reactions.
Atom
The atom is the smallest particle that can exist on its own under normal conditions.
Parts of the Atom:
1) ____________________
2) ____________________
3) ____________________
4) ____________________
(Electron, Neutron, Nucleus, Proton)
Elements
There are 88 naturally occurring elements, each having a different number of protons. Each
element has different physical and chemical properties and is the smallest individual substance
that any substance can be reduced to.
Top ten most important elements needed for life (left to right then down)
H(
)–
O(
)–
C(
)–
N(
)–
P(
)–
Ca (
)–
S(
)–
Na (
K(
)–
Cl (
)–
)–
Other important elements
He ( 2 ) – Helium
Ag (
)–
Au (
Cu (
)–
)–
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Compounds
A compound is made when two or more elements bind together to form a new substance with
different properties to the two original elements.
Molecule or covalent compound – Molecules are usually formed from two or more non-metal
elements or compounds. The bonds of a covalent compound are usually strong as electrons
are shared between atoms. Gases and liquids are mainly covalent compounds and most will
not conduct electricity.
Salt or ionic compound – Salts are usually formed from a metal and a non-metal element or
charged compound. The bonds of salts are usually weak as the metal transfers its electron to
the non-metal part. Most salts are water soluble, and form ions (charged particles) in water
allowing electricity to pass through.
Mixtures/alloys – A mixture is the combination of different molecules and salts. There is no
binding between the substances, and they can usually be separate by purely physical means.
An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals. When similar substances are mixed, the mixture
usually has properties that are an average of the various substances.
Organic and inorganic chemistry
There are two classes of substances, organic and inorganic. Likewise most chemistry work
divides into these two classes.
Organic – Carbon is the only element that allows the formation of extremely long chains. As
this allows an enormous number of different carbon-based substances to be made, carbon has
its own category in chemistry. Organic compounds must have carbon in them and nearly
always have hydrogen as well.
Inorganic – Basically all other substances that do not have carbon in them. Inorganic
substances often have metals in them and usually salts are inorganic.
H
H
H
O
+
H
H
H
Na Cl
H
H
H
H
O
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
O
F
H
O
F
O
H
+
F
H N H
F
H
O
H
H
O
H
H
H
O
Are these compounds organic or inorganic?
Super Glue
The general name for this group of compounds is cyanoacrylate. A nuclearphile (usually the
hydroxide ion from water) attacks the third carbon of the compound, pulling an electron from
Page 97 of 101
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the second carbon. This then causes a chain reaction, forming a polymer from the
cyanoacrylate molecules. It is this polymerisation that gives superglue its strength.
OH-
N
H
O
O
N
N
O
O
O
O
O
(1)
(2)
N
H
N
N
-
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
(3)
Making the molecule
Carbon – black atom
Oxygen – red atom
Nitrogen – blue atom
Hydrogen – white atom
Single bond – white link
Double/triple bond – grey links
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FRIENDS
Name
Email
Phone
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