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When Values Compete: Reconciling the Tension
Between National Security, Religious Freedom,
National Identity and Islam in the U.S. and France
Clara Abramson
Trinity College, Hartford Connecticut, [email protected]
Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalrepository.trincoll.edu/theses
Recommended Citation
Abramson, Clara, "When Values Compete: Reconciling the Tension Between National Security, Religious Freedom, National Identity
and Islam in the U.S. and France". Senior Theses, Trinity College, Hartford, CT 2017.
Trinity College Digital Repository, http://digitalrepository.trincoll.edu/theses/646
WhenValuesCompete:
ReconcilingtheTensionBetweenNationalSecurity,
ReligiousFreedom,NationalIdentity
AndIslamintheU.S.andFrance
ClaraAbramson
Classof2017
PublicPolicyandLawHonorsThesis
TrinityCollege
2016-2017
1
Acknowledgments
Iwouldliketothankeveryonewhoencouragedandsupportedmeinwritingthis
thesis.AbigthankyoutoProfessorMarkSilkforthenumerousdiscussionsandforasking
thehardquestionsthatpromptedmetodigdeeperanddevelopthisthesis.Icouldnothave
donethiswithoutyourguidanceandadvice.ThankyoutoProfessorKarenHumphrey’sfor
convincingmetomajorinFrench,itisnotwithoutmystudyofFrancethatIwouldhave
developedthisinterest,andofcoursethankyoufortakingontheroleofasecondreader.I
wouldalsoliketothankProfessorAdrienneFulcoforencouragingme,forsharingyour
zestforpoliticswithallofus,andforyourdedicationtothePublicPolicyandLawprogram
thathastaughtmesomuchandhelpedmegrowasawriter,thinkerandperson.Andlastly
thankstomyfamily,friendsandroommatesformotivatingmeandforalwaystellingme
howproudtheyareofme.Ihopethisthesisshedsnewlightonthistimelyissueandthat
bothcountriescanreconcilethetensionstoachievegreatersafety,equalityandhappiness
foralltheirresidents.
2
TableofContents
Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………2
Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….4
Chapter1:LaïcitéandTheEvolutionofReligioninFrance…………………………………………………….6
1.1 The1905lawontheSeparationsoftheChurchesandtheState………………………….....…..11
1.2 DefiningandInterpretingModernLaïcité………………………………………………………………....15
1.3 TheLegacyofImmigrationinFrance……………………………………………………………….............16
Chapter2:FoundationsofAmericanReligionandImmigration…………………………………..…….....21
2.1TheConstitutionandtheRighttoFreedomofReligion.……………………………………………….23
2.2PopularReactionsandPolicyAgainstReligionandImmigrants…………………………………...29
2.3U.S.ReligiousJurisprudence:SupremeCourtCases……………………………………………………..31
Chapter3:FreedomofReligionV.LaïcitéinModernDayFrance…………..........................................36
3.1TheStartofUnfairApplicationofLaïcité………………………………………………………………….....36
3.2The2004ActonReligiousSymbolsa.k.a.TheHeadscarfBan…………………………………....…39
3.3RationalizingtheBan…………………………………………………………………………………………….….42
3.4S.A.S.v.France…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..43
Chapter4:CombattingIslamintheU.S.andDisputesOverReligiousFreedom……………………..49
4.1InstillingFear:TerrorandConflictintheMiddleEast………………………………………………….49
4.2Effectsof9/11:AnAttackonCivilLiberties………………………………………………………………..50
4.3LimitsonReligiousFreedom……………………………………………………………………………………..53
4.4AnEraofReligiousbasedLegislation…………………………………………………………………………56
4.5The2010PolicyShift:OpenHostilityTowardsMuslims……………………………………..………59
Chapter5:TheClashofFrenchValuesandIslam………………………………………………………………….65
5.1TheBurkiniDebateBegins:August2016……………………………………………………………………65
5.2France’sHighestCourtRulesAgainsttheBurkiniBan………………………………………………....69
5.3TheNeedforIntegration:BalancingIslamandLaïcité………………..………………………………70
Chapter6:OurFuture:ReligiousFreedomUndertheTrumpAdministration……………………….75
6.1TheMuslimBan…………………………………………………………………………………………………………79
6.2IslamInU.S.Politics:IstheU.S.Obsessed?.............................................................................................83
6.3HowAreMuslimsFaringintheU.S.?.........................................................................................................84
6.4TheMedia:TheCulpritofMisplacedFears……………………………………………………..………….89
Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...91
Appendix………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...101
Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………103
3
Introduction
TheUnitedStatesandFrancearebothstrugglingwithapolicydilemmaofnational
andinternationalsignificancearisingfromthetensionbetweenprinciplesofreligious
freedomandtheneedtoprotecttheirnationalidentity.Manyresidentsofbothcountries
believethatMuslimsthreatentheirnationalsecurity.ThiswidespreadfearofMuslimsis
evidentinbothcountries,onthelocalandfederallevel.States,countiesandtownsaswell
asfederallegislativebodiesinthetwocountrieshaveattemptedtolimitthereligious
freedomsofMuslimcitizens,residentsandimmigrants.Politicalpartiesanddemographic
groupsfromacrossthepoliticalspectrum,fromlefttoright,viewthispolicydilemmaasan
existentialchallengetotheirrespectivecountries.Ontheonehand,someMuslims’nonacceptanceoftheiradoptedcountry’smainstreamsocialnormsandmores,andeventheir
legalsystems,makessomeAmericanandFrenchgroupsarguethattheessenceoftheir
societiesisatrisk.TheparticipationofevenaverysmallnumberofMuslimsinterrorist
acts,attimeswithtiesordeclaredallegiancetoforeignterrororganizations,generates
fearsanddemandsforasecuritypolicythattreatsanentireimmigrantpopulationasa
threat.Conversely,thedemandforpoliciesthatimposean“American”or“French”wayof
lifeorcultureandforcereligiousexpressionoutraisesconcernsamongmanyAmerican
andFrenchcitizensandpoliticians.Theyfearthattheircountries’fundamental
commitmenttoreligiousfreedom,civillibertiesandtraditionofsanctuary,akeypartof
theirnationalvaluesystem,couldbesacrificed.Withpredictionsthatthenumberof
MuslimsworldwidewillbeequaltothatofChristiansby2050,thetensionbetweenthese
4
principleswillonlybecomemoresalient.1
Thisthesisseekstoexplorehowreligiousfreedom,controlledthroughU.S.and
Frenchlegislationandjurisprudence,hasconflictedwithnationalidentity.National
identityhasbenmeasuredbyconformingornottosocial,politicalandculturalnorms.This
thesiswillalsodemonstratehowreligiousfreedomhasconflictedwithnationalsecurity
policy,resultinginpoliciesthatreflectAmericansuspicionofMuslimsandinspirebacklash
fromtheMuslimworld.ChaptersoneandtwowillanalyzehowFranceandtheUnited
Stateshaveeachfacedthechallengeofprotectingreligiousfreedom,absorbingimmigrants
intotheirnationsandmaintainingnationalidentityandsecurityovertheirlonghistories.
Next,Chaptersthreeandfourwillmovetothemorecontemporarychallengesofbalancing
religionandnationalidentity,raisedinFranceprimarilybyitspopulationofNorthAfrican
immigrantsandintheUnitedStatesbyamorediverserangeofimmigrantgroupsfrom
Muslim-majoritycountries.ThenChaptersfiveandsixwillexplorethespecificcurrentday
concernsandpolicychallengessuchastheburkiniinFranceandtheanti-Muslimpolicies
ofPresidentTrump,andwillprovideacritiqueofthepolicyoptionsforeachcountryand
thestrengthsandweaknessesofvariousapproaches.
Finally,theconclusionwillassessthecurrentpoliticalplayersandhowtheiractions
mayinfluencefuturereligiousandimmigrationpolicy,anddrawonthestrengthsand
weaknessesofeachcountry’spoliciestodevelopnewpolicyalternatives.
1“Nones”ontheRise:One-in-FiveAdultsHaveNoReligiousAffiliation.”PewForumonReligion&PublicLife.
PewResearchCenter,9Oct.2012.Web.27Apr.2017.
5
CHAPTER1:LAICITÉANDTHEEVOLUTIONOFRELIGIONINFRANCE
Whileallcountriesviewtheroleofreligiondifferently,France’snotionoflaïcité2
separatesitfromthemajorityofwesterncountries.MostoftheFrenchembracelaïcité;
forthemitisaliberalandtolerantconceptthatpreventsreligionfromintrudingintothe
civicspace.Sowhatistheproblem?Thisprincipleofstrictsecularismhasevolved
throughoutthecountry’slonghistoryandhasdevelopedintoamechanismusedtocurb
religionandreligiouspracticeratherthansafeguardreligiousliberty,namelythatof
Muslims.AsthepercentageofMuslimsinFrancerisesandFrancebecomesincreasingly
diverse,thetensionbetweenlaïcitéandfreedomofreligionhasbecomeapoliticalcrisis
thatremainslargelyunsolved.France’srootsintraditionhaveledthecountrytodevelop
arigidnationalidentityandcreateapolicyoflaïcitéthatmostareunwillingtoadaptto
solvethecurrentwoes.ThestoryofthisideologicaldevelopmentbeginswiththeFrench
Revolution.
In1789Francefounditselfinaprecariousplace.Themonarchyandchurchwere
thecenterofpowerinacountrythatnolongersupportedeitherinstitution.Economic,
politicalandreligiouscrisesledtothepopularrevoltknownastheFrenchRevolution.
Throughviolencethepeoplerebelledagainstthemonarchy,aristocracyandclergy.
Priestswereguillotined,NotreDamewastakenover,politicaldissidentswere
imprisoned,andbattlesbrokeoutinthestreetsofParis,markingwhathadbeenthemost
radicalpersecutionofChristiansinEuropesinceendoftheRomanEmpire.3TheKingat
thetime,LouisXVI,wasforcedtoswitchhisrulefromthatofanabsolutemonarchtoa
2Laïcitéistranslatedtosecularism,butalsocallsforseparationofchurchandstate,libertyofconscienceand
stateneutralityinreligiousmatters.
3Jones,Colin.Paris:TheBiographyofaCity.NewYork.PenguinBooks.Print.2006.Ch6.
6
constitutionalmonarch.WhenLouisXVIfacedtheguillotinetheconstitutionalmonarchy
eventuallygavewaytoarepublic.Theendofthemonarchyandtherebellionagainstthe
Churchsignaledashifttowardsrepublicanism,andawayfromreligion.
WiththedestructionoftheancienregimeandtheConstitutionasthenewbasisfor
ruling,religionnolongerplayedanimportantroleinFrenchlifeasithadsinceit’s
foundingwhenreligionandpoliticsweretightlyintertwined.Thisshiftawayfrom
religionoccurredforseveralreasons.ThephilosophesoftheEnlightenmentcriticizedthe
Churchandsystematicallyquestionedthecredibilityofreligion.Theirfocusonprogress
andreasonasthebasisforbeingerodedfaithinreligionanddepictedtheclergyas
uselessmembersofsocietywho,bypledgingallegiancetothereligiousstatesacrificed
civilliberties.4Inaddition,theFrenchpeoplesawCatholicismasathreattodemocracy
foritshostilitytoindividuallibertiesanditshegemonicpresence.TheCatholicChurch,as
partoftheState,exercisedconsiderablepoweroverthecountrythroughlandholdings
andrevenues.Thiscausedastronghostilitytowardsthereligiouspowersandclergywho
fordecadespriortotheRevolutionhadbecomerichofftheFrenchpeople.Their
disregardforFrenchcitizensandtheusurpationofCatholicpowerledtheNational
Assemblytonationalizeallchurchland,puttingthepowerintothehandsofthe
government.5Thispoliticalmovesignaledaweakeningofchurchpowerandwas
reflectiveofadiminishingreligiosityinFrenchsociety.
Thenextsignificantstateactionwastherequirementofallclergytotakeapublic
oathofloyaltytothestate.ThispledgeofloyaltytothestatecametocharacterizeFrench
4Betros,Gemma.HistoryReview68.2010.Print.TheFrenchRevolutionandtheCatholicChurch.Web.22Nov.
2016.
5Prélot,Pierre-Henri."AmericanCivilReligionAsSeenFromFrance:ACommentarytoFredGedick'spaper."
TheGeorgeWashingtonLawReview41.2011.Print.914.
7
nationalvalues,andledtodevelopmentoftheconceptoflaïcité.Laïcitéisoftentranslated
intoEnglishassecularism,butitalsosuggeststhesamepledgeofloyaltytheclergywere
forcedtotake.Theideawasandcontinuestobe,thattheFrencharefirstandforemost
membersofthenationofFrance.Religionshouldcomesecondtocitizenship.Despite
effortstoridthenationofCatholicism,throughthenationalizationoflandandthepledge
ofloyalty,theFrenchpeoplecontinuedtopracticeintheirhomes.Ratherthanforce
Catholicismout,thegovernmenthadforcedreligionintoprivatelife.Theneedto
separateChurchandStatewhileallowingprivatepracticebecamemoreapparentandit
wasintheRepublics’firstConstitution,the1791DéclarationdesDroitsdel’Hommeetdu
Citoyen,thattheconceptoffreedomofreligionwasoutlined.6Ratherthangrantingthe
peopleprotectionofthestateagainstreligiousinfluenceinsociety,theDéclaration
emancipatedthepeoplefromtheCatholicChurch.Itprovidedthatnooneshallbe
disturbedforhisorheropinions,evenreligiousones,aslongastheirmanifestationdoes
notdisturbthepublicorderestablishedbylaw.Theprescriptionofmaintaining“public
order”beforeallelsehasbecomeafoundationalFrenchconcept.ThisperiodinFrench
historywascharacterizedbythedemandthatthepeopleputthestateorpublicorder
beforethechurchandreligion,thoughthewaytoensurethisremainunresolved.
ThoughtheConstitutionof1791emancipatedtheStatefromtheCatholicChurch,
additionallegislationwaspassedin1795tofurtherseparatethetwo.The1795law
formallyseparatedChurchandState,andprohibitedthewearingof“religiousornaments
orclothing”inpublic.7However,thepoliticalclimatechangedwhenjustafewyearslater
Napoleoncameintopower.ThoughhehimselfwasnotanadherentoftheCatholic
6BrittonD.Davis,117.
7BrittonD.Davis,117.
8
Church,herecognizedthatarelationshipwiththeCatholicChurchcouldprovidehim
withtheeconomicandmoralbenefits.NapoleonsoughttousetheChurchtohis
advantageandattemptedtonegotiatewiththepope.8However,thisfailedwhenin1802
NapoleonintroducedtheConcordat,alawthatrequiredallactionsfromRometobe
approvedbytheFrenchgovernment.9RelationsbetweenRomeandFrancequickly
deteriorated.FrancebecameincreasinglydividedamongthosewhosupportedNapoleon
andthosewhoremainedloyaltotheCatholicChurchandpapalauthority.
Thepoliticalinstabilityandclassconflictcontinuedintothenineteenthcentury.The
revolutionof1848ensued,andendedwiththedevelopmentofanewconstitutionand
thecreationoftheSecondRepublic.Intheconstitutionof1848thecitizensweregranted
therighttopersonalliberty,freedomofassociation,peacefulandunarmedassembly,
petitionandfreedomofexpression.Theselibertiesdid,however,havelimits.AsKarl
Marxnotes,libertiescame“alwayswiththemarginalnotethatitisunlimitedsofarasit
isnotlimitedbytheequalrightsofothersandthepublicsafetyorbylaws.”10The
bourgeois,asdraftersoftheconstitutionandthewieldersofpoliticalpower,soughtto
servetheirinterestsandtheirsalone:limitingCatholicisminthecivicsphere.Asaresult,
publicsafetyonlyreferredtothesafetyofthebourgeoisie.Resistancetothechurchwas
furtheremphasizedintheaftermathoftheanti-clericalParisCommuneof1870.The
eventsofthecommuneinclinedJulesFerry,MinisterofEducationfrom1879to1882,to
reducetheinfluenceoftheCatholicChurch.In1881theLoiFerrywaspassedmaking
publiceducationcompulsory,freeandlaïc(freefromreligiousteachings).Educationwas
8Betros,Gemma.“TheFrenchRevolutionandtheCatholicChurch.”
9Betros,Gemma.“TheFrenchRevolutionandtheCatholicChurch.”
10Marx,Karl."TheEighteenthBrumaireofLouisBonaparte."ZodiacandBrianBagginsforMarx/Engels
InternetArchive1995,1999.Web.(13).
9
andissacredtorepublicanism,andrepublicanismembracesaseparationofChurchand
State.Marxmadetheobservationthat“eachparagraphoftheconstitutioncontainsits
ownantithesis…solongasthenameoffreedomwasrespectedandonlyitsactual
realizationprevented,ofcourseinalegalway,theconstitutionalexistenceofliberty
remainedintact,inviolate,howevermortaltheblowsdealttoitsexistenceinactuallife.”11
Inshort,theconstitutionalprotectionsdidnotguaranteethepeopleabsoluteliberties,
becausehistoryhadrevealedthatpublicorderhadtocomefirst.Thesamedisruptionof
politicalpoweroccursinFrancetoday.Thepoliticiansenactlawsthatprivilegeorder
overindividualliberties,andwhentheysenseasmallthreattopublicordertheyjustify
thesuspensionofthoseliberties.Thiswasthecaseduringthelatenineteenthcentury.
Franceexperiencedasurgeinnationalismandimmigrants,perceivedasathreat,were
targetedinlegislation.
OnemaincauseforthesurgeinnationalismwastheDreyfusAffair.Francewasin
themidstofawaroverlanddisputeswithGermanywhenayoungFrenchartilleryofficer
ofJewishdecentwasconvictedoftreasoninaclosedtrialin1894.L’AffaireDreyfus
fueledtheriseinnationalismandfurtherdiscreditedtheChurchbysplittingthenation
intotwocamps:thepro-army,Catholic“anti-Dreyfusards”andtheanti-clerical,prorepublican“Dreyfusards”.12AsaJewfromAlsace,Dreyfusembodiedeverythingthe
nationalistrightloathed.TheconflictwithGermanyandtheinternaldivisioncreated
concernaboutFrance’spower,causingtheFrenchtoviewanyindependentinstitution
thatinfluencedsocietyasalimitonthenationalgovernments’abilitytoexertcontrol
11Marx,Karl."TheEighteenthBrumaireofLouisBonaparte."ZodiacandBrianBagginsforMarx/Engels
InternetArchive1995,1999.Webpdf.(13).
12"ACountryDivided:DreyfusardsandAnti-Dreyfusards."The National Library of Israel. The National Library
of Israel,n.d.Web.01Feb.2017.
10
overitscitizensandtheirloyalties.13Thefearthatradicalswouldoverpowerthe
governmentledtheFrenchtocreateagovernmentthatwouldimposethepeople’swill
throughlegislationratherthancheckandbalancesasdoestheAmericansystem.Aware
ofthecountry’sfraughtreligioushistory,legislatorsproceededwithcaution,passing
legislationthatwouldlimitthereligioninthepublicspherewiththebeliefthatlegislation
couldcurethecountry’ssocialills.
Throughoutthetwentiethcentury,thegovernment,dissatisfiedwiththelegal
religiousframework,continuedtopasslegislationthatwouldbuildawallofseparation
betweenchurchandstate.In1901FrancepassedtheLawonAssociationsrequiring
parliamentaryapprovalofallreligiouscongregationsandprovisionsonfreedomof
association.14Nevertheless,the1901lawwasnotsufficientinendingtheadversarial
relationshipbetweentheCatholicChurchandtheState.Thisbackandforthbetweenthe
increasinglysecularFrenchgovernmentandtheCatholicauthoritypointedtoone
conclusion--theneedtoseparatetheChurchandStateonceandforall.
1.1The1905lawontheSeparationsoftheChurchesandtheState
The1905LawofSeparationofChurchesandtheStateofficiallyresolvedtheconflict
betweenthetwoinstitutionsanddevelopedprinciplesfundamentaltothenations’
character.The1905Lawisbasedonthreepillars,“freedomofconscience,separationof
StateandChurches,andtheequalrespectofallfaithsandbeliefs.”15First,thelaw,by
endingofficialrecognitionoftheCatholicChurch,grantsthepeoplefreedomofbeliefand
practice,withthecaveatthatreligiouspracticemaynotdisturbpublicorder,anideathat
13Harrigan,P.J."TheSocialAppealsofCatholicSecondaryEducationinFranceinthe1870s."JournalofSocial
History8.3(1975):(135).Print.
14BrittonD.Davis,121.
15BrittonD.Davis,122.
11
datesbacktotheConstitutionoftheSecondRepublic.Second,thelawprotectsfrom
discriminationonthebasisofreligionbyendingpublicsubsidizationofreligious
institutions.Third,thelawrespectstherulesofeveryreligionandthereforeprovides
occasionalexemptionstosomereligiousgroups.Forexamplethestatehasfundedthe
buildingofafewchurchesandmosques.Nonetheless,thethreepillarsinstitutedapolicy
ofstateneutralitytowardreligiousbeliefsinthepublicspheremeanttoinstilltolerance.
ThelawhighlightedanevolutioninFrenchpolitics,asitwasafarmorepeaceful
approachtocurbingtheperceivedthreatoftheCatholicChurchthantherevolutionary
responsesacenturyearlier.Itfurthermarkedthedeclineofreligion,thoughCatholicism
intheculturalsensehasremainedaconstantinFrenchsociety.
ThisstruggleforpowerbetweentheFrenchstateandtheCatholicChurch
characterizedtheroleofreligioninFrance.AlthoughFrancehaslongembracedreligious
freedominitsconstitutionaldocuments,ithascreatedlegislationthatunfairlytargets
certainpopulations.ThenatureofFrenchreligiousfreedom,definedbythesingular
threatofonereligiousbody,explainswhycomparedtotheU.S.,whichsimultaneously
affirmedtheprincipleoffreedomofreligioninitsrespectiveConstitutionof1789,France
founditselfwithaquitedifferentconceptionofthemeaningandimplementationof
religiousliberty.ProfessorofConstitutionalLawandCivilLibertiesatL’Universitéde
Ceris-Pontoise,Pierre-HenriPrélotobservesthattheFrenchperceptionoffreedomof
religionisuncommon.Hesays,“InFrance,freedomofreligionemancipatedthepeople
fromCatholicismandgrantsthemtheprotectionofthestateagainstreligiousinfluencein
society.”16ThissuggeststhatFrenchfreedomofreligionshouldinfactbeinterpretedas
16Prélot,Pierre-Henri,914.
12
freedomfromreligionmeaningthat“mancanonlybelongtothenationalcommunity
regardlessofreligiousbeliefs.”17ThedifferencebetweenthistheologyandtheAmerican
pointofviewisclear.ThethreatintheUnitedStateswasnotareligiousbodybutthe
governmentitself.Thisdirectedthefederalgovernmenttoguaranteethepeoplefreedom
topracticewithoutgovernmentinterference,ratherthanenforceapolicyofnon-practice
(atleastinthepublicsphere)aswasdoneinFrance.
Politicians,historians,anthropologistsandFrenchcitizensalikecontinuetodebate
theintentofthe1905lawandwhatitsapplicationshouldlooklike.Theyaskthemselves,
isitalawoflibertyorrestriction?Pierre-HenriPrélotarguesthattheLawof1905isa
lawofrestriction.Hebelievesthatitsfocusonsecularismisnecessaryformaintaining
publicorder,datingbacktotheneedtomaintainpublicorderinlightofthepoliticalwar
withtheChurch.
JeanBaubérot,ChairofHistoryandSociologyofLaïcitéattheSchoolofAdvanced
Studies,disagrees.Baubérotsaysofthelawof1905:“itisnotalawthatseekstochase
religionoutofpubliclife:tothecontraryit’saliberaltextabouttolerance.”18Baubérot
useshistorytoadvancehisposition.Hestatesthatatthebeginningofthetwentieth
century,theparliamentarycommissiondirectedtoworkonthelawof1905wasajoint
appointmentofJulesFerry,FerdinandBuissonandAristideBriand,allliberalstatesmen.
Themendidnotwanttosuppressreligion,butmitigatethepolitical-religiouscrisisthat
haddevastatedthenationsincetheseventeenthcentury.AccordingtoBaubérot,the
threemenengagedinacampaignoflaïcitéthatwassecular,butnotanti-religiousnor
17Prélot,Pierre-Henri,914.
18Chemin,Anne."«Laloide1905,étapefondamentaledelalaïcisationdelaRépubliquefrançaise,estlibérale
ettolérante»."LeMonde.fr.LeMonde,15Nov.2016.Web.4Feb.2017.
13
anti-clerical.Theysawthe1905Lawasameanstoprotectfreedomofbeliefandpractice,
whileatthesametimeensuringanon-religiousState.
Thepoliticaldecisionsandactionsofthetwentiethcenturycontinuedtoshapehow
theFrenchviewedtherighttofreedomofreligion,whichbyinlargewascloserto
Prélot’sview.Thoughitmayappearunrelated,the1971decisionoftheConseil
Constitutionel(theFrenchequivalentoftheU.S.SupremeCourt)toincorporatethe
FrenchpreambleoftheConstitutionof1946totheConstitutionof1958hadasignificant
effectonreligiousfreedom.19Thepreambleofthe1946constitutionproclaimedthat
womenhaveequalrightstothoseofmeninallspheres.Thisinclusionbecamethebasis
fortherighttogenderequality,whichdecadeslatertheFrenchgovernmentandfeminists
wouldcallontoimposethe2004,2010and2016lawsbanningreligioussymbols,veils
andburkinisinpublic.Inadditiontothecallforequalityofthepreamble,articleIofthe
FrenchConstitutionof1958states:“Franceshallbeanindivisible,secular,democratic,
andsocialrepublic.Itshallensuretheequalityofallcitizensbeforethelaw,without
distinctionoforigin,raceorreligion.Itshallrespectallbeliefs.”20Despitethecallfor
equalityirrespectiveofreligionintheConstitution,politicianscontinuetoreferbackto
theLawof1905whenestablishingfreedomofreligion.Theissuewithusingthelawas
thebasisforreligioninmodernlifeisthatfirst,socialanddemographicconditionsand
themakeupofFrancehavechangedimmensely,andsecond,theFrenchpoliticianswho
draftedthe1905lawdisagreedoverthemeaningofseparationofChurchandState.One
campargueditmeantallowingeveryonetopracticehisorherownreligion(softlaïcité),
theotherarguedthatfreepracticeofreligionmustnotbepublic,statesanctionedand
19BrittonD.Davis,125.
20BrittonD.Davis,125.
14
confinedtotheprivatedomain(strictlaïcité).Whenexaminedmoreclosely,thetextof
thelawof1905echoestheformerdefinitionoffreedomofreligion.Theprincipleof
laïcitéhowever,echoesthesecondmorerestrictivevision.
1.2DefiningandinterpretingmodernLaïcité
InmodernFrancelaïcitéisseenasthecornerstoneofFrenchsociety,areflectionof
Frenchidentity,aruleofFrenchlife.Historytellusthatthemoderncharacterizationof
laïcitéhasgrownoutoftheneedoftheFrenchgovernmenttoseparateitselffromthe
CatholicChurchandregaincontrolofthepeople.Asaresultoftheseparation,religious
practiceandsymbolsareseenasastepbackinthewrongdirectionandasathreattothe
establisheddemocracyoftheFifthRepublic.Hence,theFifthRepubliccontinuesto
grapplewithnotionsofreligiousfreedomandpracticeofitbyitsMuslimresidents.This
isinpartbecausethecurrentinterpretationoftheprincipleoflaïcitépermeatesstate
lines.Itseekstocontroltheinternalorganizationofareligion.BrittonDavisrecognizes
laïcitéasapoliticaltool.Shepointsoutthatlaïcitéisanundefinedconceptwith“no
officialagreementastowhatitmeansorwhatitrequiresoftheFrenchRepublic.”21This
allowsfortheprincipletobeadaptedtoeitherattackorprotectareligiousaction.
Beginningin1989withtheHeadscarfDilemma,principlesoflaïcitéwereeffectedin
Frenchpolicyinwaysthatthreatenedlibertyinsteadofprotectingit.Byanalyzingthe
strifereligiouspastofFrance,characterizedbyreligiousconflictbetweentheCatholic
ChurchandtheState,thecausesofthecurrenttensionsbecomeclearer.However,one
shapingfactorismissing--immigration.
21BrittonD.Davis,125.
15
1.3ImmigrationinFrance
InordertounderstandhowFrenchviewsofMuslimshaveevolved,itisnecessaryto
reviewimmigrationinFrance.Lowratesofforeignimmigrationandlaterlarge-scale
immigrationfromitsformercolonieshaveplayedintothecurrentconceptionoflaïcitéand
whatitmeanstobeFrench.TheFrench22havebeenforthemostpartwhiteandcatholic,
givingwaytoarigidnationalidentity.TheFrançaisdesouche,(Frenchwithroots)those
withfourgrandparentsborninFranceconsiderthemselvestobethetrueFrenchcitizens.
In1851only1.1percentoftheFrenchpopulationwasforeignborn,whileintheU.S.9.7
percentofthepopulationwasforeignborn.23Thepercentpointdifferencewasquite
significantindefiningthecharacterofeachnation.Twodecadeslaterin1911aftertheLaw
ofSeparationofChurchesandState,theforeignbornpopulationinFranceremainedlowat
2.9percent,24meanwhiletheU.S.theforeignbornpopulationhadreached14.7percent.25
Thesedifferencesinimmigrationledtoaverydifferentdevelopmentofnationalidentity
foreachnation.TheU.S.wasamulti-religiousandmulti-culturalnationandthereforeit
wasnotemancipationfromreligionthatthecountryneeded,butprotectiontopractice.
Franceremainedfairlyhomogenous,whiteandcatholicandthustheredevelopedastrong
FrenchnationalidentitythatcontinuestobecentraltoFrenchlife.Anyonewhodidnotfit
theFrenchmoldwassupposedtosuppresshisorherownforeignidentityforthesakeof
thenation.ForthisreasonweseethatFrancefavorsapolicyofassimilationratherthan
accommodation.
22Throughoutthisthesismyuseoftheterm“theFrench”referstothewhite,catholicmajority.
23Bureau,USCensus."ForeignBorn."USCensusBureau.N.p.,n.d.Web.22Jan.2017.
24Schain,Martin.ThePoliticsofImmigrationinFrance,BritainandtheUnitedStates:AcomparativeStudy.
NewYork.PalgraveMacmillan;ch2,40.2008.
25"TheForeignBornPopulationintheU.S."USCensusBureau.USCensusBureau.,2010.Web.22Jan.2017.
16
ThisdatesbacktothenineteenthcenturywhenFrenchcolonialpowerruledover
manyMuslim-majoritycountries.Franceerecteditsfirstimmigrationandnaturalization
lawin1889.Thelaw,JusSolis,establishedcitizenshipforanyoneborninaFrenchterritory,
andthusappearedtobeaninvitationtojoinFrenchsociety.Tothedisappointmentof
theseMuslimpeoples,lawswereenactedthatlimitedtheirrights.Manycategoriesof
peoplesuchastheAlgerianMuslimswereFrenchnationalsyetdidnothavethesame
politicalorsocialrightsasfullFrenchcitizens.ThiswasduetotheCrémieuxdecreein
placefrom1830to1870.26ThelawplacedhandicapsontheabilityofcertainFrench
nationalstovote,assembleandserveascivilservants,institutionalizingdiscrimination
betweenFrenchnationalsandFrenchcitizens.Yetinspiteofthisdiscriminationand
culturalizedconceptionofintegration,Frenchnationalityillustratessomesenseof
inclusivenessinitswillingnesstoextendlimitedcitizenshiptoitsformerethnically
differentterritories.ThetheoryperhapsbeingthatthestrongerthelinkwithFrench
societythemorelikelytheimmigrantcommunitywouldintegratewiththetraditional
republicanFrenchpeople.TheFrenchplaceextremeemphasisontheimportanceof
assimilationandoftenperceiveanyonewhochallengesFrenchidentityasathreattoor
burdenonFrenchsociety.
Tothisend,throughoutthetwentiethandtwenty-firstcenturythegovernment
passedimmigrationlawsinabackandforthpatternofrestrictingandthenloosening
legislationinanefforttoreduceimmigrationandintegratenewarrivals.Thoughseveral
lawsincludeddiscriminatorymeasuresonthebasisofrace,theimmigrationlaws,withthe
26Hajjat,Abdellali,andChristopheBertossi."EUDOCitizenshipObservatory,CountryReport:France."
EuropeanUniversityInstitute,FlorenceRobertSchumanCentreforAdvancedStudies.EUDOCitizenship
Observatory,Jan2013.Web.AccessedMar.2017.
17
exceptionofCrémieux,didnottargetreligiousgroupsbecausereligionwasalargely
privatematter.TheFrenchwereinsteadconcernedwithcontrollingthebehaviorofthe
immigrantswhohadmadeittoFrenchsoil.Todothisthegovernmenttightened
immigrationlawsinthenameofnationalsecurity.Onesuchlawwasthatof1912requiring
immigrantstocarryidentitydocumentswithdetaileddescriptionsandpictures,andgiving
administrativeauthoritiestheabilitytodenyentrytopeoplewhose“presenceappeared
dangerous”.27
Instarkcontrasttothelawof1912,thewarandpostwarperiodwelcomed
immigrants.Thestateitselfbecameinvolvedintherecruitmentofimmigrantmanpower.
However,theFrenchpeoplewerelessenthusiasticoftheriseinimmigrationwhenthey
experiencedadepressionofwages.Anunfavorablebiastowardsimmigrantsdevelopedin
the1930’s,andasthedepressiongrewworselegislationwaspassedauthorizingquotason
employmentinseveralindustries.ThisendedastheSecondWorldWarbegan.
Theimmigrationpolicyofthepostwarperiodwasbasedonthesameprinciples.
Postwarreconstructionhadrevitalizedtheeconomyandproducedalabormarket.The
needforimmigrantswasfurtheredbythepopulationreductioncausedbywartimedeaths
andlowfertilityrates.Promptedbytheboomingeconomyandjobopportunities,large
numbersofMuslimcitizenshailingfromformercoloniesbegantoimmigratetoFrance.
ThisshiftfromnunstoMuslimswasquitejarringfortheFrenchwhostilllivedina
majoritycatholiccountry28.TheNorthAfricanscontinuedtobeviewedastheleast
desirable,especiallytheAlgerianswhohadjustfoughtabrutalwarofindependence
againsttheFrenchin1954ledbyaradicalIslamicgroupattemptingtooverthrowthe
27Schain,Martin,42.
28Bell,DavidA."VeilofTears:AReviewof"WhytheFrenchDon'tLikeHeadscarves:Islam,theStateand
PublicSpace"."Review-A-Day.Powells.com,8Mar.2007.Web.01Mar.2017.
18
seculargovernment.29Themethodsofwarfaresuchasguerrillafighting,torturetactics
andterrorismdrewinternationalattentionandcausedtheAlgerianstobeseenasviolent
peoplewhoposedathreattointernalsecurity.Despitetheirundesirablestandinglarge
numbersofAlgerianworkerswereabletomigratetoFrancethroughfamilyreunification,
guestworkerpoliciesandanincreaseinasylumdesignations.
AsthesizeandpermanenceoftheMuslimcommunitygrewmoreapparentinthe
1960’sand1970’s,thegovernmenttriedtobothreducethenumberofimmigrantsentering
thecountryandsendthemhometotheircountriesoforigin.Inthe1960’stheFrench
AdministrationattemptedtolimitAlgerianimmigration,whichrepresentedthelargest
groupofMaghrebimmigrantswithapopulationof800,000,throughaseriesof
negotiationsandcontractswiththeAlgeriangovernment.30Tenyearslater,theFrench
governmentattemptedtosendonemillionofthelegalMuslimimmigrantshome,first
throughinformalencouragementandthenwithpoliciesthatwouldsubsidizethereturn
triphome.31Whentheefforttosendtheimmigrantshomefailed,thegovernmentreverted
toanewtactic:encouragingintegrationbysupportingMuslimorganizations.Scaredthata
lackofintegrationandemploymentcouldleadtheMuslimpopulationtorebel,the
governmentsupportedIslam,encouragingthecreationofMuslimorganizations.This
accountedfortheincreasingvisibilityofIslaminFranceandtheensuingchangeinpolicy.
Bythe1990s,manyoftheMuslimimmigrantshadestablishedpatternsof
settlement.Bylivinginonegeographicareaandcultivatingtheircollectiveidentity,they
inadvertentlymadetheirownassimilationandintegrationmoredifficult.Nationhood
29Hitchens,Christopher."AChronologyoftheAlgerianWarofIndependence."TheAtlantic.AtlanticMedia
Company,01Nov.2006.Web.06Mar.2017.
30Schain,Martin.47.
31Schain,Martin,51.
19
scholarWilliamBrubackerexplainstheconflictsovertheimmigrationandintegrationof
NorthAfricansthroughahistoricalframework.Hebelievesthat“theinfluxofimmigrants
fromnon-white,non-Christiancountriesandthoseimmigrants’expressioninthe1980sof
theirdesiretoretaintheirowncultureandreligioninevitablyranupagainstthebrickwall
oftheFrenchideaofcitizenship.”32TheFrenchfeltthreatenedbytheMaghrebpopulation
resultinginyetanotherpolicyshift.Politiciansseekingtoremedythelackofintegration
introducedtherequirementofproofof“goodintegration”intheLoiChevenementof
1998.33ThelawreflectsthecornerstoneofFrenchsociety:therequirementofbelongingto
thecountryfirstandanyothergroupsecond.TodaytheriseofIslaminFrancehasonce
againcalledintoquestiontheemphasisthenationplacesonitsvaluesnamely,respectfor
tolerance,willingnesstoprotectcivillibertiesandhowfaritwillgotosafeguardwhatit
regardsasitstrueidentity.
Thischapterhasprovidedthehistoricalfoundationofreligionandimmigrationin
Francenecessarytoexaminethecurrenttensionsbetweenlaïcité,Islam,nationalsecurity,
andFrenchpolicy.ThenextchapterwillprovidethehistoricalcontextintheUnitedStates
tosetupthelatercomparativeanalysis.
32Bellar,ElisaT.,TheHeadscarfAffair:TheConseild’ÉtatontheRoleofReligionandCultureinFrenchSociety,
39TexasInternationalLawJournal:586(2004).
33Schain,Martin,55.
20
CHAPTER2:FOUNDATIONSOFAMERICANRELIGIONANDIMMIGRATION
AlthoughtheUnitedStatesisamulti-religiousnationtoday,thatwasnotalwaysthe
case.TheUnitedStateshasgonethroughofreligiousevolutionofsorts.Itbeganasa
religioushavenbutverysoonseveralcoloniesbecameintolerantofminorityreligions.The
coloniesprogressedduringtheeraoftheConstitutionandtheEnlightenmentresultingin
anexpansionoffreedomofreligion.Butthen,Pan-Protestantismtookholdearlyinthe
nineteenthcenturycreatingaclimateintolerantofotherreligiousgroups.This,coupled
withtheSecondAwakeningandaninfluxofCatholicsandMormonswhoarrivedinthemid
nineteenthandtwentiethcenturies,causedthecountrytorespondwithafearofaliensand
minorityreligions.SincethenU.S.hascontinuedtostruggletocomeupwithasound
principleandapplicationoffreedomofreligionthatallowsforreligiousliberty,andatthe
sametimeminimizesthreatsbothperceivedandactualfromforeign-bornpopulationsand
religiousminorities,today,namelyMuslims.
ThewidelyheldnotionthatAmericahasalwaysbeenawelcomingnationtolerantof
allreligionsisuntrue.Whilethemajorityofearly-generationAmericanswereChristian,
therewassignificantreligiousconflictamongtheProtestantsects.Thecoloniststookthe
newlandforaProtestantcountry.ThehomogeneityofchieflyPuritancoloniesinNew
Englandcreatedaclimateintolerantofotherreligions.Fewwerespared,Puritandissidents
andCatholicswereseenasabhorrentandwerediscriminatedagainst,killedorbanished.
FourQuakerswerehangedinBostonbetween1661and1695forstandingupfortheir
beliefs.34IntheMassachusettsBayColonyintolerancewasparticularlystrong.Itquickly
becameclearthatreligioustolerancewasatermunknowntothecolonists.
34Davis,KennethC.“America’sTrueHistoryofReligiousTolerance."
21
Therewerefewandverysmallreligiousminorities,ahandfulofCatholics,ahandful
ofJewsandahandfulofMuslims35.Thoughthehomogeneitybegantolessenasnew
immigrantgroupsarrived,theintoleranceremainedhigh.SmallnumbersofIrishbegan
immigratingtothecoloniesasearlyasthe1600’s.Havingobservedthedisastrouseffects
ofCatholicisminEurope,theEnglishsoughttokeepthemout.StillunderBritishcontrol,
coloniallawlimitedthenumberofCatholicsauthorizedtoenterthecolonies.
Consequently,themajorityofIrishcomingtothenewlandwereProtestant.Thisfostered
religiousintolerancethatwouldcontinuethroughoutthecolonialera,withastrongtarget
ontheCatholics.CottonMather,aMassachusettspreacher,condemnedCatholicsinhis
sermonsandcreatedstatutesthatdiscriminatedagainstCatholicsbylimitingtheirability
tovoteandownproperty.36DespiteagrowingseparationfromBritain,Britishrule
continuedtoimpactthepoliticsofthecolonies,causingthecoloniststograppleovertheir
positiononreligioustolerance.
Asmoreandmoreimmigrantscametothecolonies,thestrugglebecamegreater
andreligiousdifferencesdividedthecolonies.Thefirstbigwaveofnon-Protestant
immigrantscamein1718.37ThisfirstmajormigrationwasagroupofIrishPresbyterians,
Catholics,AnglicansandQuakers.38Promptedbyreligiouspersecution,lackofpolitical
autonomyanddireeconomicconditionsbackhometheIrishsoughtrefugeinthecolonies.
Aftertheirarrivalmoregroupssoughtrefugeinthenewnation.Marylandwasfoundedasa
religioushavenforRomanCatholicsbutstillwelcomedpersonsofallfaithstopractice
35ThesmallnumberofMuslimswasduetotheAfricanslaves.ThepresenceofIslamwasunknowntomany
colonists.
36Davis,KennethC."America'sTrueHistoryofReligiousTolerance."
37ColonialScots-IrishImmigrants:TheIrishRecords."ColonialScots-IrishImmigrants:TheIrishRecords.N.p.,
n.d.Web.20Jan.2017.
38"ColonialScots-IrishImmigrants:TheIrishRecords."ColonialScots-IrishImmigrants:TheIrishRecords.N.p.,
n.d.Web.20Jan.2017.
22
withoutpersecution,discriminationorexclusionfrompoliticallife.39Theinclusivespiritof
itsfoundingdidnotlastverylong.By1750tensionsbetweentheCatholicandProtestant
Marylanderswerehigh.HistorianTimothyW.Bosworthwrote,“Protestant’sreferencesto
CatholicsofprovincialMarylandappearedquitesimilartoviewsexpressedabout
“subversive”minoritygroupsthroughoutAmericanHistory.”40Thearrivalofmore
religiousgroupscreatedanewuncertaintyamongthecolonistswhodidnotanticipate
suchreligiousdiversity.SoonitwasnolongerjustBritishlawthattriedtoprevent
immigrantswithfaithsotherthanProtestantismfromimmigratingtothecoloniesand
participatinginpoliticallife,butAmericanlawandpolicybegantodosoaswell.
2.1TheConstitutionandtheRighttoFreedomofReligion
WhentheRevolutionarywarendedandKingGeorgetheIIIextendedanolive
branchtoCatholicsinCanadain1774,anti-Catholicsentimentsgrewstrongerin
America.41Theincreasingintolerancedidnotstopatdisdain;lawswereenactedtokeep
non-Protestantsfromwieldingpoliticalpower.InMassachusettsonlyChristianswereable
toholdoffice,whileCatholicscouldholdofficeiftheyrenouncedallegiancetothePope.
NewYork’sStateConstitutionin1777bannedCatholicsfrompublicoffice.Marylandand
SouthCarolinaformedProtestantstatechurches.42Thenachangeoccurred;spurredby
Enlightenmentthought,politicians,acknowledgingtheyhadcometoAmericatoescape
religiouspersecution,begantoquestiontheethicsoftheserestrictiveanddiscriminatory
lawsmanyhadoncetriedtoescapewhenfleeingEngland.
39Chapelle,SuzanneElleryGreene.Maryland:AHistoryofitsPeople.Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUPress,1986.
Print.
40Bosworth,TimothyW.“Anti-CatholicismasaPoliticalToolinMid-Eighteenth-CenturyMaryland.”The
CatholicHistoricalReview.Vol.61,No.4(Oct.,1975),pp.540.Web.7Apr.2017.
41"Davis,KennethC."America'sTrueHistoryofReligiousTolerance."
42Davis,KennethC."America'sTrueHistoryofReligiousTolerance."
23
ItwasaroundthistimethatThomasJeffersonbeganadialogueabouttherightto
freedomofreligion.AsgovernorofVirginia,Jeffersondraftedabillthatwouldcallforlegal
equalityforallcitizensirrespectiveofreligionorlackofreligion.WhenJeffersonwas
unabletomustersupportforthebill,Madisoncametohisaidandbeganacampaign
againstreligioningovernmentwithanessaytitled,“MemorialandRemonstranceAgainst
ReligiousAssessments.”43OneofthemostimportantpointsMadisonmadewasthata
religiousstatewouldbe“adeparturefromthatgenerouspolicy,whichofferinganAsylum
tothepersecutedandoppressedofeveryNationandReligion,promisedalustretoour
country.”44ThatistosaytheUnitedStateswasfoundedasanationforthepersecutedand
toattempttolimitfreedomofreligionwouldhavebeentogoagainsttheveryvaluesthat
promptedthecreationofthenewnation.
EventuallyJeffersonwasabletogathersupportfortheVirginiaActforEstablishing
ReligiousFreedom.Afterthebillwaspassed,Jeffersonfamouslywrotethat“withinthe
mantleofitsprotection,[were]theJew,theGentile,theChristianandtheMahometan,the
HindooandInfidelofeverydenomination.”45Aschampionsoffreedomofreligionand
separationofChurchandState,JeffersonandMadisonslowlychangedAmericanattitudes.
AsymboloftheattitudinalchangewastheAmericanConstitutionof1787.InArticle
VI,theConstitutionestablishedthattherewouldbenoreligioustestforoffice,thefirstof
futureprotectionsoffreedomofreligion.Itstatedthat,federallyelectedandappointed
officials“shallbeboundbyOathorAffirmation,tosupportthisConstitution,butno
religiousTestshalleverberequiredasaQualificationtoanyOfficeorpublicTrustunder
43Davis,KennethC."America'sTrueHistoryofReligiousTolerance."
44Davis,KennethC."America'sTrueHistoryofReligiousTolerance."
45Davis,KennethC."America'sTrueHistoryofReligiousTolerance."
24
theUnitedStates.”46Knowingalltoowellthedangersofacountrydividedbyreligionand
runbytheheadofthechurch,Washington,Madison,JeffersonandAdamsfoughttoensure
thatAmericawouldbeatolerantrepublicbyincludingprinciplesofreligiousfreedomin
thefoundingdocumentofthenation.
However,notallweresatisfiedwiththeConstitution’sabilitytoprotectindividual
libertiesofthepeople.Theanti-federalistsdemandedmore.Inanefforttoappealtothe
anti-federalists,Madisonintroducedanumberofamendmentsthatcametobeknownas
theBillofRights.ItwastheBillofRightsthatgrantedthepeopleoftheUnitedStates
fundamentalrightsandprotectionsbythegovernment,includingtherighttopractice
religionfreely.ItwasincongressionaldebatesthatMadison’sideasweredevelopedinto
thereligionclausesoftheFirstAmendment.InJuneof1789Madisonoutlinedhisproposed
amendments,“Thecivilrightsofnoneshallbeabridgedonaccountofreligiousbeliefor
worship,norshallanynationalreligionbeestablished,norshallthefullandequalrightsof
consciencebeinanymanner,oronanypretext,infringed…”47Hisfellowcongressmendid
notimmediatelyaccepthisproposedamendments.Mr.Sylvester,oneofthecongressmen
presentatthedebateinAugustof1789fearedtheamendmentwouldabolishreligionall
together.MadisoncounteredthatthepurposewastopreventCongressfrommakinglaws
thatwouldenforcetheobservationofreligion,createanationalreligionor“compelmento
worshipgodinanymannercontrarytotheirconscience.”48Thechiefconcernduringthe
periodwasprotectingthepeoplefromgovernmentimpositionofreligion.Theideaof
restrictingpracticeofreligionwasnotpartofthediscussion,becausenooneimaginedthe
46Davis,KennethC."America'sTrueHistoryofReligiousTolerance."
47Wilson,JohnFrederick.,andDonaldL.Drakeman.ChurchandStateinAmericanHistory:TheBurdenof
ReligiousPluralism.Seconded.Boston:BeaconPress,1987.Print.(76).
48Wilson,JohnFrederick.,andDonaldL.Drakeman,76.
25
complexityofamulti-religiouscountry.Thisdistinctionbetweentheneedtoprotectthe
peoplefromthegovernment,versustheneedtoprotectpeoplefromtheChurch,ashad
beenthecaseinEnglandandinFrance,isoneofthemostsignificantfactorsineach
countriesnotionofseparationofchurchandstateandfreedomofreligion.
UltimatelyCongressrecognizedtheimportanceoffreedomofreligionandreacheda
compromise.TheBillofRightswasratifiedin1791guaranteeingthepeopleperhapstheir
mostimportantright,therighttofreedomofreligion.49InadditiontotheBillofRights,
PresidentWashington,inalettertotheHebrewCongregationinNewport,RhodeIsland,
promisedthecountryfulllibertyofconscience.Theletterreads:
“TheGovernmentoftheUnitedStatesgivestobigotrynosanction,to
persecutionnoassistance,requiresonlythattheywholiveunderits
protectionshoulddemeanthemselvesasgoodcitizens,ingivingitonall
occasionstheireffectualsupport.Everyoneshallsitinsafetyunderhisown
vineandfigtree,andthereshallbenonetomakehimafraid.”50
ThisletterisconsideredbyAmericanhistorianMelvinUrofskytobea“treasureofthe
nation”foritsstrongcallforreligiousliberty.51FrenchpoliticianAlexisdeTocqueville
wrotethatAmericahadbeen“bornfree,unfetteredbythereligiousandsocialbigotriesof
medievalEurope.”52Tocquevilleiscorrectinhighlightingthestarkdifferencesbetweenthe
nations.ThoughtheUnitedStateswasfoundedbyagroupofBritishProtestants,bythe
timeoftheRevolutionthenationhadbecomeareligiousandpoliticalhavenformany
Europeans.Comparatively,inEurope,theanti-clericalFrenchRevolutionwasjust
49"TheStoryBehindtheGeorgeWashingtonLettertotheHebrewCongregationinNewport,RI,August21,
1790."BillofRightsInstitute.N.p.,n.d.Web.3Feb.2017.
50TheStoryBehindtheGeorgeWashingtonLettertotheHebrewCongregation…”
51TheStoryBehindtheGeorgeWashingtonLettertotheHebrewCongregation…”
52TheStoryBehindtheGeorgeWashingtonLettertotheHebrewCongregation...”
26
beginning.Washingtonrecognizedthediversityofthenationanditwasinthisveinthatthe
Americanmotto,EPluribusUnion-OutofMany,One,becameasymbolofAmerican
toleranceanddiversity.
TodayAmericacontinuestoknownasthelandofreligiousliberty,withthereligion
clausesoftheFirstAmendmentbeingacornerstoneofthisfreedom.TheFirstAmendment
grantsthepeopletherighttofreedomofreligion,protectsindividualsfromstate
restrictionofreligionandprotectsreligionsintheirownright.Thisprotectionisnot
unique;mostWesterncountriessharethisconceptionofreligion,howeverinterpretations
differ.53IntheUnitedStates,civilreligionisacommonfaith.54Moreprecisely,American
civilreligionhasbeendefinedas,“asetofreligiousbeliefs…sharedbymostAmericansand
consistentwiththeparticulartheologiesof[mostAmericanreligions]”55.Essentially,
Americancivilreligionisamixtureofreligiousandsecularbeliefsthatdatesbacktothe
country’sfounding.CivilreligionismeanttounitetheAmericanpeoplethroughashared
butseparatepartnershipbetweentheStateandtheChurch.DespitethenameAmerican
civilreligionisnotfundamentallyreligious.Infact,Americancivilreligiondevelopedasthe
U.S.becamelessreligious,influencedbyenlightenment.
Asenlightenmentideasdisseminatedthroughoutthecountrytheideaofseparating
ChurchandStatebecamemorepalatable.Tenofthefourteenstateseitherdisbandedtheir
establishmentsorstoppedenactingpoliciesthatsupportedastatereligious
establishment.56Thisincludedlooseningpoliticallimitsondissentinggroups.Atthe
nationallevelthefirstCongresshadintroducedanamendmentthateliminatedreligious
53Prélot,Pieree-Henry,914.
54Prélot,Pieree-Henry,918.
55Prélot,Pieree-Henry,918.
56Green,StevenK."TheSeparationofChurchandStateintheUnitedStates."OxfordResearchEncyclopediaof
AmericanHistory(2014):n.pag.OxfordResearchEncyclopedias.Web.12Jan.2017.
27
testsforpublicofficeandestablishedseparationofChurchandState.TheSupremeCourt
firstusedthetermseparationofChurchandStatein1879,howeveritwasnotuntilthe
incorporationoftheFourteenthAmendmentthatthetermbecameaconstitutional
promise.IntheCourt’sfirstEstablishmentClauseholdingJusticeBlackwrotethatthe
amendmentmeant:
“Neither a state nor the Federal Government can set up a church.
Neithercanpasslawswhichaidonereligion,aidallreligions,orprefer
onereligionoveranother[…]Notaxinanyamount,largeorsmall,can
be levied to support any religious activities or institutions, whatever
they may be called, or whatever form they may adopt to teach or
practice religion […] In the words of Jefferson, the clause against
establishment of religion by law was intended to erect “a wall of
separationbetweenChurchandState.”57
Therhetoricofthe1946Eversonv.BoardofEducationdecisiondidnotreflecttheultimate
holdinginwhichthecourtruledinfavorofthestate,allowingstatereimbursementof
religiousbussing.58Conservativesandliberalsagreedontheprincipleofseparationof
churchandstate,howevertheyhaddifferingviewsandunderstandingswhenitcameinto
practice.Liberalsunderstoodtheseparationtomeanthatthegovernmentcouldnot
maintainastatereligion,financereligiousactivitiesorcoerceactiononbehalforagainst
religion.Conservativesunderstoodittomeanthatthegovernmenthadleewaytorecognize
religioustraditionsandcustomsandusetheminnon-denominationalwaysaswellas
57Green,StevenK."TheSeparationofChurchandStateintheUnitedStates."
58Ultimatelythecourtheldthatserviceslikebussingthatare“separateandsoindisputablymarkedofffrom
thereligiousfunction”anddonotviolatetheFirstAmendment.("Eversonv.BoardofEducationofthe
TownshipofEwing."LII/LegalInformationInstitute.CornellUniversityLawSchool,n.d.Web.3Feb.2017.)
28
financiallyassistreligiousbodieswhenitbenefittedtheState.Thepoliticians,whowere
amongtheeliteAmericans,favoredthefirstview,upholdingthevaluesoftheConstitution.
However,subsequentbehaviordidnotechotheprinciplesoftheConstitution.The
Foundersdidnotanticipate,in1792,howdiversetheU.S.wouldbecome.Thelawsofthe
ConstitutionwerecreatedwiththebeliefthattheU.S.wouldremainafairlyhomogenous
society.Whenameretwentyyearslaterthepopulationbegantodiversify,therealitywas
notthatoftheConstitution.Nooneexpectedthechangeinreligiousdiversitythatwould
resultfromsurgesofimmigrationofMormons,Catholics,andJews,andtherefore,whenit
beganthepeoplefeltlittleobligationtoupholdthevaluesofthelegalframework.
2.2PopularReactionsandPolicyAgainstReligionandImmigrants
AtthebeginningofthenineteenthcenturyAmericanswerenolongercommittedto
preventingdiscriminationonthebasisofreligion.TheAmericanpublicdidnotsharethe
sameviewasthepoliticalelitewhobelievedfreedomofreligionwasaprotectedright.The
countrysawareturnofintoleranceasimmigrationincreased.Violenceeruptedinthe
1830’swhenasecondwaveofIrishCatholicimmigrantsarrivedandagaininthe1840’s
followingtheIrishPotatofamine.TheIrishthatcameduringthisperiodwerepoorby
Americanstandardsandwerewillingtoworkforlowwages.ManyAmericansgrewto
resentthemandtheirunsanitarylivingconditionsthatpollutedneighborhoods.Age-old
tensionsbetweenProtestantsandCatholicswereexacerbated.Protestantsburneddown
SaintMary’sCatholicChurchinNewYorkCityin1831.Theviolencecontinuedacrossthe
nation.The1844BibleRiotsinPhiladelphialefttwentydead,twochurchesburnedtothe
29
ground,andhomesdestroyed.59Bythe1850’stherewasafarmorechallenging
demographicmixthananyoneexpected,whichopenedthedoortostronganti-immigrant
andanti-Catholicsentiments.ThesetensionsultimatelyledtothefoundingoftheNativist
AmericanpartyandtheKnow-Nothingparty.
TheKnow-Nothingpartygainedtractioninthe1850’sasananti-immigrant,and
anti-Catholicpartythattargetednon-responsivepoliticians.ThepartydislikedCatholicism
becauseofitsromanhierarchicalstructure,anti-republicanvaluesanditsaimtosubvert
governmentandcurbindividualfreedom.60TheKnow-Nothings,liketheFrench
revolutionaries,feltCatholicvaluesposedathreattothenation.TheKnow-Nothingswere
describedasapartythat“sprangfromthepeople,notprofessionalpoliticians”andasa
creationofapartyof“menoutsidepolitics.”61Thepeople,guidedbybigotryandnotfact,
feltthreatenedbyCatholicism.By1850TheCatholicChurchwasthesinglelargestreligious
bodyinAmerica.Thepresenceofthechurchcoupledwithfactthat40percentofsecond
waveimmigrantshailedfromIrelandincitedangerandresentmentamongnativists.62The
nativistsstressedthedisproportionatepresenceofIrishCatholicswhowerepoorand
criminalsandsoughttolimittheirpoliticalpowerbyspreadinganti-immigrant
propaganda.TheKnow-Nothingswonseveralelectionsonthisnativistplatformandgained
reasonablepopularity.WhentheRepublicanPartyfinallysupersededthemin1856,they
hadalreadyincorporatedsomeoftheKnow-Nothing’santi-immigrantrhetoric.By
absorbingtheanti-immigrantgeneintheRepublicanParty,theRepublicanswere
59"Irish-ReligiousConflictandDiscrimination."Immigration:Irish.LibraryofCongress.LibraryofCongress,
n.d.Web.15Jan.2017.
60Levine,Bruce.“Conservatism,Nativism,andSlavery:ThomasR.WhitneyandtheOriginsoftheKnowNothingParty.”TheJournalofAmericanHistory,vol.88,no.2,2001,pp.455.Print.
61Levine,Bruce,456.
62"WavesofImmigrationinAmerica."WavesOfImmigrationInAmericaTimeline.Preceden,n.d.Web.18Jan.
2017.
30
eventuallybrandedasthewhiteProtestantparty,atleastintheSouth.
Tothedetrimentofthenation,theRepublicanshadadoptedtheanti-immigrant
rhetoric.Thediscriminationbegantoextendtoseveralothergroups.In1924theU.S.
governmentimposedapolicythatwouldconstrainimmigrationthroughaquotasystem
andcompletebanofAsianimmigration.TheActsetatwopercentnationaloriginsquota
basedonthe1890U.S.censusdataandincludedaprovisionthatexcludedentryforany
alienbasedonraceornationality.Drivenbythefearthatimmigrantswouldnotassimilate,
politiciansimposedthesediscriminatorylaws.Themajorityoftheimmigrantstargeted
throughthequotawerethosewhopracticedareligionotherthanProtestantChristianity,
suchastheJews,theChinese,andtheIrishCatholic.Religiousdiscriminationwasbrought
totheforefrontintheimmigrationpoliciesofthenineteenthandearlytwentiethcentury,
andwasnotcorrecteduntilitwaschallengedinthecourtsandoutlawedbythe1965
ImmigrationandNationalityAct.63
2.3U.S.ReligiousJurisprudence:SupremeCourtCases
Duringthelatterhalfofthenineteenthcenturytherearoseatensionbetween
officiallegalprinciplesandpopularandpoliticalmanifestationsofbigotryculminatingin
anefforttohavepopularimpulseembodiedinlaw.Simplyput,therighttofreedomof
religiondidnothavethefullweightoftheAmericanpeoplebehindit.InadditiontheBillof
Rightsdidnotyetapplytostatelaw,andasaresultseveralreligiousminoritieslostcases
intheCourts.
63The1965ImmigrationandNationalityActbarreddiscriminationonthebasisofnationaloriginand
abolishedthe1924nationaloriginsquota.(source:"USimmigrationlegislationonline."U.S.Immigration
Legislation:1965ImmigrationandNationalityAct(Hart-CellarAct).TheUniversityofWashington-Bothell
Library,n.d.Web.3Apr.2017.)
31
TheMormonswereonesuchgroup.TheMormonsfaceddisapprovalofbecause
theirvalueswereindirectoppositiontothoseofthefoundingnation.In1862theMorrill
ActmadetheMormonpracticeofpluralmarriageillegal.Thisactwouldprovidethebasis
toconvictReynoldsin1878.InReynoldsv.US,theSupremeCourtruledthatthefree
exerciseclausedidnotguaranteearighttopartakeinanillegalreligiouspractice.64In
sum,thecourtruledthatreligiousdutyisnotasufficientcriminaldefense.Inthecase,
Reynolds,aMormonman,waschargedwithviolatingtheanti-bigamyact.Inthislandmark
decisiontheCourtdistinguishedbetweenbeliefandpractice,holdingthatReynoldshadthe
righttobelievewhathewanted,buthecouldnotpracticeashepleasedifthatpractice
violatedacriminallawcreatedtoprotectthepublicgood.TheSupremeCourtestablished
thatthefederalgovernmentcouldinsomecircumstancesrestrictthereligiouslibertyof
thepeople.TheMormonscameunderattackbecausethecountryfelttheirvalueswere
hostiletothenation,justastheMuslimshavetoday.Thoughtheprohibitionofplural
marriagewasafairlyminorlimitoncivilliberties,itforeshadowedthefuture.Thiswasthe
firstofmanydecisionsthatgavethestategreatercontrolandimposedlimitsonthecivil
libertiesofthepeople.
AnotherindicationofthenewdirectionofU.S.jurisprudencewasthe1875Anti-
CatholicBlaineAmendment.Thoughtheamendmentwasshortafewvotes,itunderscored
thatthemajorityofCongresswasinfavorofstricterseparationofChurchandState.The
Amendment,whichtargetedCatholicparochialschools,statedthatnofederalfundswould
beallocatedtofundreligiousschoolsandthatnostatecouldestablishastatereligion.65
Thecourtscontinuedtoruleinfavorofstatesoftencitingpublicsafetyasabasisfortheir
64Kulchycki,Scott,andRogerWang."ReligioninUnitedStatesDomesticPolicy."Stanford.2003.Web.14Jan.
2017.
65"WhatIsaBlaineAmendment?"Findlaw.FindLawLLCN.p.,n.d.Web.19Jan.2017.
32
decision.OnesuchexamplewasJacobsonv.Massachusetts(1905).InJacobson,theCourt
allowedthestatetoenforcetherequirementofthesmallpoxvaccinedespiteclaimsthat
thevaccineviolatedsomepeople’sreligiousbeliefs.66InBradfordv.Roberts(1899)the
DistrictofColombiaenteredintoacontractwithahospitalrunbyCatholicnuns.67The
contractwasupheldbecausethehospitalhadnoreligiouspurposeandservedtoprovide
allpeopleinthecommunitywithmedicalcare.Thecommonthemeinthesecaseswas
deferencetothestate.Congresscontinuedtoenactlawsthatdiscriminatedonthebasisof
religionandthecourtsdeferredtothestates,evadingthepromisesoftheFirstand
FourteenthAmendments.
Howevertheredidbeginamovementtoreconcilethetwofacetsoffreedomof
religion.InJacobsontheargumentmadebytheplaintiffwasdiscriminationonthebasisof
religion,inBradford,preferenceofonereligiontoanother.Toreconciletheseprinciplesthe
courtsbeganevaluatingapolicyofstrictseparation.The1946Eversonv.Boardof
Educationcasecoinedtheterm“strictseparationist”todescribeafavoringofnonestablishmentofreligion.68Criticsofthetermchargethat“aseparationistperspective
imposesaregimeofsecularism,onethatisnotneutraltowardreligiousmattersbutthat
privatizesandmarginalizesreligion.”69ThemajorityinEversondisagreed.InEversonthe
courtappliedtheEstablishmentClausetostatelawthroughtheDueProcessClauseofthe
FourteenthAmendment.Bynarrowlyapplyingthelaw,thecourtfoundthatthestate’s
66Kulchycki,Scott,andRogerWang."ReligioninUnitedStatesDomesticPolicy."Stanford,2003.Web.14Jan.
2017.
67Kulchycki,Scott,andRogerWang."ReligioninUnitedStatesDomesticPolicy."Stanford,2003.Web.14Jan.
2017.
68Kulchycki,Scott,andRogerWang."ReligioninUnitedStatesDomesticPolicy."StanfordUniversity,2003.
Web.14Jan.2017.
69Green,StevenK."TheSeparationofChurchandStateintheUnitedStates."OxfordResearchEncyclopediaof
AmericanHistory(2014):n.pag.OxfordResearchEncyclopedias.Web.12Jan.2017.)
33
fundingofCatholicschoolbussesdidnotviolatetheFirstAmendment.Thecriticsofstrict
separationwon,andsotheurgencyforanexplicitpolicyofstrictseparationdiminished.
Strictseparationsoughttoestablishsecularism.Butsecularismdidnotandhasnot
prevailedinournation.OnereasonforthiswastheColdWar.Inthewaragainstthe
communistsoviets,theAmericanpeoplebannedtogetherregardlessofindividualreligion
tofightatheisticcommunism.DianeKirbystatedthattheColdWarwas“aglobalconflict
betweenthegod-fearingandthegodless.”70ThethreattoAmericannationalsecuritywas
nolongerdomestic,andconsequentlythefocusshiftedfromimmigrantsandinternal
religiousminoritiestoforeignthreats.Theneedtodestroytheenemyandallthatitstood
forenhancedreligiouspluralismandmulticulturalismwithintheUnitedStates.
Themovetowardsreligioustolerancewasfurtheremphasizedbytheresponseto
theholocaust.AsareactiontotheNazigenocideandtheAmericans’guiltforintervening
toolate,therebeganadeclineinanti-Semitisminthe1940’s.Thiscombinedwith
invocationsof“Judeo-Christian”partnershipminimizedthedifferencesbetweenthetwo
religionsandhelpedtoincludeJudaismaspartofthecommonfaithofAmericans.71In
1963theSupremeCourtruledinfavoraJewishwomanwhohadarguedthatherplaceof
workhadviolatedtheFirstAmendmentbydenyingherunemploymentbenefitsfor
refusingtoworkontheSabbath.Inthiscase,Sherbertv.Vernerthecourtruledforthe
individualandforreligiousliberty.72Thisperiodofreligiouspluralismcultivatedanew
Americanspiritmoreinclusiveofreligion,atleastonthesurface.
70Kirby,Dianne.ReligionandtheColdWar.London:PalgraveMacmillan,2003.Print.(1).
71“Religion-Thecoldwarandthefifthgreatawakening”EncyclopediaoftheNewAmerica.Web6Feb.2017.
72Kulchycki,Scott,andRogerWang."ReligioninUnitedStatesDomesticPolicy."StanfordUniversity,2003.
Web.14Jan.2017.
34
Theinclusivespiritdidnotlastlong.The1980’sand1990’ssawaneruptionof
conflictbetweentheU.S.andIslammarkedbyU.S.involvementintheIran-Iraqwar,the
riseoftheNationofIslamandactsofterrorcommittedbyMuslimradicals.Theseevents
ledtheU.S.tobecautiousofIslamandthosewhoidentifiedasMuslim.Thisperiodfrom
1980to2010willbeexploredatlengthinchapterfourandwillanalyzehowtheU.S.dealt
withthethreatofIslamandtheneedtoprotecttherighttoreligiousfreedom.
TheUnitedStatesandFrance,asdetailedinthefirsttwochapters,placedifferent
emphasisonfreedomofreligionandreligiousexpression.Theparadoxbeingwhileboth
countrieshaveestablishedfreedomofreligionasafoundingprinciple,theoutcomehas
beendissimilarateveryturn.TheUnitedStatesdidnotencounterthesamedifficultyasthe
Frenchdidofclashingwithonealreadyestablishedreligiousinstitution,insteadreligious
groupswithinthecountryclashed,exacerbatedbyhighratesofimmigration.Franceon
theotherhandwentthroughananti-clericalrevolutionand,strugglingtoemancipate
governmentandreligion,developedaregimeofsecularism.Whatbothcountriesdoshare,
though,isthisthreattotheirnationalidentityandpublicorderthatcausesthemtotighten
lawsagainstreligiousfreedom.TheFrenchmanifestationofthisfearismorepronounced
todaythoughithasonlybeenrealizedinthepolicyofthelastfiftyyears,whereasantireligiouspolicyhaspervadedAmericansocietysinceitsfounding,butwasthoughttohave
beenreconciledaftertheissueswiththeCatholics.
ThenextchapterwillexploretheFrenchconceptoflaïcitéandhowithasbeenused
tomanipulateFrenchpolicyandlimitreligiouspracticesthatthenon-MuslimFrench
identifyasathreat.
35
CHAPTER3:FREEDOMOFRELGIONV.LAICITÉINMODERNDAYFRANCE
Aswehavenowseen,theFrenchandtheAmericansviewfreedomofreligionin
differentifnotopposingways.WhiletheFrenchsetouttocreateasecularnation,America
wasintheprocessofcreatingamulti-religiousone.Thischapterwillattempttoreconcile
lawsenactedandactionstakenbytheFrenchgovernmentthatappeartoprivilege
ChristianityoverIslam,andtargetthereligiousfreedomofthegrowingMuslim
population.73
3.1TheStartofUnfairApplicationofLaïcité
Thereisawidespreadbelief,ontheleft,amongMuslimsandamongadvocatesof
civillibertiesthatthelawsoflaïcitéhavebeenunfairlyappliedtotheMuslimpopulation.
Thisnotionisnotunsupported.Severaleventsinrecenthistoryprovideevidenceofunfair
application.In1996PopeJohnPaulIIvisitedthecityofTourstocommemoratethe
baptismofthefounderofFrance,theFrankishKingClovis.74Thestatefinancedhistrip
despitethedirectorderofthe1905lawthatthegovernmentshallnotfundreligious
events.PresidentChiracjustifiedtheactionarguingthatthePopewastheleaderofthe
VaticanstateandthespiritualleaderoftheFrenchpeople.Thegovernment’snonchalance
inmakingexemptionsforCatholicleaderscontradictstheprincipleoflaïcité,andisoneof
manygovernmentactionsthatshoweddeferencetoChristianreligions.
ThefrenzieddebateoverIslamandreligioussymbolsbeganaround1990.
Between1950and1989manyofFrance’scoloniesgainedindependence,whichdrovea
flowofMuslimimmigrationtoFrance.By1989,theMuslimpopulationofFrancehad
73RefertotheAppendix(pg102)fordataontheMuslimpopulationofFrance.
74Bohlen,Celestine."PopeIsShowingStaminaonHisFrenchVisit."TheNewYorkTimes.TheNewYorkTimes
Company,22Sept.1996.Web.06Mar.2017.
36
grownconsiderably,producingstrongeranti-Muslimsentiments.In1950therewasa
Muslimpopulationof230,000andby1980thenumberhadgrownto2.5million.75In
additiontothesignificantgrowth,MuslimshadsettleddisproportionatelyaroundParis
makingtheirpresencefarmoreapparentandstimulatingadebateabouttheirplacein
Frenchsociety.76
Itwasduringthistimethatperhapsthebest-knownexampletodateofunfair
applicationoftheprinciplesoflaïcitéoccurred.InwhatbecameknownasL’Affairedu
foulard,alsooftenreferredtoasthe1989headscarfcase,theprincipalofamiddleschoolin
Creil,asuburbofParis,expelledthreeteenagegirlsforrefusingtotakeofftheir
headscarves.Thoughhejustifiedtheactionbystatingtheexpulsionwasdone“inthename
ofrespectforlaïcité,”77hiscommentsafterthefactarefarmoretellingofhismotivations.
Theprincipalsaid,“theveilsareastrategytoIslamifytheyoungArabsofCreil.”78His
remarksarticulatedthestrongIslamophobiabeginningtospreadacrossFrance.Left-wing
opponentspointedout“itiscuriousindeedtoexpelgirlsfrompublicschoolsinthenameof
“integrating”themmorefullyintoFrenchsociety,”79highlightingtheduplicityofthe
expulsion.
Thecasegarnerednationalmediaattentionandsplitthecountrybetweenthe
supportersof“openlaïcité”andthefierceguardiansof“French”identity.Supportersofthe
expulsionarguedthattheveilsviolatedtherulesofsecularismandimposedreligiousideas
75Kettani,Houssain."MuslimPopulationinEurope:1950–2020."InternationalJournalofEnvironmental
ScienceandDevelopment(2010):157.Web.
76Taylor,Adam."Map:France’sgrowingMuslimpopulation."TheWashingtonPost.WPCompany,09Jan.
2015.Web.14Apr.2017.
77Dryef,Zineb."LejouroùlaFrances'estdiviséesurlefoulard."LeMonde.fr.LeMonde,03Feb.2017.Web.
01Mar.2017.
78Dryef,Zineb."LejouroùlaFrances'estdiviséesurlefoulard."
79Dryef,Zineb."LejouroùlaFrances'estdiviséesurlefoulard."
37
onthestudentsattheschool.Theyalsomadetheargumentthatfromafeministperceptive
thebanwasbeneficialpolicythatwouldprotectgirlsfrombeingforcedtoweartheveilsby
thepatriarchalreligionofIslam.Thisargumentwasinvalidatedwhenthefatheroftwo
expelledsistersassuredthepressthathedidnotrequirethegirlstobeveiled,andwhen
thegirlsthemselvesreiteratedthattheyhadmadethedecisiontobeveiledontheirown.
Then,afterweeksofmediafrenzy,agovernmentofficialfinallyspokeup.Lionel
Jospin,thenMinisterofEducation,statedthatwhilestudentsmust“respectlaïcitébynot
wearingostentatiousreligioussymbols,”educationcomesfirst,and“schoolsexistto
welcomestudentsnottoexcludethem.”80Hiscommentsgeneratedafirestormofcriticism
fromhisownparty,theright,andthemedia,allofwhichaccusedhimoffavoringthe
Muslimcommunity.ThroughouttheaffairePresidentMitterrandremainedsilent,passing
thedecisionontotheConseild’État,thehighestadministrativejurisdictioninFrancethat
advisesandjudgestheexecutive.Threemonthslater,onNovember27,theConseild’État
presenteditsopinion:Studentswhowearreligioussymbolsarenotautomaticallyviolating
theprincipleoflaïcité,andthereforethedirectorsofschoolscanmakedecisionsonacase
bycasebasis.Therulingseemedtofavorthegirls,butbecausethecaselefttheultimate
interpretationandimplementationtoprincipalsandlocalschoolsboards,itleftroomfor
individualprejudice.ThemostimportantoutcomeofthecasewasthattheCourthad
determinedthepolicyitselfwasvalid.Itsconstitutionalitywoulddependonthesituation.
Intheyearsafterthedecision,theConseilConstitutionel(SupremeCourt)heard
manysimilarcases,oftenrulinginfavorofstudents’righttowearthereligiousgarb.In
fact,between1992and1999thecourtupheldstudents’rightstowearheadscarvesin84
80Dryef,Zineb."LejouroùlaFrances'estdiviséesurlefoulard."
38
percentofcases.81Thecaseswereaboutmorethanreligiousrights,theybroughtfourmain
issuestotheforefront:“theroleofsecularisminthepublicschoolsystem;women’srights;
thespectreofafundamentalist,aggressiveIslamproselytisingFrance;andtheintegration
ofNorthAfricansandothernon-Europeanimmigrants.”82DanielleMitterrand,wifeof
PresidentMitterrand,reprimandedthecountryforbeingunwillingtoacceptreligions
otherthanChristianity200yearsaftertheRevolution.83ThepoliticalclimateofFrancedid
playasignificantroleintheFrenchreluctancetoaccepttheMuslimimmigrantcommunity.
SeveraleventscausedtheFrenchpeopletobewaryofMuslims.Awaveofterrorist
bombingshitParisinSeptemberof1986;threeFrenchhostagesweretakeninBeirut,
Lebanonin1986,andrelationswithIranwerefarfromamiable.84Theheadscarfcameto
beasymbolofIslamicdangertotheFrenchRepublic.Thesetensionsthoughtemporarily
resolvedwiththejudgmentoftheConseild’État,werefarfromlaidtorest.
3.2The2004ActonReligiousSymbolsa.k.a.TheHeadscarfBan
ThedebateonheadscarvesandIslamhasremainedasalienttopicinFrenchpolitics,
complicatedbyagrowingawarenessoftheMuslimpopulation.Inthenameoflaïcitéand
neutralityFrancedoesnotgatherreligiousdataonitspopulation.Howevermanyestimates
havebeenmadethat7to8percentoftheFrenchpopulationisMuslim,makingFrance
hometothelargestMuslimpopulationinEurope.85ThesizeoftheMuslimpopulationhas
notgoneunnoticed;in1999asurveyfoundthat51percentoftheFrenchpopulationfelt
81Bellar,ElisaT.,584.
82Bellar,ElisaT.,586.
83Bellar,ElisaT.,583.
84"FrenchHostagesFreedinBeirut;BoonforChirac."TheNewYorkTimes.TheNewYorkTimesCompany,04
May1988.Web.03Mar.2017.
85Bell,DavidA."VeilofTears:AReviewof"WhytheFrenchDon'tLikeHeadscarves:Islam,theStateand
PublicSpace"."Review-A-Day.Powells.com,8Mar.2007.Web.01Mar.2017.
39
thereweretoomanyArabsinthecountry.Thissentimentnotonlycontinuedinto2003,
butgrewandre-emergedmoreopenlytowardsIslam,with73percentsupportingthe
headscarfban.86Inresponsetorisinganti-Muslimsentiment,PresidentChiracappointed
theStasiCommissiontoinvestigatehowtoadaptlaïcitétothemodernanddrastically
differentFrenchnation,andaddressbestpracticesconcerningtheheadscarfinschools.
In2003theStasiCommissionrecommendedaheadscarfbaninschools;thiswas
passedbyparliamentin2004byavoteof593-36with31abstentions.87Thelawprohibits
thewearingof“ostentatious”religioussymbolsinschoolsandifviolatedleaves
disciplinarydecisionsuptolocalschoolboards.Thevaguenessoftheterm“ostentatious”
wasnotaccidental.TheFrenchParliamentknewthattheEuropeanCourtofHumanRights
wouldrulethatacompletebanonreligioussymbolswasrestrictivetoreligiousfreedom.
TheFrenchParliamentthereforemadeacalculateddecisionwhenchoosingthelanguage
(particularlytheword“ostentatious”)ofthebanthatwouldenablethemtotargetwearers
oftheIslamicveil.
Anotherproblem,amongmany,wastheeasewithwhichParliamentwasableto
enactalawthatonitsfaceappeareddiscriminatory.Theproblemwasinstitutional.Prior
to2008theonlypartiesabletorequestaconstitutionalreviewofalawwerehigh-ranking
partymemberssuchasthepresidentoftherepublic,theprimeminister,thepresidentof
thenationalassemblyortheoneofthesixtysenators.Thepeoplehadnooutlettoprotest
nortocallintoquestionwhattheyfeltwasunjustlegislation,andnogovernmentofficial
feltinclinedtorefertheActof2004totheConseild’Étattohaveitsconstitutionality
determined.TheduplicityisunsurprisingconsideringthattherewasnotasingleMuslim
86Bell,DavidA."VeilofTears:AReviewof"WhytheFrenchDon'tLikeHeadscarves:Islam,theStateand
PublicSpace"."
87BrittonD.Davis,124.
40
governmentofficialin2004,andthatthemajorityofparliamentconsistedofwhite
Christianmales.88Thegovernmentseemstoforgetthatlaïcitéwasdevelopedtoprotectthe
statefromreligiousconflict,yetthebanhasinsteadentrenchedthedivisionbetweenthe
Muslimsandthe“French.”
TheheadscarfaffairwasformanyFrenchMuslimsaconfirmationoftheirstatusas
outsiders,“pushingthemtowardsamoreradicalIslamthatislessaccommodatingwithlife
inthelatetwentiethcentury.”89AfterthelawpassedmanyMuslimgirlsbeganwearing
blackheadscarvesinplaceofthemorecommoncolorfulscarves,andjournalistsfacetiously
askedwhetherschoolswouldsoonbansilkscarvesfromHermès.
Alesswell-knownoutcomeofthelawwastheeffectithadonturbanwearingSikh
boysandthegovernment’sresponse.ThesmallSikhminorityofFrancehadneverbeen
viewedasathreattolaïcitéandasaresultthegovernmentdidnotconsiderimplicationsof
thelawonnon-threateningSikhs.WhentheMinistryofEducationeventuallyrealizedthat
thewearingofSikhturbansalsoviolatedthelaw,itquietlyofferedtopayfulltuitionforthe
Sikhsatprivateschools.TheMinistryofEducation’sdeviousactionstoaidonlytheSikhs
madetheultimatepurposeofthebanblatantlyobvious:thebanwascreatedtoassuagethe
publicandsendthesymbolicmessagethatFrancewouldfightagainstthedangersofIslam.
Inconclusion,theheadscarvesformanyofthenon-MuslimFrenchrepresentthe
generalrefusalofMuslimimmigrantstointegrateintosociety,aswellastheirparticipation
ininternationalterrorism,urbanviolence,andtheoppressionofwomen.Ultimately,the
FrenchpublicsawthebanasaprotectionagainstthegrowinginfluenceofIslam.
88"MuslimsinEuropeanPolitics."EuroIslamNewsandAnalysisonIslaminEuropeandNorthAmerica.N.p.,
n.d.Web.03Mar.2017.
89Malik,IftikharHaider.“IslamandModernity:MuslimsinEuropeandtheUnitedStates.”London:Pluto
Press,2004.
41
Unfortunately,thegovernmentfailedtoacknowledgethecasualtiesoftheban.The
majorityofthegirlsaffectedwereFrenchbornandrelativelynon-religious.Oneexampleis
Schérazade,ayoungMuslimgirlwhodidnotregularlyweartheveil,butdecidedtorisk
expulsionanddontheveilhersenioryearofhighschool.Forherthiswasanactofprotest
againsttherestrictive,discriminatory,andracistFrenchgovernmentwhowaslimitingher
righttoreligiousfreedom.Thisisonegirlbutthelargerpicturepaintsthesamestory.The
banhascausedover60,000studentstodropoutofpublicschoolseachyear.90Ittells
MuslimgirlswhohavegrownupinFranceandconsiderthemselvesFrenchthattheir
religionconflictswiththeirabilitytoeverbefullyFrench.IttellsthemFrenchsociety
rejectsthem.Andyet,thegovernmenthasattemptedtorationalizethebaninthenameof
neutralityandrespectforallreligions.
3.3RationalizingtheBan
DespiteworldwideagreementthattheheadscarfbanunjustlyaffectsMuslims,the
Frenchgovernmenthastriedtoarguethatitsimplementationwasdoneinthenameof
respectforallreligions.NicolasSarkozy,Frenchpresidentfrom2007to2012,addressed
thedisputeonlaïcitéina2009speech,assertingthat,“theproblemoftheburkaisnot
religiousproblem,it’saproblemofliberty.Itisnotareligioussymbol,it’sasymbolof
enslavement,it’sasymbolofhumiliation.”Hethencontinued,“Iwanttosaysolemnly,it
willnotbewelcomeonFrenchsoil.”91Sarkozybelievesthatalaïcbanisthesolution,
claimingthatlaïcité“istherespectofall[religious]opinionsandallbeliefs.”92His
commentswhenanalyzedinconjunctionarealmostcomical.Sarkozy’sstatementsare
90Malik,IftikharHaider.“IslamandModernity:MuslimsinEuropeandtheUnitedStates.”
91“UneLaïcitéSansVoile.”EspritÉditorialno.295.EspritPresse,Juin2003.Web.27Apr.2017.
92“UneLaïcitéSansVoile.”EspritÉditorialno.295.EspritPresse,Juin2003.Web.27Apr.2017.
42
contradictory:thebandoesnottargetonereligionbutalsotheburkaisnotwelcomeon
Frenchsoil.Thoughtheburka,thefullbodyveilwithameshcoverfortheeyesandthe
niqabthefull-faceveilwhichleavesaslitfortheeyes,doformuchoftheworldsymbolize
theoppressionofwomen,itishardtounderstandhowabanofitisnotreligious
discrimination.Nevertheless,themajorityoftheFrenchagreedwithSarkozy’sstatements,
foroneoftworeasons.AteacherinaMuslimbanlieueofParisdiscussedthearguments
madeinthelawsthateliminatedreligiousteachinginschoolsin1881withherclass.The
classfoundthesameargumentsweremaderegardingthe2004debateontheveil.Shesaid
herstudentsweremovedwhentheyrealizedit“wasn’tjustsomethingagainstIslam,thatit
comesoutofatradition.”93ManyFrenchpeoplebelievethattheheadscarfbanisnecessary
topromotelaïcitéandequality.TheothergroupagreeswithSarkozyforalessnoble
reason:becausetheyseeheadscarvesasbeingjustastepremovedfromsuicidebombs,
especiallyafterSeptember11andthebombingsinMadridandLondon.Thedangerof
violentradicalIslammayexist,butitisnotclearhowtheheadscarfbaninschoolsandthe
limitonreligiouslibertywillhaveanyeffectinreducinganylegitimatethreat.Nonetheless,
theFrenchcontinuedtoexpandtheban,in2011banningfull-faceveilsinpublicspaces
placingarestrictiononattirethatmanyMuslimsconsiderareligiousobligation.
3.4S.A.S.V.FRANCE
Theheadscarfcasescametoepitomizethenationaldebateonimmigration,security
andreligiousidentity.AstheMuslimpopulationgrew,especiallyaroundthecountry’s
capitalwherethepercentofMuslimshadreachedfifteencomparedtothenationalaverage
ofsevenpercent,theFrenchfeltincreasinglythreatened.Theperceivedchangecausedby
93Packer,George."TheOtherParis."TheNewYorker.TheNewYorker,31Aug.2015.Web.28Mar.2017.
43
thenewandgrowingMuslimpopulationcausedtheFrenchtofeelasthoughtheywere
losingapartoftheirnationalidentityandthattheirnationalsecuritywasatrisk.94
PresidentSarkozy’s2009remarksreflectedthisfearandsparkedParliamenttodive
deeperintotheburkadilemma.
In2010,aparliamentarycommissioncomprisedofthirty-twomembersreachedthe
conclusionthattheburkawasincompatiblewithsecularism,andaskedparliamentto
adoptaresolutionthatwouldrequirewomentokeeptheirfacesuncoveredwhenreceiving
publicservices.Withinayearparliamentpassedalawthatbannedthecoveringoftheface
(outlawingthewearingoftheniqabandburka)inallpublicplaces,withsupportfromthe
FrenchgovernmentandmanymainstreamMuslimorganizations.Francewasthefirst
Europeancountrytooutlawfull-faceveils.Onegroupthatstoodinstrongoppositiontothe
lawwasFrenchpolice.Policeunionsdidnotsupportthebanarguingitwouldbevery
difficulttoenforceandcouldcreateriots.95Othercriticssoughttopointoutthelaw’s
unproductiveness.Whenthelawwentintoeffectitwasestimatedtherewereaboutfive
millionMuslimsinFranceandthatabout2,000worethefull-faceveil.OliverRoy,anexpert
onpoliticalIslam,questioned,“Whytargetsomethingwhichinfactisanexceptionandonly
concernshundredsofwomen-mostofthemconvertsinFrance?It'snotamovementof
supportfortheburka,butafeelingofdiscrimination."96Thediscriminatoryaspectishard
toignore.Furthermore,thepenaltiesofthelawseektopunishthemenwhotheFrench
Governmentsaysforcewomentobeveiled.Ingeneraltermsthelawstatesthataperson
94Taylor,Adam."Map:France’sgrowingMuslimpopulation."TheWashingtonPost.WPCompany,09Jan.
2015.Web.14Apr.2017.
95Erlanger,Steven."FranceEnforcesBanonFull-FaceVeilsinPublic."TheNewYorkTimes.TheNewYork
TimesCompany,11Apr.2011.Web.05Feb.2017.
96Cigainero,Jake."FiveYearsintoBan,BurqaDivideWidensinFrance."DW.com.DeutscheWelle,4Oct.2016.
Web.12Apr.2017.
44
maynotwearaveilinpublicspace,andthatifwornshemaybeaskedtoremoveit.Ifthe
weareroftheveildoesnotcomplyshewillbefinedapproximately130eurosorjailed,and
evenifshecompliesandremovestheveilshewillbesubjecttoapublichearing.For
anyonewhoforcesanotherpersontowearaveilthepenaltyisfarharsher,resultinginone
yearofjailtimeanda30,000eurofine.97Thedifferenceintheseverityofpunishment
betweenmenandwomenwhoviolatethelawreflectstheopinionoftheFrench
policymakerswhobelievetheyaresavingMuslimwomenfromoppression.However,not
everyoneagreedwiththisviewortheconstitutionalityofthelaw,whichledtothefamous
2011S.A.S.v.Francecase.
Thelawoutlawingfull-facecoveringswasquicklycalledintoquestionforviolating
therighttofreedomofreligionandfreeexpression.Muslimsandsupportersofreligious
freedomresistedthepolicy.ThesamedaythelawwentintoforceinAprilof2011,a24-
year-olddevoutMuslimFrenchwomanfiledanapplicationwiththeEuropeanCourtof
HumanRights(ECtHR)declaringthatthelawwasaviolationofherrights.Thewoman
whoallowedthecourttodiscloseonlyherinitialsisknownasS.A.S..Inherapplication
S.A.S.emphasizedthatfreefrompressureshehadchosentoweartheveilandthatshedid
notweartheveilatalltimes,onlywhenshefeltitwasnecessarytoexpressherreligion
andherpersonalandculturalfaith,forexampleduringRamadan.Plainlyput,thebanon
veilsinpublicplacesconstrainsthefreedomofwomenwhowearveilsorwhomaywantto
wearveilsinthefuture.WiththosedetailsinmindS.A.S.arguedthatthelawviolated:
article9(freedomofreligion),article10(freedomofexpression),article8(privacy),article
97Guepratte,Étienne."LaRépubliqueSeVitàVisageDécouvert."LaRépubliqueSeVitÃVisageDécouvert.Le
ServiceD’informationDuGouvernement.Web.02Feb.2016.
45
14(freedomfromdiscrimination),article3(non-subjectiontodegradingtreatment)and
article11(freedomofassembly)oftheEuropeanDeclarationofHumanRights.
Thecourtfoundseveraloftheclaimsinadmissibleanddecidedtoinvestigatesolely
onthebasisoftherighttofreedomofreligionandtherighttoprivacy.Thelawwasupheld
withfifteenofseventeenjudgesfindingtheburkabannecessaryinademocraticsocietyto
protecttherightsandfreedomofothers.TheFrenchattributegreatimportancetothe
decidingprincipleof“vivreensemble”(livingtogether).Thisargumentof“livingtogether”is
inherentlybiased.Itfavorsassimilationinthetugofwarbetweenassimilationand
multiculturalism.Thetwodissentingjudgesinthecasefoundtheconceptof“living
together”problematic,statingthatthebanmakesa“mockeryoffreedomofexpression…
andtherighttoidentityorpersonality.”98Theiropinionsechothoseofadvocatesofcivil
libertieswhoagreethatthebanleadsFranceandtheECtHRdownaslipperyslopewhere
themajorityhastheabilitytorejectformsofexpressionitdoesnotidentifywith.The
courtitselfsaidtherewasa“resultingriskofabuse.”99Thedangersseemdifficultto
reconcile,butasJoshA.Bowenexplains,“TheRepublicisbasednotonasharedfaith,but
onafaithinthepossibilitiesofsharingalifetogether,despitevastdifferencesin
appearance,history,andreligiousideas.”100Evenifthisistrue,therecomesapointwhen
theFrenchmustevaluateiftheyhavetippedthebalancebetweenthevaluesofliving
togetherandthoseofademocraticsocietysuchaspluralism,individualismand
98Marshall,J."S.A.S.vFrance:BurqaBansandtheControlorEmpowermentofIdentities."HumanRightsLaw
Review15.2(2015):378.Print.
99Marshall,J,378.
100Bowen,JohnRichard.WhytheFrenchDon'tlikeHeadscarves:Islam,theState,andPublicSpace.
Princeton:PrincetonUP,2007.Print.
46
multiculturalism.TheS.A.S.decisiontippedthescaleagaininthewrongdirection
threateningthereligiouslibertiesoftheFrenchpeople,primarilythoseofMuslims.
ThedecisionalsohighlightedthedifferencesbetweentheFrenchandU.S.legal
frameworks.InS.A.S.v.FrancethecourtsaiditwasunabletofindaEuropeanconsensusas
towhetherthereshouldbeablanketbanofthefull-faceveilinFrance.Thiswasdespitethe
factthatonlytwooutof47countrieshavechosentoimposeaban,suggestingthereisin
factconsensus.ThisledthecourttoadoptawidemarginofappreciationtoFrench
authoritiesandthereforefindanon-violationofArticle9[righttoreligiousfreedom].
WhendeterminingifthebanviolatedArticle9’s,theECtHRconsideredfourquestions:
1)Wastherealimitationofthefreedomtomanifestreligion?
2)Wasthelimitationprescribedbylaw?
3)Wasitnecessaryinademocraticsocietytoprotectthepublic?
4)Wasthelimitproportionaltothegoal?
Thesequestionsfavorthegovernmentandputanemphasisontheburdentosociety.In
theU.S.claimsofviolationofreligiousfreedomareweightedagainstthreequestions:
1)Isthereasubstantialburdenimposedontheplaintiff?
2)Wastheburdeninthegovernment’scompellinginterest?
3)Wastheburdentheleastrestrictivemeans?101
Thesethreequestions,thoughsimilartotheFrenchstandard,projectastricterviewofa
reasonableburdenandfavortheindividualmakingtheclaim.Thedifferenceinlegal
frameworkbetweentheU.S.andtheECtHR,whichdeferstopolicyofthecountryagainst
101Cismas,IonaandCammarano,Stacy.“WhoseRightandWho’sRight?TheU.S.SupremeCourtv.The
EuropeanCourtofHumanRightsonCorporateExerciseofReligion.”TheBostonUniversityInternationalLaw
Journal.Vol.34,No.1.2016.Print.
47
whoaclaimismade,explainswhyFrancehaspassedalawthatwouldbyU.S.standardsbe
consideredaformofreligiousdiscrimination.
LuckilyfortheMuslimpopulationandforthemoreopen-mindedFrenchpeople,the
reversalofthe2016burkinibanmarkedawelcomeshift,tippingthebalanceinfavorof
religiousrightsfortheindividual.Italsomarkedthenewfoundpolicyofthecourtthat
acknowledgedanddecidedthatanxietiesoverterrorismshouldnotmotivate
policymaking.Thosecaseswillbeexaminedindetailinchapter5toprovideacomparative
analysis.ThenextchapterwillexaminehowtheUnitedStateshashandleddiscrepanciesof
therighttoreligiousfreedominthelastfiftyyears.
48
CHAPTER4:COMBATINGISLAMINTHEUNITEDSTATESANDDISPUTESOVERTHE
RIGHTTORELIGIOUSFREEDOM
InFrancethechallengeofbalancingIslamandreligiousfreedomhasbeen
manifestedprimarilythroughthedebateonlegislationoutlawingheadscarves.Inthe
UnitedStatestheapproachtoregulatingIslamanddisplaysofIslamhasbeenfarmore
varied.ThesecondchaptersetuptheparadigmofreligiousfreedomfromEnglish
settlementtothe1980’s.ThischapterwillcovertheperiodintheU.S.(1980to2009)that
sawariseofIslamophobia.Thisperiodwascharacterizedbyhostagecrises,terrorist
bombings,andconflictintheMiddleEast,whichresultedinthedemandbyAmericansfor
policiesthatrestrictcivillibertiesandtreattheMuslimpopulationasathreat.Next,the
chapterwillexaminetheperiodfrom2010to2015,duringwhichtherewasashiftinthe
AmericanpoliticalregimeofopenhostilitytowardsMuslimsandexaminetheensuing
limitsonreligiousfreedom.Finally,thischapterwillanalyzehowtheU.S.hasdealtwiththe
challengeofmaintainingpublicsafetyornationalsecuritywhilebalancingtherightto
religiousliberty.102
4.1InstillingFear:TerrorandConflictintheMiddleEast
AnAmericanin1979turnsontheradioandhearsabouttheanti-westernIslamic
revolutioninIranandthecaptureinIranof52Americanhostages.Theviolencecontinues
into1983whenU.S.embassyinKuwait,andMarinebarracksinBeirut,arebombed,allof
theseactscarriedoutbyIslamicmilitantgroups.ThroughoutthecountrythisraisedantiIslamicsentimentsandfearofMuslimsthathadlaindormantforyears.103Closertohome,
102RefertotheAppendix(pg102)fordataontheMuslimpopulationoftheU.S.
103Islamophobiahasbeenpresentsincethecountry’sfounding.TheOttomanWarscreatedfearofMuslims
backthen.Thoughthefearhaslaindormant,feelingsofislamophobiahaveremainedinthecultural
background.SowhentheIranianrevolutionbrokeout,Americans,whoknewnothingaboutIranbutdid
49
theNationofIslamwascrumblingasresultofitsreputationasaviolentBlackNationalist
organization.ThoughmostMuslimsdonotconsidertheNationofIslamtobe
representativeoftrueIslam,andinsteadconsidertheNation’sbeliefscontrarytothoseof
Islam,theAmericanpublicfoundanotherreasontodisapproveofthereligion.Adecade
laterin1993agroupofIslamicextremistsattemptedtobombtheWorldTradeCenter.
Theseeventsstirredanti-Muslimsentiments.
4.2Effectsof9/11:AnattackonCivilLiberties
Iftheanti-Muslimsentimentofthe1980’sand90’sseemedstrong,after2001it
grewexponentiallyinpublicopinion.TheSeptember11,2001,terrorattackswerethe
eventthatmostdrasticallychangedthecourseforMuslimsinAmerica.Thebombings,
carriedoutbyextremistsinthenameofIslam,createdafierceanti-Muslimcampaign
acrossAmerica.Thiscampaignofanti-Muslimsentiment,unlikeafter2010,wasnot
evidencedinreligiouspolicybutinprivacypolicy.ItcausedmanyAmericansthroughout
thenationtoquestion,hateandfearMuslims.Onemeasurablemanifestationofthefear
wasthe1600percentincrease(28to481)inanti-Muslimhatecrimesfollowingthe
September11,attacksasreportedbytheFBI.104MuslimAmericanassociationsdenounced
theattacksandtriedtoreassuretheirAmericanfriendsandneighborsthatthe
perpetratorsofthehorrificattackwerenottrueMuslimsbutwereradicalextremistswho
hadpervertedtheirreligion.TheyflewAmericanflagsasasignofsupportandinvited
AmericatolearnmoreaboutIslam.SomeMuslimsandAmericanstooktheopportunityto
knowabouttheviolenthistoryoftheMuslims,onceagainbecameIslamophobic.(Source:PeterGottschalk-
ProfessorofReligionatWesleyanUniversity.LectureatTrinityApr.112017.)
104"Data:HatecrimesagainstMuslimsincreasedafter9/11."PublicRadioInternational.PRI,12Sept.2016.
Web.07Feb.2017.
50
learnandwriteaboutIslam,butunfortunatelymanymoreanti-Muslimindividuals
distortedthetruthandspreadmythsandbigotryvilifyingallMuslims.
Theculminationoftheanxietybroughtonby9/11wasthe2001PatriotAct.Passed
just45daysaftertheSeptember11thattacks,thePatriotActmadechangestosurveillance
lawsallowingthegovernmenttospyonAmericans,listentophonecalls,monitoremail,
collectbankinformation,andtrackinternetmovement.Itspassagebeggedanimportant
policyquestion:wereAmericanswillingtogiveuptheircivillibertiesinthenameof
nationalsecurity?Theanswerwasyes,64percentpolledapprovedofthelaw.105In
Washington,politiciansagreed.ThePatriotActpassedbyavoteof98to1intheSenate
and357to66intheHouse.106The67constitutionaldefendershadlostout.Many
Americanssawthislegislationasanappropriatereactiontotheworstterrorattackto
happenonU.S.soil.Otherssawthisasadangerousrestrictionofcivillibertiesthatwould
allowthegovernmenttoencroachonthelivesofmillionsofinnocentAmericans.One
purposeoftheActwastoallowtheFBItograntNationalSecurityLettersinplaceof
traditionalsearchwarrantsissuedbyjudges.TheseNSL’swerefareasiertoobtainwith
lessevidencethanneededforatraditionalwarrant,promptingmiscarriagesofjustice.The
FBIissued192,499NSL’sbetween2003and2005withonlyoneleadingtoaterrorrelated
conviction.107
Anotheraspectofthelawwasthe“sneakandsearch”componentthatenabled
federallawenforcementagenciestosearchpropertywithoutgivingnoticetotheowner
untilweekslater.Ofthesesearcheslessthanonepercentendedupbeingterrorrelated.It
105Saad,Lydia."AmericansGenerallyComfortableWithPatriotAct."Gallup.com.Gallup,02Mar.2004.Web.
07Apr.2017.
106"WhoStoodforConstitutionalLibertiesandVotedAgainsttheUSAPATRIOTActin2001?"DailyKos.N.p.,
7June2013.Web.07Apr.2017.
107"SurveillanceUnderthePatriotAct."AmericanCivilLibertiesUnion.ACLU..n.d.Web.07Feb.2017.
51
alsohappenedthatalargeportionofAmericansmonitoredwereofMuslimfaithorhadties
toMuslimmajorityArabcountries.TakeforexampleBenKahla,anAmericanwith
aspirationsofbeingadiplomatwhowasstudyingatUniversityinSaudiArabiawhenthe
FBIarrestedhim.TheFBIhadKahla“shackled,blindfoldedanddressedinaGuantanamoorangejumpsuitbeforebeingdriventojailinWashingtonunderfullpoliceescort”where
theyheldhimforamonth,accusedofhavinglinkstothe“Virginiajihad”andindictedhim
onthreeseparateoccasionsevenafterreceivingthefirstnot-guiltyverdict.108The
GovernmentandFBImadetheargumentthatinordertoprotectAmericancitizensthey
neededtobeabletomonitorthemmoreclosely.Theyalsoarguedthatthistemporary
infringementontherightsofAmericancitizenswouldhelpfederallawenforcementto
catchterrorists.Thedatashowsthiswasuntrue.InsteadtheUnitedStatescompromisedits
corevaluesandunfairlyappliedthelawonitsMuslimpopulation.ThetacticsofthePatriot
ActandthetortureofMuslimprisonersatAbuGhraibandGuantanamoincluding
intentionalmishandlingsoftheQuran,notonlytarnishedthereputationofAmericaabroad
butinflamedanti-Americansentimentscreatingthepotentialformoreterrorattackson
U.S.soil.
TheactionsbroughtbythePatriotAct,thoughinvasiveandcontrarytoAmerican
valuesandpromisesofindividualfreedom,werenotillegal.TheactionstakenbytheNYPD
tosurveyMuslimcommunities,includingstudentassociations,mosques,businesses,
communityleadersandindividuals,were.TheintelligencedivisionoftheNYPDillegally
monitoredandwatchedMuslimcommunitiesintheNewYorkAreaandevencommunities
morethan100milesawayinPennsylvania,ConnecticutandNewJersey.Justreadingthe
108Cuffe,Jenny."USMuslims'alienatedbyPatriotAct'"BBCNews.BBC,04July2006.Web.3Jan.2017.
52
nameofthereport,“RadicalizationintheWest:TheHomegrownThreat,”109itbecomes
clearthattheinvestigationwascreatedunderthepretensethatMuslimsposearisktoU.S.
nationalsecurity.ThereporttreatsanyonewithtiestoIslamassuspiciousandmonitors
peopleinMuslimcommunitiesregardlessofanywrongdoingorprobablecause.Thisillegal
investigationbeganin2002butcontinuedinto2006and2007whenofficersevenwentto
collegeanduniversitycampuseswheretheyinfiltratedMuslimStudentAssociations
hopingtofindstudentswithtiestoterrorcells.110Theycameupemptyhanded.Thisillegal
practicehasbeengoingonsincethe1980’s.Thoughthis2006breachofcivillibertiesdid
notconstitutearestrictionofreligiousfreedom,thestudentsandcommunitiesmonitored
felttheeffectsintheirabilitytopracticefreelyandfreefromworry.Thewitch-huntfor
terroristsinMuslimcommunitiesbasedontheunfoundedrelationshipbetweenthosewho
practicedIslamandthosewhowerepotentialterroristshadsignificantconsequencesfor
AmericanMuslims.Manynolongerfeltsafeorwelcomedintheirowncountry.Thespiral
ofIslamophobiadidnotendthere.
4.3LimitsonReligiousFreedom
TheSeptember11thattackshadanothereffectonMuslimsinAmerica;itbeganthe
short-liveddebateonheadscarves.SeveralofthehijackershadobtainedFloridadriver’s
licensespromptingtheFloridaDepartmentofHighwaySafetytoreviewitsdriver’slicense
system.TheMiamiHeraldreportedontheissueinanarticleentitled“TighterSecurityMay
109"Factsheet:TheNYPDMuslimSurveillanceProgram."AmericanCivilLibertiesUnion.ACLU.,n.d.Web.21
Jan.2017.
110Hawley,Chris."NYPDMonitoredStudentMuslimStudentsalloverNortheast.”AssociatedPress.AP,18Feb.
2016.Web.2Mar.2017.
53
MeanMoreStrictDriver’sLicenseRules.”111Therequirementtoremoveheadscarvesfor
photoidentificationappearedtohavebeenimplementedingoodfaith.Therewasa
legitimatesecuritythreatandthemostpracticalsolutionwastoimplementapolicythat
wouldallowformorecarefulandpreciseidentification.However,SultaanaFreemandid
notagree,andwiththehelpoftheACLUshefiledaclaiminJanuaryof2002expressing
thatFloridahadviolatedherrighttoreligiousfreeexercise.Thesuitwasheardbefore
JudgeThorpeinFlorida’scircuitcourt.JudgeThorperuledthatthedemandtolifttheveil
didnotposeasubstantialburdentoFreeman’sreligiousliberty,andfurthermorethatthe
State’sneedtoidentifydriversoutweighedherneedtoweartheveil.Themediawerenot
shyinvoicingsupportfortheState.JournalistsinsultedFreemanlabelingherasan
extremistwhowasactingfoolishly.Themediaignoredthefactthatseveralsimilarcases
hadbeendecidedinfavoroftheplaintiffandhisorherrighttoreligiousexercise.Thislimit
onthecivillibertiesofoneMuslimwomanwasonecaseofmanythathighlightedthe
newfoundsenseofanxietytowardsMuslimswhowerethoughttothreatennational
security.However,unlikeinFrancetheheadscarfissuedidnotsurpassthequestionof
drivers’licensesandidentificationphotos.
Thiscaseisfascinatingforanotherreason:itisoneofthefewdecidedinasimilar
veintotheFrenchheadscarfcases.JudgeThorpefoundthatFlorida’sdemandthat
Freemanremovetheveildidnotposeasignificantburdentoherrightreligiousexercise.
Furthermore,JayVailaFloridaAssistantAttorneyGeneral,inastatementthatcouldhave
beentakenrightoutoftheFrenchheadscarfdecisions,said,“Whenthereisamatterof
commoninterestthatpromotespublicsafety,thenwemustyieldonourrighttofree
111Rothstein,Adam."JihadforJournalists."ReligionintheNews.TrinityCollege,Spring2003.Web.3Jan.
2017.
54
exercisetotheextentthatit’snecessarytosecurethatpublicsafetyinterest.”112This
decisionpicksupontheFrenchidealsof“livingtogether”whichwereusedtojustifythe
headscarfbaninSASv.France.ThisrhetoricdidnotgaintractionintheU.S.buthasgained
tractionEurope.InaMarch2017articlepublishedintheUKSpectator,aEuropeanMuslim
woman,QantaAhmed,advocatedforabanonveils.Shebelievesthatthebanisactually
goodforeveryone,includingMuslims.Shepointedoutthat“There’snothingfromtheearly
Islamicperiodaboutwhatthekhimar—orveil—shouldcover,whetherface,bodyorhair.
TheQuran,inSura24:31,remindsMuslimwomensimplyoftheneedto‘draw…[it]over
theirbosoms’.”113Whilethisinformationisimportant,shemissesthepoint.Itdoesnot
matterwhethertheQuranexplicitlyrequireswearingoftheveil,whatmattersisthatifa
personfeelsastrongcommitmenttoadoptacertainreligiouspracticetheyfeeliscentralto
theirreligion,theyshouldhavetherighttodoso.Howeverthishasnotalwaysbeenthe
case.
TheU.S.hasnotalwayssupportedreligiousexemptionandaccommodation.Infact
inthe1990SmithdecisiontheSupremeCourtheldthatalthoughthegovernmenthasthe
powertoaccommodatereligiouspracticeandbeliefs,itisnotrequiredtowhenthe
practiceorbeliefisinbreachofthelaw.Inthe1990landmarkSupremeCourtdecision,the
CourtheardtheargumentsoftheEmploymentDivisionofOregon,whoargueditdidnot
havetopaytheunemploymentbenefitsofSmithwhohadbeenfiredforsmokingpeyote
duringareligiousceremony.114Thecourtruledthatbecausepeyotewasillegalevenfor
112Rothstein,Adam."JihadforJournalists."ReligionintheNews.TrinityCollege,Spring2003.Web.3Jan.
2017.
113Ahmed,Qanta."AsaMuslim,Istronglysupporttherighttobantheveil."TheSpectator.TheSpectator,16
Mar.2017.Web.18Mar.2017.
114"EmploymentDivisionv.Smith."LII/LegalInformationInstitute.CornellUniversityLawSchool,n.d.Web.
22Mar.2017.
55
sacramentaluseunderstatelaw,theUnemploymentDivisionwasjustifiedindenyingthe
benefits.TheCourtexplainedthatithasneverheldthatanindividuals’religiousbeliefs
excusehim/herfromcomplyingwithanotherwisevalidlaw.Thecourtexplainedthata
rulinglikethatcouldleadtoaprivaterighttoignoregenerallyapplicablelawscreatinga
constitutionalanomalythatwouldbehardtouphold.Bygrantingdeferencetothestate
thisdecisionmarkedamoveawayfromapolicyofmoreopenreligiousfreedomtoamore
restrictivepolicyofreligiousfreedom.Nevertheless,theprecedentestablishedinSmithdid
notlastverylong.
4.4AnEraofReligiousBasedLegislation
InresponsetotheSmithdecision,Congressnearlyunanimouslypassedthe
ReligiousFreedomRestorationAct,whichPresidentClintonsignedintolawin1993.RFRA
statesthat“governmentshallnotsubstantiallyburdenaperson’sexerciseofreligioneven
iftheburdenresultsfromaruleofgeneralapplicability,”unlesstherestrictionis“in
furtheranceofacompellinggovernmentalinterest”andis“theleastrestrictivemeansof
furtheringthatcompellinginterest.”115Thecreatorofthelawfeltthat“thecompelling
interesttestassetforthinpriorFederalcourtrulingsisaworkabletestforstriking
sensiblebalancesbetweenreligiouslibertyandcompetingpriorgovernmental
interests.”116ThecompellinginteresttestcomesfromSherbertv.Verner(1963).Thetest
wasdescribedas:“ifapersonclaimedasincerereligiousbelief,andagovernmentaction
placedasubstantialburdenonthatbelief,thegovernmentneededtoproveacompelling
115Cismas,Ioana,andStacyN.Cammarano.
116Bomboy,Scott."WhatisRFRAandwhydowecare?"ConstitutionDaily.NationalConstitutionCenter,30
June2013.Web.18Mar.2017.
56
stateinterest,andthatitpursuedthatactionintheleastburdensomeway.”117WithRFRA
inplaceCongresshopedtheAmericanpeoplewouldbesecureintheirrighttoreligious
freedomandpractice.
ThevictorygrantedbythepassageofRFRAwasinsomewaysshortlived.InBoerne
v.Flores(1997)theSupremeCourtstruckdownRFRAasunconstitutionalarguingthat
congresshadoversteppeditsbounds.ArchbishopFloreshadbroughtsuitagainstthecity
ofBoerne,Texasforrefusingtogivehimapermittobuildachurch.Thefactsofthecase
areinsignificant;thebasisforrulingwastheconstitutionalityofRFRA,andtheCourtstated
CongressdidnothavethepowerundertheFourteenthAmendmenttoapplyRFRAtothe
statesandtheirlocalordinances.118Thisledin2000tothecreationofyetanotherlaw:The
ReligiousLandUseandIncarceratedPersonsAct(RLUIPA).LikeRFRA,RLUIPAwaspassed
unanimouslyandwiththefullsupportofPresidentClinton.In2000,thecountrywas
committedtoprotectingreligiousfreedomforeveryone.TheActwasdesignedtoprotect
religiousorganizationsfromdiscriminatoryzoningandlanduselaws.Itbars
discriminationbasedonreligion,requiresallreligiousgroupstobetreatedequaltononreligiousplacesofassembly,andobligesthestatetoprovideproofofcompellinginterestif
anyzoningorlandmarkactionsimpartasubstantialburdenonareligiousgroup.119
Overthelast14yearsRLUIPAhashelpedmanyMuslimssafeguardtheirrightto
religiousfreedom,howeverwhentheactwaswrittenitwasnotespeciallyintendedtoaid
Muslims;mosqueswerehardlymentioned.Priorto9/11levelsofdiscriminationtowards
Muslimsremainedfairlylow.Therewasnopressingneedtocreatelegislationthatwould
protectMuslims.Post9/11therewasastarkcontrastastensionsrose.In2001the
117Bomboy,Scott."WhatisRFRAandwhydowecare?"
118"CityofBoernev.Flores."Oyez.Oyez,n.d.Web.22Mar.2017
119Cismas,Ioana,andStacyN.Cammarano.
57
DepartmentofJusticeinvestigated421hatecrimesagainstMuslimsascomparedto28the
yearbefore.120 FormanyAmericanMuslimsRLUIPAcameatacrucialtime.
AfterthepassageofRFRAandRLUIPA,religiouszoningissuesappearedtobefor
themostpartreconciledbetweencitiesandreligiousgroups.InBoston,theBoston
RedevelopmentAuthoritywithsupportfromMayorMeninoandotherCityofBoston
officialssoldtheIslamicSocietyaparceloflandtobeusedtobuildamosque.Thoughthe
salewasmetwithhostilityduetothewellunder-marketpricethecityhadgiventhe
IslamicSociety,thesalewentthrough.121However,resentmentgrewprovokingone
RoxburyresidenttofileasuitagainsttheCityandtheIslamicSocietyforviolatingthe
constitutionalprincipleofseparationofChurchandState.Toaddtothefire,theownership
ofthemosquewastransferredfromanAfrican-AmericanMuslimgrouptoasuburbanbasedMuslimgroupwithtiestoSaudiArabiaandotherMiddleEasterncountries.Thisnew
group,theIslamicSocietyofBoston,wasknownforitsbaseofconservativeMiddleEastern
MuslimsandwassuspectedofhavingtiestoIslamicextremists.Infactmultiplemembers,
includingISB’sfounderAbdulrahmanAlamoudiwhowasconvictedforbeinganAlQaeda
financier,andtheTsarnaevbrotherswhocarriedouttheBostonMarathonBombing,had
beenfoundtohavetieswithAlQaedaandotherIslamicextremistOrganizations.122
Nonetheless,theCity,perhapsoutoffearofappearingIslamophobicorviolatingRLUIPA,
allowedthemosquetobebuilt.TheresultofthecontroversyoverthemosqueofBoston
120Treene,EricW."UnderstandingtheImpactoftheReligiousLandUseandInstitutionalizedPersonsAct."
ZoningandMosques-AmericanBarAssociation.ThePublicLawyer,Winter2015.Web.23Mar.2017.
121Estes,Andrea."Councilorsurgeprobeoflandsaleformosque."Boston.com.TheBostonGlobe,06Oct.
2004.Web.13Feb.2017.
122"TheIslamicSocietyofBoston'sBuildingControversy."CounterJihad.Counterjihad.,11Aug.2015.Web.03
Mar.2017.
58
pointstothegrowingdeferencetoreligiousorganizationsafterthepassageoftheRFRA
andRLUIPA.
Asidefromtheresidualeffectsof9/11,the2000’ssawfewattacksonthereligious
freedomofMuslimsinlargepartbecausePresidentBushkepttheMuslimdilemmafrom
becomingapartisanissue.Tothecontrary,in2007theUnitedStateselecteditsfirst
MuslimCongressman,DemocratKeithEllisonofMichigan.Ayearlaterin2008Andre
CarsonaDemocratfromIndianawassworninonJefferson’sQuran.123Unfortunately,this
periodofreligiousacceptancecametoahaltwhenPresidentBushlefttheWhiteHousein
2009.BushhadmadeaconsciousefforttokeepIslamophobiaatbay,butwithhis
departureandtheelectionofaDemocraticPresident,theRepublicanPartywasfreedofthe
responsibilitytomaintainawelcomingandopenfronttowardsIslam.Instead,the
RepublicanPartyexplicitlyexpressedhostilitytowardsIslamandframeditasapartisan
issue.Theyear2010markedasadruptureintheAmericanpoliticalregime:nolonger
wouldbothpartiesbeunitedinprotectingreligiouslibertyforallcitizens.
4.5The2010PolicyShift:OpenHostilityTowardsMuslims
After2010itbecameclearthatitwasnotjusttheRepublicanswhofeltastrong
needtocontrolandlimitthepoweroftheMuslimpopulation,butsodidmuchofthe
generalpopulation.Thelatentanti-Muslimsentimentthathadsurgedinthemonthsafter
9/11hadre-merged.TheshiftinpoliticswasreflectedintheattitudesoftheAmerican
peoplewhobroughtsuitsagainstMuslims,burnedQuransandattemptedtobanSharia
law.Andthere’ssignificantempiricaldatatosupporttheclaimthatanideologicaland
123Karim,TalibI."SecondMuslimTakesHisSeatintheHouseofRepresentatives."TheMuslimLink.The
MuslimLink,01Apr.2008.Web.20Mar.2017.
59
attitudinalshiftoccurred.PewreportsthatMuslimshadahigherapprovalratingshortly
after9/11thanin2010.124DataonhatecrimesandRLUIPAcasesshowadramaticincrease
inhostilitytowardsMuslimsafter2010.OfthefortyRLUIPAcasesinvolvingmosquesor
Islamicschoolstwenty-onewereopenedafter2010.TheEqualEmploymentOpportunity
Commissionreceivedarecord803complaintsfromMuslimworkersin2009,afigurethat
isuptwentypercentfromthepreviousyear.125 Inadditiontotheincreaseinsheer
number,areportbytheInstituteforSocialPolicyandUnderstandingfoundthatthe
mannerofprotesthadchanged.126NolongerwasoppositiontoMuslimsbeingvoicedinthe
controlledenvironmentsofpublicsessionsandtownhallmeetings,anti-Islamicgroups
tooktheirprotesttothestreets.
ThehostilitytowardsMuslimswasmanifestedinthestreetsofNewYork.The
displayofanti-Muslimsentimentsexpressedinlandusecontroversyoverthebuildingof
mosquesdrewnationalattention,mostnotablyfortheso-calledGroundZeroMosquein
LowerManhattanandtheMurfreesboroIslamicCenterinTennessee.Inbothofthesecases
theoppositionresortedtodrasticmeasures.Whenplanswereannouncedtobuilda
MuslimCommunitycenterfourblocksfromtheGroundZerositetenyearsafter9/11there
begananemotionallychargeddebate.Attheoutsetthecommunityboardoflower
ManhattanapprovedtheconstructionofthePark51centeragreeingwithDaisyKhan,the
PresidentoftheAmericanSocietyforMuslimAdvancement,thattheIslamiccentercould
providetheopportunitytocelebratepluralismandcountertheextremistmovement.But,
astheprojectattractedmediaattention,itsproponentswereaccusedofbeinginsensitive,
124Rashid,Qasim."TheWarOverMuslimsinAmerica."TheHuffingtonPost.TheHuffingtonPost.com,31Dec.
2010.Web.20Mar.2017.
125Greenhouse,Steven."MuslimsReportRisingDiscriminationatWork."TheNewYorkTimes.TheNewYork
TimesCompany,23Sept.2010.Web.23Mar.2017.
126Treene,EricW.
60
disrespectfulandintoleranttowardsMuslims.PresidentObamawadedintothe
controversydeclaring,“ThisisAmerica.Andourcommitmenttoreligiousfreedommustbe
unshakeable.Theprinciplethatpeopleofallfaithsarewelcomeinthiscountryandthat
theywillnotbetreateddifferentlybytheirgovernmentisessentialtowhoweare.”127
Ultimately,hiswordsmadeatributetothepoliticiansandpreachersofourcountrywho
forcenturieshavesoughttocreateanAmericathatisreligiouslytolerant.Hiscomments
werenotenoughtoconvinceNewYorkerstoallowtheprojecttomoveforwardinthe
nameofreligioustolerance,andtheprojectwasdefeated.
AsimilarsituationensuedinMurfreesboro,Tennessee,butinsteadresultedin
triumph.Proposalstobuildthemosqueweremetwithvehementdisapprovalandviolence.
TheMuslimcommunityofMurfreesboropurchasedlandinanareaofRutherfordCounty
zonedforchurchandmosquebuilding,andplacedasignonthenewlandthatread“Future
SiteoftheIslamicCenterofMurfreesboro.”Thesignwasvandalizedwiththewords“Not
Welcome.”128Afewmonthslatersizableoppositionhadassembledandagroupofseveral
hundredopponentsralliedintheMurfreesboroSquaretoprotesttheconstruction.Two
monthslateroneoftheirconstructiontruckswassetonfireinwhatremainsanunsolved
arsoncase.TheoppositionarguedthattheIslamicCenterhadtiestoterrorismandthat
Islamwasnotareligionbutapoliticalideology.TheirmostvalidclaimwasthattheCenter
hadfailedtoprovidesufficientnoticeundertheTennesseeOpenMeetingsAct.The
ChanceryCourtruledinfavoroftheoppositionandorderedthecountynottoissuea
certificateofoccupancy.TheU.S.thenfiledaclaimunderRLUIPAthatthedenialofthe
certificateofoccupancyviolatedtheIslamicCenter’srighttopracticetheirreligionand
127"Davis,KennethC."America'sTrueHistoryofReligiousTolerance."
128Treene,EricW.
61
thusposedasubstantialburden.ThefederalcourtruledinfavoroftheIslamicCenterand
theopposition’ssubsequentattemptstoappealandreversethedecisionwere
unsuccessful.129ThecaserepresentedavictorybothfortheIslamiccenterandforRLUIPA,
whichhadsuccessfullyprotectedaminorityreligiousgroupfromdiscriminatoryzoning
laws.
Thissmallvictoryforreligiousfreedomwassetbackbyanewdebate:thebanning
ofShariaLawinU.S.courts.ThecommentsmadeintheMurfreesborocaseaboutIslam
beinganideologyorcultandnotareligioninspiredseveralpoliticianstoclaimthat
MuslimshadnoprotectionsundertheFirstAmendment.LieutenantGovernorof
TennesseeRonRamseysaid,"It'stimeforAmericanMuslimswholovethiscountryto
publiclyrenounceviolentjihadismandtodrumthosewhoseektodoAmericaharmoutof
theirfaithcommunity.”130HiscommentacknowledgesthatthereareAmericanMuslims
wholovetheUS,andyethisproposaltreatsallMuslimsasunpatrioticthreatstonational
security.RamseywasnotaloneinthequesttobanSharialaw.Over32statelegislatures
havesinceproposedbillsthatwouldlimitconsiderationofreligiouslawincourtcases,
essentiallybanningShariaLaw.131From2010to2012sixstates,Arizona,Kansas,
Louisiana,Oklahoma,SouthDakotaandTennessee,passedsuchlaws,andanotherfivehad
restrictionsonconsideringreligiouslawincourt.Oklahomaattractedthemostattention
foritslaw,whichspecificallymentionedoutlawingShariaLawinareferendumtoamend
thestateconstitution.Afederaljudgestruckdowntheamendmentasunconstitutionalon
severalgrounds,fordiscriminatingamongreligionswithoutcompellingstateinterest,and
129Treene,EricW.
130McMorris-Santoro,Evan."TennesseeLt.Gov:ReligiousFreedomMayNotCountForMuslims(VIDEO)."
TPM(TalkingPointsMemo).N.p.,26July2010.Web.24Mar.2017.
131Kirckland,Michael."UndertheU.S.SupremeCourt:IslamiclawinU.S.courts."UndertheU.S.Supreme
Court:IslamicLaw,ShariainU.S.CourtsUPI.com.UPI,19May2013.Web.20Feb.2017.
62
becausetheamendmentdidnotremedyanyidentifiableproblem.Furthermore,supporters
ofthelawadmittedatapublichearingthat,“theydidnotknowofevenasingleinstance
whereanOklahomacourthadappliedSharialaworusedthelegalpreceptsofother
nationsorcultures,letalonethatsuchapplicationsoruseshadresultedinconcrete
problemsinOklahoma.”132Thelackofknowledgeandevidencesuggeststheobvious;the
lawwasgeneratedbyprejudiceandfear,andnotfact.Despitethevictoryincourt,itwas
clearthatopenIslamophobiahadbeeninstitutionalized.
Publichostilityonlygrewinproceedingyears.Ontheanniversaryof9/11in2013
anevangelicalpastorinFloridasetplansinmotiontoburn2,998Quransinapublicpark.
ThiswasnotPastorTerryJones’firstQuranburning.In2010hehadmadeplanstoburn
QuransbutwasstoppedbyaphonecallfromtheDepartmentofJustice.In2011he
watchedwhilehiscongregationsetfiretoQurans,andin2012hehimselfpartookinthe
burning.133UndertheFirstAmendmentJoneshastherighttosymbolicfreespeech,
meaningthatthoughreminiscentofahatecrime,hecanburnaQuran.But,Joneswas
arrestedonfelonychargesforbreakingstatelawsthatprohibittheopentransportationof
fuel.Jones’sactionsweredetrimentalfortheirroleinperpetuatinganti-Muslimviolence
andforthethreathisactionsposedtoU.S.foreignpolicyandnationalsecurity.
ThecountryisstillstrugglingtodeterminewhetherAmericanscontinuetouse
nationalsecurityasaguisefordiscriminatingagainstMuslims.RFRAandRLUIPAsoughtto
surmounttheseproblemsbysecuringreligiousfreedomforminoritygroups,andtoan
extenttheyhave.TheyhaveprotectedtherightsofMuslims.StillnegativeviewsofMuslims
continuetorise.In2001only39percentofAmericanshadunfavorableviewsofIslam,in
132Kirckland,Michael."UndertheU.S.SupremeCourt:IslamicLawinU.S.Courts."
133Peralta,Eyder."PastorTerryJonesArrestedBeforePlannedQuranBurning."NPR.NPR,11Sept.2013.
Web.20Mar.2017.
63
2011and2015thisnumberwas61percent.Thisincreaseinnegativeperceptionssuggests
itisimperativeforthegovernmentandthecourtstoprotecttherighttoreligiousfreedom
andfightreligiousdiscrimination.134
ChaptersixwillexplorewhetherTrumpiscommittedtodoingsoandwillexplore
whathispolicyonIslamandNationalSecuritymaymeanforthefuture.Butfirst,thenext
chapterwillexaminetheBurkinidebateinFranceanddrawoutthetensionbetween
religiousfreedom,nationalidentityandnationalsecurity.
134Bailey,Brian."Section1:ADemographicPortraitofMuslimAmericans."PewResearchCenterforthe
PeopleandthePress.N.p.,29Aug.2011.Web.13Apr.2017.
64
CHAPTER5:THECLASHOFFRENCHVALUESANDISLAM
(MissRayyan.Digitalimage.BurkiniBanDefiesHumanRights.TheHill,17Aug.2016.Web.)
Aboveisapictureofaburkini,thegarmentthatcreatedanoutpourofcommotionand
reproachthesummerof2016incoastalFrance.Butwhatisaburkiniandwheredidit
comefrom?AhedaZanetti,a48-year-oldAustraliandesignercreatedtheburkiniin2004in
thenameofintegrationandasawaytomakeMuslimwomenfeelmorecomfortableonthe
beach.Sinceitscreationishasbecomesynonymouswithanyfullbodybeachwearwornby
MuslimwomenincitinganimpassioneddebateinFranceonreligiousfreedom.
5.1TheBurkiniDebateBegins:August2016
WhenayoungMuslimgirlsteppedontothebeachinCannes,Franceinahijabona
warmAugustdaysheexpectedtohavearelaxeddayenjoyinghervacationwithherfamily
inherhomecountryofFrance.Apoliceofficerapproachedherandtoldherthatshehadto
removeherhijabbecauseperlawitwasrequiredallpeoplewear“properdress”atthe
65
beach.135ThisconfrontationbetweenaMuslimwomanandFrenchpolicewasoneofmany
thatoccurredduringthesummerof2016.Canneswasthefirstofover30Frenchcostal
townstooutlawtheburkiniinaspanofthreemonths.
Themadeupwordburkiniquicklybecamecommonplaceallovertheworldasnews
stationafternewsstationbeganreportingonthebanofthefullbodyswimsuitworn
primarilybyMuslimwomeninFrance.Theburkinibanattractedthepublics’attentionsfor
severalreasons;itwasaboutfeminismandthepresenceofIslam;itwasfarreachingand
invasive,andbecauseofthetiming.Theburkinidebatecameaboutatwoweeksafterthe
BastilleDayterrorattackinNiceduringwhichamanclaimingallegiancetotheIslamic
Statedroveatruckdownthemainboulevardkillingandinjuringover80men,womenand
children,andcameaboutthreeweeksafterthemurderofapriestbytwoarmedMuslim
menSt.-Étienne-du-Rouvray,Normandy.
Supportfortheban,unlikewiththeearlierheadscarfcases,wasnotuniversalin
France.FormerPresidentNicolasSarkozycalledtheburkinia“’provocation,”asymbolof
radicalIslaminacountrystillreelingfromtheterroristattacksinParislastfallandinNice
thisJuly.”136PrimeMinsterManuelVallssupportedtheban,justashehadsupported
previouslegislationrestrictingreligiousattire.However,Valls’clashedwithfellowsocialist
educationminsterNajatVallaud-Belkacem,avocalsupporterofwomen’srightsandcritic
oftheburkinibanwhosaidtheban“letlooseverbalracism.”137Comparedtothe2011law
135“Cannes:unefemmeverbaliséepourleportd'unvoilemusulman."LeMonde.LeMonde,23Aug.2016.
Web.23Oct.2016.
136McAuley,James."France'sBurkiniDebate:AboutaBathingSuitandaCountry'sPeculiarSecularism."The
WashingtonPost.26Aug.2016.Web.5Sept.2016.
137Chrisafis,Angelique."France'sBurkiniBanRowDividesGovernmentasCourtMullsLegality."The
Guardian.GuardianNewsandMedia,25Aug.2016.Web.27Feb.2017.
66
banningveils,which82percentoftheFrenchsupported,supportfortheburkinibanwas
farlowerwithonly60percentinsupportoftheban.138
ThedramabeganwhenCannesoutlawedtheburkini.Canneswasthefirstcityto
implementanordinance.DavidLisnard,MayorofCannes,helpedwritethebanonthe
burkinienactedJuly28th.Theordinancestated,“Accesstobeachesandswimmingis
prohibitedfromthesigningofthisdecreeuntil31August2016toanypersonwhoisnotin
properdress,respectfulofgoodmoralsandlaïcité,Hygieneandbathingsafetyadaptedto
themaritimepublicdomain.”139Thephrase“respectfulofgoodmoralsandlaïcité”takesa
legalprincipleandnarrowsitsapplicationsothatreligiousattirebecomesimproperdress.
Lisnardtriedtopersuadethepressthatthelawwasnotcreatedwiththeintentionof
discriminatingagainstMuslims,butfewbelievedhismeekattempttodefendthe
ordinance.Lisnardsaid,“"WhetherawomanisMuslim,Catholic,JewishorBuddhist,she
canofcoursecomeandbathe!(...)TherearealsomanyMuslimwomenonthebeachesof
Cannes.Buttheycannotwearostentatiousattire."140Weseeherethatjustaswiththe
headscarfcasesthetermostentatiousbecomesproblematic,anditiseasytoquestionthe
trueintentofthelaw.
Lisnardthenattemptedanotherrouteofdefense,feminism.Heclaimed,“Itis
preciselytoprotectthesewomenthatItookthisdecision.Theburkiniistheuniformof
extremistIslamism,notoftheMuslimreligion.”141 EntrenchedinFrenchsocietyistheneed
138Heimlich,Russell."FrenchSupportforBanonFullIslamicVeil."PewResearchCenter.PewResearch
Center,13July2010.Web.27Mar.2017.
139“Cannes:unefemmeverbaliséepourleportd'unvoilemusulman."
140«Qu’unefemmesoitmusulmane,catholique,juiveoubouddhiste,ellepeutbiensûrvenirsebaigner!(...)
Ilyad’ailleursbeaucoupdefemmesmusulmanessurlesplagesdeCannes.Maisellesnepeuventpasporter
detenueostentatoire.”….Directquotationfrom:"Cannes:unefemmeverbaliséepourleportd'unvoile
musulman."LeMonde.fr.LeMonde,23Aug.2016.Web.23Oct.2016.
141Blaise,AurelienBreedenandLilia."Cannes,CitingSecurityRisks,BansFull-Body'Burkinis'FromIts
Beaches."TheNewYorkTimes.TheNewYorkTimes,12Aug.2016.Web.25Sept.2016.
67
tocontrolwoman’s’dressandthenecessitytophysicallydemonstratethedifference
betweenmenandwomenwhiledeclaringtheirequality.Theevidenceofthisdatesbackto
theFrenchRevolution.EugèneDelacroix’sfamouspainting“LibertyLeadingthePeople”
showsabarebreastedMarianneleadingtheFrenchpeople.142Thepaintingdemonstrates
thetensioninFrenchrepublicanismbetweenthepromiseofequalityandthenatural
differentiationbetweenthesexes.Frenchsociety’sdemandthatwomenundressresults
fromitscivilreligionofsecularism.Muslimsocietyessentiallyrejectsthisideabyrequiring
womentobecovered,andtheFrenchfindthatintolerable.
Anotherfacetofthedebatederivedfromsecurityconcerns.Lisnardmakesmention
oftheneedtomaintainpublicorder“whileFranceandplacesofworshiparethetargetof
terroristacts.”143BecausethelawparticularlytargetsMuslimwomen,Lisnardwas
paradoxicallycaughtclaimingthatthelawbothprotectswomenandtreatsthemas
securitythreats.
Severalanti-Islamophobicorganizationstriedtodrawoutthisparadox.The
politiciansinsupportofthebanleftoutafewessentialfacts.TheCollectiveAgainst
Islamophobiaaskedinastatement,“Mustweremindthismayorthatabout30ofthe
victimsoftheattackinNicewereMuslims,becauseterrorismtargetsusall
indiscriminately?”144Theburkiniban,likethebansbeforeit,waswhatFeizaBen
Mohamed,aspokeswomanforaMuslimassociationinthesouthofFrance,calleda
haphazardwayfor“politicianstohidetheirinabilitytohandlesecurityinthefaceof
142Rubin,AlissaJ."FromBikinistoBurkinis,RegulatingWhatWomenWear."TheNewYorkTimes.TheNew
YorkTimes,27Aug.2016.Web.30Sept.2017.
143Blaise,AurelienBreedenandLilia."Cannes,CitingSecurityRisks,BansFull-Body.”
144Blaise,AurelienBreedenandLilia."Cannes,CitingSecurityRisks,BansFull-Body.”
68
terrorism.”145AnotherperceptiveyoungMuslimwomanarticulatedthedangerofthe
burkiniandframedthebanasaquestionofindividualfreedombeggingthequestionhow
farwilltheFrenchgotocheckwhetheranoutfitconformsto“goodmanners”.She
expressedthatthebanshadunleashedawaveofverbalracism.Whilesheacknowledged
increasedtensionasaconsequenceoftherecentterrorattacksclaimedbytheIslamic
State,shebelieves“weshouldn’taddoiltothefire’bybanningburkinis”.146TheFrench
Courtsagreed.
5.2France’sHighestCourtRulesAgainsttheBurkiniBan
OnAugust25,2016France’shighestadministrativecourtheardthecaseofthe
burkiniban.ThiscameafteranappealbytheHumanRightsLeaguechallengingthecourts
decisioninthetownofVilleneuve-LoubetlocatedjustWestofNicetoupholdtheban.The
lowercourtjudgehadagreedthatthebanwas“necessary,appropriateandproportionate”
toprotectpreventpublicdisorderbecausetheburkiniwas“liabletooffendthereligious
convictionsor(religious)non-convictionsofotherusersofthebeach.”147Apparentlymany
oftheFrenchagreed.BBCreportedthatrecentpollsindicatethat64percentoftheFrench
publicsupportedthebanandthatanother30percenthadnoopinion.148Sowhatledthe
highercourttoreachadifferentconclusion?Andwasitadeparturefrompreviousrulings?
TheConseild’Étatfoundthat"Thecontesteddecreehas...inflictedaseriousandmanifestly
unlawfulinterferencewiththefundamentalfreedomsoffreedomofmovement,freedomof
145Blaise,AurelienBreedenandLilia."Cannes,CitingSecurityRisks,BansFull-Body."
146Chrisafis,Angelique."France'sBurkiniBanRowDividesGovernmentasCourtMullsLegality."The
Guardian.GuardianNewsandMedia,25Aug.2016.Web.27Feb.2017.
147Quinn,Ben."FrenchPoliceMakeWomanRemoveClothingonNiceBeachFollowingBurkiniBan."The
Guardian.GuardianNewsandMedia,23Aug.2016.Web.27Feb.2017.
148Micallef,JosephV."IsFranceRighttoBantheBurkini?"TheHuffingtonPost.TheHuffingtonPost,03Sept.
2016.Web.16Feb.2017.
69
conscienceandpersonalliberty"andfurthermorethat"theemotionandthefearsresulting
fromtheterroristattacks,andinparticularthosecommittedinNiceonlastJuly14,cannot
sufficetolegallyjustifythecontestedprohibitionmeasure."149Itisinterestingand
surprisingthatthecourtfoundthislawtointerferewithindividualfreedomwhilethe
headscarfbansdidnot.Perhapsitisbecausetheburkinireassemblesafullbodyswimsuit
andisnotclearlyassociatedwithIslam.Anotherexplanation:inlightoftherecentterror
attackthecourtwasabletodistinguishbetweenaperceivedthreattopublicorderandan
actualsecuritythreat.
5.3TheNeedforIntegration:BalancingIslamandlaïcité
Theoutburstsurroundingtheburkinihighlightsthebiggerissueofbalancing
religiousfreedominalaïccountry.ThefactisFrenchrepublicanvaluesclashwiththoseof
Muslimimmigrants,exacerbatingrelationsbetweenthemajoritywhite,nominallyCatholic
FrenchmenandtheMuslimimmigrantcommunity.TodaytheFrenchfindtheyhave
createdaviciouscycle:thelackofintegrationandperceivedthreatoftheMuslim
communitybroughtonbyterrorismleadstheFrenchgovernmenttorestrictthereligious
libertyofMuslimresidentsofFrance,andinturncausesthemtoturnawayandisolate
themselves.Further,thispatternledMuslimimmigrantstosettleinhomogenous
communitiesoftenassociatedwithhigherratesofpovertyandviolence.
149Originalquotes:
«l’arrêtélitigieuxa(…)portéuneatteintegraveetmanifestementillégaleauxlibertésfondamentalesque
sontlalibertéd’alleretvenir,lalibertédeconscienceetlalibertépersonnelle».
«l’émotionetlesinquiétudesrésultantdesattentatsterroristes,etnotammentdeceluicommisàNicele14
juilletdernier,nesauraientsuffireàjustifierlégalementlamesured’interdictioncontestée».
Source:"LeConseild'Etatmetuntermeauxarrêtés«anti-burkini»."LeMonde.LeMonde,26Aug.
2016.Web.25Feb.2017.
70
ThelackofintegrationofMuslimimmigrantcommunitiesisadirectresponsetothe
hostilitytheyencounterfromthenativeFrench.Thehostilityisevidentnotonlyinthe
legislationaimedatrestrictingthereligiousexpressionofMuslims,butitisalsoevidenton
amicroorindividuallevel.The1990’sshowedmuchhigherunemploymentratesamong
youngArabsthantherestofthepopulation.TheNationalAcademyofSciencesfoundthata
candidatewithaMuslim-soundinglastnameis2.5timeslesslikelytobeofferedan
interviewthanacandidatewithaChristian-soundingfamilyname.150Thisdiscrimination
preventsMuslimsfromearninganincomeequaltothatoftheirnativeFrench
counterparts,andforcesMuslimstoliveinpoorerneighborhoodswherecrimeismore
prevalent.ThereissolidevidenceoftheincomedisparityinFrance,withonestudyfinding
thataChristianhouseholdmakes400eurosmorepermonththanaMuslimone.151These
socio-economicfactorspavethewayforaseparationbetweenthetwogroups.TheFrench
majorityhasfarmoreaccesstojobs,educationandsafeneighborhoods.
Thebuildupofinjusticefinallyledtoaseriesofriotsin2005.TwoyoungArab
youthswereontheirwayhomefromasoccergamewhentheyspottedpolicepatrollingthe
areaforaroutineinspection.Inanattempttofleethepoliceandavoidthelengthy
questioningandaccusationscommonintherundownsuburbofClichy-Sous-Bois,thetwo
boysjumpedintoabushanddiedofaccidentalelectrocution.152Theincidentpromptedan
outburstofriotsacrossFranceinmorethan300communitiesresultinginatleastthree
deathsanddozensofinjuries.Injustthefirstthreeweekstheriotscausedaquarterofa
150Adida,ClaireL.,DavidD.Laitin,andMarie-AnneValfort."IdentifyingbarrierstoMuslimintegrationin
France."ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciencesoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica.NationalAcademyof
Sciences,28Dec.2010.Web.02Feb.2017.
151Adida,ClaireL.,DavidD.Laitin,andMarie-AnneValfort.
152Crampton,Thomas."BehindtheFuror,theLastMomentsofTwoYouths."TheNewYorkTimes.TheNew
YorkTimesCompany,07Nov.2005.Web.02Mar.2017.
71
billiondollarsindamageasaresultoftorchedcars,buildingsandbusinesses,andcostsof
increasedpolicepatrols.Bytheendofthosethreeweeks,over2,900arrestsweremade
andtheNationalAssemblyvotedtodeclareathree-monthstateofemergency.Theriots
hadmadeitclear:theMuslimsofFrancehadreachedtheirboilingpoint.
IslamalreadyhadabadimagewithinFrance,andtheseriotsdidnothingbut
inflamethestereotypethatmostMuslimsrejectedFrenchvaluesandhadtiesto
fundamentalism.Apollconductedayearaftertheriots“foundthattwothirdsoftheFrench
associateIslamwithreligiousfanaticism.”153Thoughitisaminorityratherthanamajority
thatendsupjoiningextremistmovements,theMuslimyoutharecertainlynotfreefromthe
influenceofextremistmilitantgroups.Sincethe1980’sgroupsofIslamichardlinerssuch
asthesalafists,wahabisandtheMuslimrenewalassociationknownasTablighihave
recruitednewmembersinthebanlieueofParis,oftenatriots.154Oneexampleistheman
behindtheJune2016killingoftwopoliceofficersduringwhichhesworeallegiancetoISIS.
LaroussiAbballa,25,hadpreviouslystated“Ineededrecognition,”and“alocalgroupof
jihadistsofferedasenseofpurposeinanotherwisedirectionlesslifethatincludedboutsof
unemployment.”155 TheserecruitersusetheunfortunatesocialconditionsoftheMuslim
youth(theirpositionasoutsiders,thestigmabystateinstitutionsandthemedia)as
leverageandpersuadeyoungMuslimmentojointheirradicalmovements,whichcan
sometimesleadtoinvolvementinterrorism.Thisisagrowingproblem.In2014therewere
fourcrimesofjihadterrorism.In2015thisnumberjumpedsignificantlyto17,indicating
153Viorst,Milton."TheMuslimsofFrance:IslamAbroad."ForeignAffairs.ForeignAffairs,Sept.1996.Web.02
Feb.2017.
154Khedimellah,Moussa."Liberté,Egalité,Islam."ReligionintheNews.TrinityCollege,Vol.8,No.3.,Winter
2006,Web.02Mar.2017.
155Malsin,Jared."NiceAttack:WhyFranceisaMajorTargetforISIS."Time.Time,15July2016.Web.28Mar.
2017.
72
Islaminspiredterrorismisifanythingontherise.156Thiscannotbeblamedonlackof
integrationalonebuttreatingMuslimsasasecuritythreatdoessendthemessagethat
MuslimswillneverbetrulyFrench,incitinginthemfeelingsofanimositythatcanleadto
higherratesofhomegrownterrorism.
Thebarrierstointegrationpersistentinthebanlieuehaveremainedlargely
unsolved.HuguesLagrange,aFrenchsociologistanddirectorofresearchattheCentre
NationaldelaRechercheScientifique(CNRS),blamestheboththeleftandtherightfor
ignoringthekeyculturalfactors.Theright,ratherthanrecognizetheculturaldifferencesin
familystructure,blamesthefamiliesofyoungMuslimdelinquentsfortheiractionsand
thereunchangingstatus.Theleft,hesays,makesthemistakeoffocusingonlyon
unemploymentandignoringfamilyconflictandstructure.157LagrangebelievesthatFrance
mustundertakeanideologicalchange.Theymuststoptryingtobalancethexenophobic
securitydiscourseandthemistakenanalysisbythepoliticallycorrectandinsteadputan
endtoformalegalitarianismandstoptreatingeveryoneequally.TheFrenchmust
recognizethatthereexistirreconcilableculturaldifferencesthatcanonlybealleviatedby
embracingmulticulturalismandaccommodation.
SeveraltheoristshavecontendedthattherigidFrenchidentityshapedby
republicanismandlaïcitéistoblameforFrance’sculturalclash.RobertBrubacker,an
Americansociologistwhowritesaboutnationalism,observed,“TheFrenchunderstanding
156"EuropeanUnionTerrorismSituationandTrendReport2015."EuropolEuropeanLawEnforcementAgency
TE-SAT2015.EuropeanPoliceAgency,2015.Web.19Apr.2017.
157Méritens,PatriceDe."Lagrange:«Ledénidesculturesestuneerreurpartagéeparlesdeuxcamps»."Le
Figaro.LeFiagro,16Oct.2010.Web.24Mar.2017.
73
ofnationhoodhasbeenstate-centeredandassimilationist.”158Theresultisanattackon
thosewhodonotfitthemold,whotodayareMuslims.
TheFrenchshouldsoonrealizethatthisapproachmighthurtthecountrymorethan
helpcreateamutualrespectandunity.Theconnectionbetweentheburkiniandthreatsto
nationalsecurityislackinginproof.Butithasbeenproventhatalackofintegration,high
ratesofdiscriminationandariseinanti-FrenchsentimentsamongtheMuslimpopulation,
canleadtohomegrownterrorism.ForthisreasontheFrenchneedtoembrace
multiculturalismandcompromise.Thiscouldmeankeepingthe2004lawbanningveilsin
schoolsbutrepealingthe2011lawthatbansveilsinpublicplaces.ThoughFrench
politiciansinsistthoselawshavebeencreatedinthenameofrespectforlaïcité,their
commentssuggestsotherwise.Thoselawshavehadnegativeconsequences.
TheNationalObservatoryAgainstIslamophobiafoundthatfrom2013to2015,80
percentofviolentanti-Muslimactsweredirectedatwomen,mostofthemveiled.159When
theU.S.JudgesruledonPresidentTrump’sMuslimsbantheystatedthattheytookhisantiMuslimrhetoricintoconsiderationwhendeterminingthetrueintentbehindtheban.Ifthe
courtsinFrancehaddonethisin2004and2011theoutcomemighthavebeendifferent.
FranceneedstoloosenitsdefinitionofwhatitmeanstobeFrenchandinvite
diversity.TheU.S.ontheotherhandalreadyembracesdiversityandhasstrongantidiscriminationlawsbutmustprotectitinthefaceofanewpresidentwhodoesnotsee
thesevaluesasstrengthsofthecountry.ThelastchapterwillcritiqueDonaldTrump’s
policies,evaluatethetruethreatoftheMuslimpopulationoftheU.S.,andmakepredictions
forthefuture.
158Schain,Martin,60.
159Daley,Suzanne,andAlissaJ.Rubin."FrenchMuslimsSayVeilBansGiveCovertoBias."TheNewYork
Times.TheNewYorkTimes,26May2015.Web.10Apr.2017.
74
CHAPTER6:OURFUTURE:RELIGIOUSFREEDOMUNDERTHETRUMP
ADMINISTRATION
TheelectionofDonaldTrumpappearstohaveusheredinaneweraofnativism.
Thisneweraduringwhichimmigrationandnationalsecuritypolicyareafocalpoint,has
demonstratedthetensionbetweentheneedtocombatforeignthreatsandsafeguardthe
rightsofAmericancitizens.PresidentTrumpthinksthatthebiggestthreattonational
securityis“radicalIslam”.Duetothegovernment’sinabilitytoadequatelydistinguishthe
“badguys”fromordinaryMuslimrefugeesandimmigrants,Trumphaslauncheda
campaignagainstradicalIslam,advocatingforapolicythatdiscriminatesonthebasisof
religionandthreatenstorestrictreligiousliberty.ThepoliciesTrumpdevelopsand
implementsinthenextfouryearshavethepotentialtochangethecourseofAmerican
policybyredefiningtheappropriatebalancebetweenreligiousfreedom,nationalidentity
andnationalsecurity.
PresidentTrump’scampaignandelectionhave,inadditiontoawakeningalatent
nativism,augmentedpopularfearsofIslam.Someprominentpoliticians,mostlyonthefar
rightoftheRepublicanParty,andconservativetalkshowhostsandjournalistshavebeen
railingagainstthethreatofIslamforyears,claimingwithoutevidencethatMuslimsinthe
U.SwanttoimposeSharialawandIslamonAmerica.Inlightofarecentsurgeofterrorism
perpetratedbyMuslims,thesegroupsandTrumphavebeenabletoattractconsiderable
supportforpoliciesthatthreatentherightsandlibertiesofMuslimsbyframingthepolicies
asnecessarytoprotectingAmericans.Trumphasdaredtoimplementhispolicyof“a
completeandtotalban”ofMuslimimmigrationanddeclarethattheU.S.mustcombat
radicalIslambecausemillionsofAmericans,thoughperhapsnotamajority,agreed.
SincethenmillionsofAmericanswithnotiestoIslamhavesharplycriticizedhis
75
rhetoriconIslam,includingtopGovernmentOfficialssuchasPresidentBush,andSenate
MinorityLeaderCharlesSchumer.ManyAmericanshadhopedTrumpwouldretreatfrom
hispromiseofa“totalandcompleteban”ofMuslimsandmaintainAmerica’sreputation
andtraditionasacountrythathasalwayspromotedfreedomofreligionanddiversity.
Unfortunately,thisdidnothappen.SincetheofficialstartoftheU.S.presidentialcampaign
inJune2015therehasbeenariseinbothIslamophobiaandlegislationaimedtocurbIslam
inAmerica,forinstancetheattemptbyseveralstatestobansharialaw.
TheriseinterrorattackscoincidedwiththebeginningoftheU.S.presidential
campaignbringinganti-Muslimsentimentstotheforefrontonceagain.InDecember2015
duringtheSanBernardinoattackaradicalizedIslamiccouplekilled14co-workersata
officeholidayparty.TheninJune2016aMuslimmanopenedfireonagaynightclubin
Orlando,Floridathatleft49peopledead.InJuly,justdaysafterTrumpgainedhis
nominationattheRepublicanConvention,theworldfeltthepainoftheNiceterrorattack,in
whichaFrenchTunisianmanplowedhistruckthroughcrowdsofFrenchandforeigners
celebratingBastilleDayintheMediterraneanresortcity.Justweekslater,millionsof
AmericanwatchedwithwideeyesthenewsoftheslayingofaFrenchpriestbyaman
claimingallegiancetoISIS.160Theseattacks,localandforeign,leftanimprintonthenation,
reinforcingfearanddistrustofMuslimsthatwasreflectedinattitudesandmore
importantlyinpolicy.
The2015attackinSanBernardinowasthemostdecisiveeventofTrump’s
campaign;itwasinthedaysafterthatTrumpcementedhispolicyofexclusionandhostility
towardsMuslims.FivedaysaftertheterrorattackonDecember7,2015,Trumpannounced
160Barrett,James."ACompleteListofRadicalIslamicTerrorAttacksonU.S.SoilUnderObama."DailyWire.
N.p.,07Dec.2016.Web.01Apr.2017.
76
hisplanfora“totalandcomplete”Muslimban.161Hehassincestatednumeroustimesthat
Islammustnotbe“allowedtoresideorspreadwithinourowncommunities.”162 Atarallyin
Raleigh,NorthCarolina,Trumpwasaskedhowhewouldhandleterrorattacks.He
responded,“Iwouldgetmyselfinsomuchtroublewiththem,wearegoingtohandleitso
tough."163Trumpthenfollowedupwithastatementcriticalofpoliticalcorrectness,hesaid,
"Howaboutthepersonwhoknewwhatwasgoingonsaidtheydidn'twanttoreportthem
becausetheythinkitmightberacialprofiling,didyouseethat?Wehavebecomeso
politicallycorrectthatwedon'tknowwhatthehellwe'redoing."164 Trumppickedupon
thefrustrationofmanyAmericanswhofeltthathispredecessorignoredtheseissues.
Consequently,severalmillionAmericansapplaudedhimfortakingastrongapproachto
fightingterrorism.
MeanwhileanothergroupofAmericanswasdisappointedbywhattheycalled
Trump’sbigotedresponse.PresidentObamaandadvocatesofcivillibertieswarnedthat
creatingdiscriminatorylawsthatblameallMuslims(worldwide)fortheactionsofafew
(letsnotforget-U.S.Citizens)violatestheFirstAmendment,andhasthepotentialto
alienatemanyMuslimAmericans.EvensomeofthevictimsoftheSanBernardinoterror
attacksdisagreedwithTrump’sapproach.JohnRamos,whowasinjuredintheattack,was
abletoseethefaultinTrump’sban,hesaid,“Thepersonwhocarriedout[theDec.2]attack
wasbornintheU.S.andonlywentoverseastogetawife,it’sill-conceived.”165Afamily
161Kopan,Tal."DonaldTrumponSanBernardinoresponse:'Iwouldbesotough'"CNN.CableNewsNetwork,
05Dec.2015.Web.31Mar.2017.
162Shane,Scott,MatthewRosenberg,andEricLipton."TrumpPushesDarkViewofIslamtoCenterofU.S.
Policy-Making."TheNewYorkTimes.TheNewYorkTimesCompany,01Feb.2017.Web.12Feb.2017.
163Kopan,Tal."DonaldTrumponSanBernardinoresponse…”
164Kopan,Tal."DonaldTrumponSanBernardinoresponse...”
165Branson-Potts,Hayley,SarahParvini,andPalomaEsquivel."ForvictimsofSanBernardinoterroristattack,
conflictingviewsaboutTrumppolicyintheirname."LosAngelesTimes.LosAngelesTimes,1Feb.2017.Web.
31Mar.2017.
77
friendofanothervictimvoicedsupportforU.S.policiesthatwillkeepAmericaand
Americanssafebutadded,“WehopeAmericaandPresidentTrumpcandothiswithout
violatingourcorevalues.”166Fornow,Trumphasletthesepeopledown.
SeveralstatesandVicePresidentMikePenceappeartohaveletfearandprejudice
influencetheirpolicy-making.Theirperceptionofathreatmaybecoloredbytheirincorrect
assumptionsaboutMuslims.Asof2010,55percentknowlittleornothingaboutIslam
accordingtoPewResearchCenter.Another35percentsaytheyknowsomethingandonly
ninepercentsaytheyknowagreatdeal.167Thelackofinformationandthewidecirculation
ofmisinformationhaveledmillionsofAmericanstobemisinformedaboutIslam.When
policymakersaretaskedwithassessingrisk,theirlimitedknowledgeandmuddledviewof
Islampresentsasignificantproblem.
ConvincedthatIslamisahegemonicreligionpreachingviolence,severalstateshave
attemptedtoshuttheirdoorstoMuslimrefugees.InordertoreachPresidentObama’s
statedgoalofwelcoming10,000refugeesintothecountryallstateshavehadtosharethe
burden.Indianaadmitted174Syrianrefugeesduringthefiscalyearof2016,thoughnot
withopenarms.168GovernorMikePence,nowVicePresidentoftheU.S.,declaredtheSyrian
refugeesasecuritythreatandannouncedthatthestatewouldsuspendtheSyrianrefugee
programandwouldnotreimbursethenon-profitExodus,whichhelpssettlenewrefugees,
forcostsincurredonbehalfoftherefugees.Exodussuedandthecasewasheardbeforethe
SeventhCircuitU.S.CourtofAppealsinSeptemberof2016.Thejudgeswonderedwhether
barringrefugeeswasaneffectiveanti-terrorismstrategy.Awareofthediscriminatory
166Branson-Potts,Hayley,SarahParvini,andPalomaEsquivel."ForvictimsofSanBernardino...”
167Liu,Joseph."PublicRemainsConflictedOverIslam."PewResearchCenter'sReligion&PublicLifeProject.
N.p.,23Aug.2010.Web.3Apr.2017.
168Sanneh,Kelefa."UntanglingtheImmigrationDebate."TheNewYorker.TheNewYorker,31Oct.2016.Web.
02Apr.2017.
78
undertonesandfear-basedmotivation,thecourtaskedthestate:“AreSyrianstheonly
MuslimsIndianafears?”169SeveralotherGovernorsfollowedPence’sleadandresponded
withpoliciesthatbarredrefugeesfromenteringtheirstates.170Thecourtestablishedthat
statescouldn’tdiscriminateagainstimmigrantsbecauseonlytheFederalgovernmenthas
therighttodecidewhocanandcannotcomeintothecountry.Assumingthatthemost
powerfulmembersofthegovernmentwillexecutethelawswithgreatcareandintegrity,
thisshouldhavebeenavictory,butsuchwasnotthecase.
6.1The“Muslim”Ban
JustweeksafterhisinaugurationPresidentTrumpsignedanExecutiveOrder
stickingtohispromiseofbanningMuslimsfromthecountry.OnJanuary27,2017he
revealedhispolicywhichdeclaredasuspensionofallimmigrationfor90daysandofnew
refugeeentriesfor120daysfromsevenMuslim-majoritycountries:Iraq,Syria,Iran,
Somalia,Yemen,SudanandLibya.Ironically,thecouplebehindtheSanBernardinoterror
attack,theeventthatinitiallypromptedTrump’sproposalforaMuslimban(orgavehiman
excusetoexecuteit),hadtiestotwoMuslim-majoritycountries,SaudiArabiaandPakistan--
yetthosecountrieswereleftoffthelist.Wecanspeculateastowhy:perhapsitwasdueto
U.S.oilinterests,ortheneedtomaintainsomealliesintheMiddleEast,ormaybeitwas
becauseofTrump’spersonalbusinessinterests.Butregardlessofthereason,SaudiArabia,
thelargestbreederofradicalextremistIslamintheworld,wasnotonthelist.171The
169Sanneh,Kelefa."UntanglingtheImmigrationDebate."
170TheGovernorsofMichigan,Alabama,Texas,Arkansas,andLouisianaalsoissuedexecutiveordersbarring
theentryofSyrianrefugeestotheirstates.
Shen,Aviva."FearmongeringAgainstRefugeesInTheU.S.Begins–ThinkProgress."ThinkProgress.
ThinkProgress,16Nov.2015.Web.03Apr.2017.
171Severalsourcesaffirmtheclaim:1."IraqiVPNourial-Maliki:SaudiArabiaIstheBreedingGroundfor
TerrorismintheMiddleEast."AmericanHeraldTribune.AHTribuneN.p.,23Jan.2017.Web.02Apr.2017.2.
79
methodologybehindtheselectionofcountriesisnotclear,leadingmuchofthepopulation
toquestiontheabilityofthebantoaidincounter-terrorism.TheCourtfoundthat,“the
Governmenthasnotofferedanyevidenceorevenanexplanationofhowthenational
securityconcernsthatjustifiedthosedesignations.”172PoliticiansinTrump’sownparty
haveexpressedtheirshockanddisappointmentaswell.
Reactiontothetravelbanhashighlightedadivideonbothpolicyandprinciple.
SenateMinorityLeaderChuckSchumereloquentlyarticulatedthesentimentsofmany
Americans.Hesaid,“TearsarerunningdownthecheeksoftheStatueofLibertytonightasa
grandtraditionofAmerica,welcomingimmigrants,thathasexistedsinceAmericawas
foundedhasbeenstompedupon."173PresidentBushwentoutofhiswaytourgetolerance
afterbeingaskedaboutTrump’sMuslimban.BushemphasizedAmerica’sstrengthasa
countryinwhichpeoplearefreetoworshipastheyplease.174TheAmericanpublicwassplit
ontheissue.ApollconductedforReutersattheendofJanuaryfoundthat48percentof
AmericansagreedwithTrump’sexecutiveorder,while41percentdisagreed.Whenaskedif
theOrdersetagoodexampleofhowtobestconfrontterrorismthenumberdeclinedto38
percent.175OftheAmericanspolled,34percentsaidtheyhadheardofitbutdidnotknow
anydetailsorwereunfamiliar,reducingthevalidityofthepoll’ssuggestionthatamajority
ofAmericanssupporttheban.NonethelessafairlysignificantpercentofAmericanswere
foundtobeinfavoroftheban.
Connolly,Amanda."SaudiArabiaa‘BreedingGround’forTerrorism,ImamTellsCommittee."IPolitics.N.p.,02
Feb.2015.Web.02Apr.2017.3.VanderGalien,Michael."SaudiArabiaIstheMainCulpritofJihadism:2.000
SaudisJoinedTerroristGroupsAbroad."Trending.N.p.,27Dec.2016.Web.02Apr.2017.
172"TheStateofWashingtonV.DonaldJ.Trump."ForPublicationinUnitedStatesCourtofAppeals…”
173Merica,Dan."TrumpSignsExecutiveOrdertoKeepout'RadicalIslamicTerrorists'"CNN.CableNews
Network,28Jan.2017.Web.28Jan.2017.
174Baker,Peter."FormerPresidentGeorgeW.BushLevelsTacitCriticismatTrump."TheNewYorkTimes.
TheNewYorkTimesCompany,27Feb.2017.Web.30Mar.2017.
175"IpsosPollConductedforReuters–ImmigrationBan1.31.17."Ispsos/ReutersThomson,31Jan.2017.
Web.1Apr.2017.
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Severalstatesfeltdifferentlyandwerepropelledtoactionbythebeliefthatthebanwas
morallyandconstitutionallywrong.Anumberofstatesfiledsuitschallengingthe
constitutionalityofPresidentTrump’stravelban.OnFebruary3,U.S.FederaldistrictJudge
JamesRobartoftheNinthCircuitCourtissuedarestrainingordertohaltTrump’sorder
nationwide.Inthecase,theStateofWashingtonandMinnesotasuedthePresidentandThe
DepartmentofJusticeallegingthat“theExecutiveOrderwasnottrulymeanttoprotect
againstterrorattacksbyforeignnationalsbutratherwasintendedtoenacta“Muslimban”
asthePresidenthadstatedduringhispresidentialcampaign…”176TheDOJfiledanappeal,
butthecourtaffirmedtheearlierrulinganddeniedtherequest.ThethreeJudgeCourtdid
notruleontheconstitutionalityofthebandecidingitwastooearlytomakeadecisionon
claimsofreligiousdiscrimination,butfoundthegovernmenthadnotshownalikelihoodof
successorthatfailuretoenterastaywouldcauseirreparableharm.Trumprespondedby
revisingthetravelbantosixcountries,andallowingthosewithpermanentresidence,such
asstudents,engineers,tourists,andrelativestoenterthecountry.Followingthesecond
revisedorder,ajudgeinHawaiiarguedthatbecauseTrumphadassertedthathewanteda
“Muslimban”andhadsaidtoformerNewYorkMayorRudyGiuliani“showmetherightway
todoitlegally,”theorderestablishedreligiouspreferenceviolatingtheEstablishment
Clause.177FederaljudgeTheodoreD.ChuangofMarylandagreedinanarrowerrulingand
calledforanindefiniteinjunctionarguingthatthebancontinuedtodiscriminateagainst
MuslimseventhoughthePresidenthadtakenoutstipulationonpreferencefor“minority
religions.”JudgeChuangwaswillingtoestablishtheobvious.InthecontextofTrump’s
176"TheStateofWashingtonV.DonaldJ.Trump."ForPublicationinUnitedStatesCourtofAppealsforthe...
U.S.Courts,n.d.Web.02Apr.2017.
177Wang,AmyB."Trumpaskedfora‘Muslimban,’Giulianisays-andorderedacommissiontodoit‘legally’."
TheWashingtonPost.WPCompany,29Jan.2017.Web.04Apr.2017.
81
statementtheMuslimbanwasclearlyaformofreligiousdiscrimination.Hestated,“The
historyofpublicstatementscontinuestoprovideaconvincingcasethatthepurposeofthe
SecondExecutiveOrderremainstherealizationofthelong-envisionedMuslimban.”178 The
directoroftheACLUDavidColebelievedChuangstatementstobetrueandsaidtherevised
orderisstill“religiousdiscriminationinthepre-textualguiseofnationalsecurity.Andit’s
stillunconstitutional.”179FornowthecourtshavespokenandruledTrump’sorderis
unconstitutional.
TheMuslimbanorExecutiveOrdercaseisalsonoteworthyforitsfuture
implications.Inlightofreasonablepublicsupportfortheban,thejudges’rulingwasa
reminderofthecountry’scommitmenttoupholditsconstitutionalvalues.Itisalsolikelyto
endupintheSupremeCourtandwithanewlyappointedconservativejudgethereisa
possibilitythatthecasemaybedecidedinTrump’sfavor.Therulingwillbealandmarkcase
establishingthelimitsofreligiouspolicyforthefuture.Itwillsetprecedentforfuture
immigrationbansandwilldefinethescopeoftheCourtsabilitytolimitthepresident’s
power.Onlytimewilltellwhowillprevail,Trumpandthosewhofeelthereiscausefor
limitingreligiousfreedom,orchampionsofU.S.multiculturalismwhowanttopromote
religiousfreedom.
6.2IslaminU.S.politics:IstheU.S.Obsessed?
ManyAmericans,politiciansandciviliansalike,havebeenscratchingtheirheads
tryingtofigureoutwhysince2016thereisanewfoundandprominentfocusonIslamand
MuslimsinAmericanmainstreampolitics.Thereareseveralsoundexplanationsforthis.
178Zapotosky,Matt."SecondfederaljudgeblocksrevisedTrumptravelban."TheWashingtonPost.WP
Company,16Mar.2017.Web.13Apr.2017.
179Savage,David."Trump'snewtravelbanwillbehardertochallengeincourt,butcriticssayitstilltargets
Muslims."LosAngelesTimes.LosAngelesTimes,6Mar.2017.Web.02Apr.2017.
82
Thefirstisthatmultiplesectorsofgovernmenthavebecomeinvolvedinmaintaining
nationalsecurity.TheU.S.haslongconsideredradicalextremistIslamtobeathreattoU.S.
nationalsecurity,evenpriortothepresidentialcampaignandPresidentTrump’selection.In
thepast,theneedtocreatepolicytocombatthethreatof“radicalIslam”waslefttonational
securityexperts,thedepartmentofhomelandsecurity,themilitaryandsoon.Morerecently
securitypolicyhaspermeatedmultiplepolicyareas.Americanimmigration,religiousand
discriminationpolicyalsoseektoplayaroleincombattingthethreat,bringingtheseissues
tothemainstreamandintothemindsofmillionsofAmericans.
Theotherexplanationsareconditionalratherthaninstitutional.TheAmericanpublic
hasonceagaingrownconcernedbecauseofacombinationoffactors.Theformationofa
newMuslimterroristgroupISIS,whichstandsfortheIslamicStateofIraqandSyria,as
opposedtoAlQaeda.AlQaeda,whichisalsoaradicalIslamicterroristgroupdoesnothave
thekeypiercingword‘Islamic’init,nordoesitrefertoaspecificcountry.Asecondfactoris
theriseinIslamicinspiredterrorismandariseinthereportingofthatterrorism.Nextisthe
impactoftheSyrianrefugeecrisis,whichhascausedmajordebateinEuropeafteritwas
discoveredthatoneoftheNovember13ParisattackershadenteredthecountryasaSyrian
refugee.AmericancitizensareinformedbytheactionsofouralliesinEuropewhoare
dealingwiththeseissues.Trump’sproposaltobantravelfromsixMuslimMajority
countriesresemblesFrance’sreactiontocloseitsdoorstorefugeesafterwhattheycalledan
intelligencefailure.Bothactionsstemfromthesamerationale;thedifferenceisthatFrance
claimedresponsibilityforitsintelligencefailure,whileTrumphasputtheonusonMuslims.
6.3HowAreMuslimsFaringintheU.S.?
FromapolicyperspectiveitisinterestingtorecognizethatAmericanshavedifferent
83
attitudestowards“Islam”and“Muslims.”Americanshavedistinguishedbetweentheir
viewsonIslam(thereligioninabstractform)andtheirviewsofMuslims(apeople)leading
themtoacceptapolicythattargetsIslambutlesssopolicythatblocksMuslims.ABrookings
pollfoundthatin2011,39percentofAmericanshadfavorableviewsofIslam.When
AmericanswereaskedabouttheirviewsonMuslims,alargerpercentage(50percent)
expressedfavorableviews.180ThepollresultsshowthatAmericanshavemorefavorable
viewsofMuslimsthantheydoofIslam.TheresearchersuggestedthatAmericansassociate
MuslimwiththeMuslimpopulationinthecountry,andIslamwiththeforeignthreatofthe
religion.ThedifferingpollresultsareunsurprisingbecauseAmericanshavebeenprimedto
differentiatebetweenMuslimsandIslam.Stronganti-discriminationlawshavemadeit
harderforAmericanstoexpressprejudicetowardsapeople.Islamhoweverismore
abstractmakingitmoreacceptabletoreject.Furthermore,favorableviewsofMuslimshave
increasedfrom50percentexpressingfavorableviewsin2011to53percentin2015.181 PrejudicetowardsMuslims,orminoritiesofanykindhadnotbeenacceptableinthe
country’spoliticallandscapefordecades,untilnow,untilTrump.UnfavorableviewsofIslam
haveincreasedsignificantlyfrom2001(37percent)to2015(61percent).Thismeansthe
countryhasaproblemwithIslamthatstandstogetworseunderTrump’sadministration.
ItisinterestingthatAmericanshaveamorenegativeviewandaheightenedconcern
aboutforeignthreatsofIslam,whenthegreatestrecentthreatstotheU.S.havebeen
homegrownterrorists.Basedonriskassessment,theU.S.shouldbemoreconcernedwith
potentialattacksfromdomesticterroriststhanforeignones.OftheU.S.attacksbyMuslims
180Telhami,Shibley."WhatAmericansreallythinkaboutMuslimsandIslam."Brookings.Brookings,16Aug.
2016.Web.3Apr.2017.
181Telhami,Shibley."WhatAmericansreallythinkaboutMuslimsandIslam."
84
inthelast15years,Americanresidentsorcitizenshaveperpetratedthemajority.182That
beingsaidthepercentageofAmericanMuslimswhoparticipateinterrorattacksisvery
small.OverallMuslimsinAmericahaveproventhemselvesloyaltotheU.S.. Dearborn,Michigan,hometothreetimesthepercentofMuslimsasthenational
average,isoneexampleofproofofloyaltyandpatriotism.Sometimescalledthe“Arab
capitalofNorthAmerica”DearbornishometothelargestmosqueintheU.S.,theArab
Museum,halalMcDonald’sandnumerousMiddleEasterncafes,andhasneverposeda
threattothecountryorcommunity.Residentsofthetowninteractwithoneanother
unafraidoftheirneighbors.ThisisbecausetheDearbornPoliceDepartmenthas
implementedsmartpoliciesthatbuildtrustbetweentheMuslimcommunityandthe
officers.Inthepastseveralyearsfathershaveturnedinsonstheysuspectedofsuccumbing
toradicalonlinepropaganda,studentshaveturnedinpeersandMuslimshavereportedFBI
informantssentintoinfiltratecommunitiesforbeingsuspicious.
ThehighlevelsofcooperationbetweenpoliceandAmericanMuslimsarenotunique
toDearborn.AmemberofamosqueinVirginiaturnedinafellowPakistaniAmericanwhen
helearnedofhisplanstoblowupaMetrorailin2010.AnotherinformantalertedtheFBIof
theplansofthreeMuslimteenstomovetoSyriatojoinISISin2014.183 Furthermore,Pew
reportsthat76percentofMuslimAmericansareveryorsomewhatconcernedwiththerise
ofIslamicextremismaroundtheworld,comparedwithaclose81percentofthegeneralU.S.
population.ContrarytostatementsmadebyGOPleadersthattheU.S.cannottrustand
thereforemustbanallMuslims,theDearbornMuslimcommunityhasbeenhighly
182Barrett,James."ACompleteListofRadicalIslamicTerrorAttacksonU.S.SoilUnderObama."DailyWire.
DailyWire,07Dec.2016.Web.01Apr.2017.
183Hirsh,Michael,MalcolmNance,DanielBenjamin,MikeRoss,AndrésMiguelRondón,AronLund,and
VirginiaHeffernan."InsidetheFBI’sSecretMuslimNetwork."POLITICOMagazine.PolitcoLLC,24Mar.2016.
Web.06Apr.2017.
85
cooperativeandpatriotic.184Thosestatementsarewrong,butworsetheydiminishtrust,
offsetpriorsuccessofprogramsandpromoteexclusion.AymanTaleb,a31-year-oldborn
andraisedinDallas,Texas,said,"InAmerica,ifyou'reanythingotherthanaWASP,then
you'redefinedasthe'other,'andwheneverafewselectindividualsdosomethingoutside
thelaw,theentirecommunityisassociated.Nocommunityshouldhavetobearthe
responsibility,nocommunityshouldhavetoapologizeorbeaskedtoapologize."185 DearbornChiefofPoliceRonaldHaddadaddsthat,“statementsthattendtoignitefear,
adversityinourcommunity,justdivertsusfromwhatwenormallydotokeepour
communitysafe.”186Americahasnotyetsolveditsproblem,butDearbornshouldserveas
anexampleofsoundprocedureandpolicy-making,notjustfortheU.S.butforFranceas
well.
Thisone-thirdArabcityhasoftenbeencomparedtomanyofthebanlieueofParis,
buttheyaredifferentinseveralveryimportantways.UnlikeFrance,theMuslimArab
communityofDearbornisnotisolatedfromtherestofthecity.Theyareconnectedtothe
community,theyparticipateinpolitics,andtheymakeupamajorityofthecitycouncil.187
ThesameistrueoftheAmericanMuslimpopulationasawhole.Themajorityformpartof
themiddle-classand71percentbelieveintheAmericandream.FurthermoreAmerican
Muslimssharethesameanxietiesoverterrorism.Pewfoundthat51percentarevery
184Hirsh,Michael,MalcolmNance,DanielBenjamin,MikeRoss,AndrésMiguelRondón,AronLund,and
VirginiaHeffernan."InsidetheFBI’sSecretMuslimNetwork."
185O'Connor,Tom."DonaldTrumpMuslimPlan:WhatSanBernardinoTerrorAttackSurvivorsSayAboutHis
Registry,TravelBanProposal."InternationalBusinessTimes.InternationalBusinessTimes,03Dec.2016.
Web.31Mar.2017.
186Raj,Roop."DearborncommunityrespondstoTrump'sproposedMuslimban."WJBK.FoxNews,8Dec.
2015.Web.02Apr.2017.
187Warikoo,Niraj."ArabAmericansbecomemajorityonDearborncouncil."USAToday.GannettSatellite
InformationNetwork,06Nov.2013.Web.01Apr.2017.
86
concernedaboutIslamicextremism,comparedtojust35percentoftheMuslimpopulation
inFrance.188
TheFrenchcouldlearnafewlessonsfromU.S.policyandstrategyregardingIslam
andMuslims.Forone,theOutreach-and-InformantProgramworksfarbetterthanthe
policepatrollinginFrance.Additionally,U.S.Discriminationandfreedomofreligionlaws
protectMuslimsbysendingthemessagethattheyarejustasmuchmembersofthecountry
asanyoneelse.ProofofthisisthatAmericanMuslimsarefarmoreassimilatedand
patrioticthantheMuslimsinthebanlieue.Theaddedaspectofwhatmaybeinterpretedby
manyFrenchMuslimsasreligiouspersecutionleadstheresidentsofthebanlieuetofeela
strongersenseofexclusionandnon-acceptance.Therearehoweversomeinstancesof
attemptstoenactexclusionarypolicyintheU.S.,buttherearefarfewerexamplesofthis
thaninFrance.
UnbeknownsttomanyAmericans,severalstateshavelawssimilartothe2004
FrenchLawthatbarsreligiousgarbatschools.Pennsylvania,OregonandNebraskaare
threesuchstates.InPennsylvaniaandOregonthecourtshaveupheldchallengesbrought
undertheFirstAmendmentandTitleVIItothereligiousgarblawthatforbidsteachers
fromwearingreligiouscostumeatschool.ThecourtruledinthecaseinPennsylvania,U.S.
V.BoardofEducation(1990)thattheschoolhadactedpursuanttoits“GarbStatute”when
itinformedafemaleMuslimteachershecouldnotworkifsheworeaherveil.When
reviewedafteranappeal,thecourtuphelditsinitialrulingdeterminingthat“the
188Bailey,Brian."Section3:TerrorismandNationalSecurity."PewResearchCenterforthePeopleandthe
Press.PewResearchCenter,14Jan.2010.Web.01Apr.2017.
87
preservationofreligiousneutralityisacompellingstateinterest.”189Inthesimilar1986
Oregoncasethecourtruledonparallelgroundsinfavorofthestate. Morerecentlyhoweverthestateshaveattemptedtocorrectdiscriminatory
legislationofitspastandcourtshaveruledinfavorofreligiousrights.ThisMarch,
Nebraskalawmakerspassedabilltoliftthestate’sbanonpublicschoolteacherswearing
religiousgarbsuchashijabs,yarmulkesandhabits.Thenewlegislationsoughttocorrect
thediscriminatorybanpassedin1919underpressurefromtheKuKluxKlan.Pennsylvania
hasalsopassedlegislationrepealingtheirsimilarban.Therehasalsobeenarisein
individualclaimstoreligiousfreedom.Muslims,whomakeupaminorityreligiousgroupin
theU.S.,havebroughtmoresuitsastheytrytogainacceptancefortheirreligion.In2015a
youngMuslimwomansuedAbercrombieandFitchfordiscriminatingagainstherand
denyingherajobforwearingahijab.ItwasthesecondcasethattermthattheSupreme
CourtruledinfavorofaMuslimandreligiousfreedom.190Thesecasesareevidenceofthe
factthattheUnitedStatesandFrancegrapplewiththesameissues,butsolvethemin
differentways.
Eachcountry’ssenseofnationalidentityandnationalvalueshasledtoadifferent
outcomeandpolicyresponse.TheU.S.prioritizestheindividualwhileFranceprioritizes
thestate.Inaddition,state-levelreligiousmotivatedlegislationandregulationintheU.S.
hasnotcreatedthesameoutcrythatthenationallawshavegeneratedinFrance.
RepressionofthereligiouslibertiesoftheMuslimsinFranceaccountsforlowerlevelsof
integration.Contrarily,higherlevelsofassimilationandemploymentamongtheU.S.
189"CanaTeacherWearReligiousGarbtoSchool,ProvidedtheTeacherDoesNotProselytizetothe
Students?"NewseumInstitute.NewseumInstitute,2017.Web.01Apr.2017.
190Hurley,Lawrence."U.S.topcourtbacksMuslimwomandeniedjoboverheadscarf."Reuters.Thomson
Reuters,01June2015.Web.02Apr.2017.
88
MuslimminoritysuggesttheyarebetteroffthantheirFrenchcounterparts.Trump’s
rhetorichasalreadythreatenedthis,buthispolicieshavethepotentialtocreatelastingand
disastrouschange.
6.4TheMedia:TheCulpritofMisplacedFears
PresidentTrumpcannotbeblamedalone.HemayperpetuatetheideathatMuslims
aredangerousbutthemediahasskewedAmericanopinionfordecades.Onlyahandfulof
Muslimshavecommittedterroristattacks,yetitseemsasthoughithasbecomecommon
practice,why?Becausethemediahasdisproportionatelyspentmoretimereportingonthe
attacksperpetratedbyMuslims.ResearchersattheGeorgiaStateUniversitydidastudyon
terrorismandtheeffectsofmediaskewfrom2011to2015.Theyfoundthatforthosefive
yearsMuslimscarriedout11ofthe89attacksintheU.S.,yettheattacksbyMuslims
received44percentofthemediacoverage.TheexaggeratedmediafocusonIslaminspired
terrorismhasskewedAmerican’sandTrump’sperceptionofthetruedangerofforeign
Muslimterrorists.Theresearchersfoundthattheriskofbeingkilledinajihadistterror
attackintheU.S.inthelast15yearsamountedtoroughly1in2,640,000.191Animportant
stepinmitigatingthetensionbetweenAmericaandIslamiseliminatingthisbias.The
mediashouldmakeagreaterefforttoexpendthesameamountofresourcescoveringnonMuslimterrorattacksasitdoesfortheIslamic-motivatedattacks.ThiswillgiveAmericansa
clearerandmorefact-basedperspective.
TheUnitedStatesisfarfromsolvingitsreligiouslibertyissuesandwilllikelynever
comeupwithasolutionthatleaveseveryonecompletelycontent.Withthecreationof
191Bailey,Ronald."DoMuslimsCommitMostU.S.TerroristAttacks?"Reason.com.ReasonFoundation,24Mar.
2017.Web.01Apr.2017.
89
RFRAandRLUIPAtheU.S.addedthenecessarylegislationneededtosafeguardtherightsof
religiousminorities.Today,thebattleforMuslimsintheU.S.isfarmoreideologicalthanfact
based.Asaresultupholdingthelawsandthevaluesthatinspiredthemisevermore
important.MulticulturalismiscommonpracticeintheUnitedStates,thelandofliberty,
equalityandjustice,butthechallengewillbecontinuingthistradition.TheMuslim
populationispredictedtodoubleby2050dueinlargeparttoimmigrationaccordingto
Pew.TheclashbetweenMuslimsandAmericanswillnotdissipate.Altogether,thenew
administrationbringswithitavastlydifferentsetofvalues,fardifferentfromanyprevious
RepublicanAdministrations.TheUnitedStatesmustcontinuetoholditsvaluescloseand
embracediversity,especiallyreligiousdiversitynotonlyforthesakeofreligiousfreedom
andcivilrightsbutalsoforthesakeofnationalsecurity.FightingIslamwithbigotrywillnot
reduceitsthreat.FightingIslaminsteadwithacceptance,trust-buildingprogramsandfair
religiouspolicywill.
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CONCLUSION
AmericaandFrancearetwodemocraticnationsfoundedinthesameperiodwith
constitutionsthatguaranteeitspeopleverysimilarfundamentalrights.YettheAmerican
definitionofreligiousfreedomandunderstandingofreligioustolerancediffersimmensely
fromFrance’s.Forthemostpart,theAmericanethosofliveandletliveoraccommodation
haskeptthepeacebyupholdingreligiousfreedom.Tokeepthepeaceintheirnation,the
Frenchinstalledapolicyoflaïcité.
Todayweseetheresultsofthesedifferentpolicyapproaches.TheFrenchhavemade
itillegalforMuslimwomentowearheadscarves,andtheAmericanshavemadeitillegalto
discriminateagainstwomenwearingthem.EvenwhendatahasproventhatsomeMuslims
doposeathreattonationalsecurity,theU.S.CourtshaveupheldAmericanlawsandvalues
andagreedthatthethreatofasmallpercentageofMuslimsisnotenoughtojustifyspying
onMuslimcommunities,banningallMuslimsfromenteringthecountryandpassing
legislationthatlimitsreligiousexpressionintheguiseofnationalsecurityconcerns.This
hasnotalwaysbeenthecase,buttheU.S.hastriedtoenforceitspolicyoftolerance,nondiscriminationandinclusiontowardsMuslims,andhasinsteadfocusedoncombatting
foreignthreatsofIslam.Franceontheotherhandhasimposedaregimeoflaïcitéandcalled
forapublicspacefreefromreligion,leadingtolawsthattheMuslimcommunityoften
considersdiscriminatory.
Inrecentyearstherehasbeenanincreaseinlegislationandpolicythat
discriminates,restrictsandexcludesreligiousgroups,andthosepolicieshave
predominantlyandnegativelyaffectedMuslimsinbothcountries.Thesepolicieshavesent
themessagetoMuslimsthatIslamisnotconsistentwithAmericanorFrenchvalues,and
91
thatMuslimpopulationsposeadangertonationalsecurity.Thispolicyalsohastheeffectof
creatingbarrierstointegrationandexacerbatingrelationsbetweentheWesternand
Muslimworlds.Inspiteoftheirdifferences,bothcountriessharestrengthsandweaknesses
intheirapproachestopublicpolicy.
AprinciplestrengthoftheAmericanapproachisthevalueitplacesonreligious
tolerance.Thisemphasisonreligioustoleranceandfreedomhasbeeneffective.Therehave
beenfewerchallengesbyAmericanMuslimsovertherighttoreligiousfreedomthanthe
French,inlargepartbecausetheU.S.governmenthasnotpassedlegislationlimitingthe
religiousfreedomofMuslimsthewayFrancehas.Whentherehavebeendisputesof
religiousfreedomintheU.S.,manyhaveoccurredatthestatelevel.Somestateshavepassed
orattemptedtopasslegislationregulatingtheconstructionofmosques,stemmingfromthe
factthatafewmosqueshavebeenfoundtopreachradicalIslam.Otherproposedpolicies
haveattemptedtobanSharialaw,religiouswear,andMuslimimmigration,allofwhich
imposelimitsonreligiousfreedomanddiscriminateonthebasisofreligion.Nonetheless
thelackofnationalreligiouslegislationofthisnaturehaskepttensionsbetweenMuslims
andAmericarelativelylow,comparedtoFrance.
Thisisoneofthekeydifferencesbetweenthetwocountriesthatindicatesthatthe
U.S.willlikelycontinuetoprotectthereligiouslibertiesofitscitizensinthenextfouryears
despiteTrump’spresidency,whileFrance,ifLePeniselectedinthesecondroundofthe
presidentialelection,maynot.American’sattitudestowardsMuslimpeoplehavebecome
increasinglymorefavorablefrom53percentinNovember2015to70percentinOctober
92
2016,despitethemountinganti-Muslimrhetoric.192Oneexplanationforthisis,themore
Trumpemphasizedtheissue,themoretheDemocrats,whoarelargelyresponsibleforthe
hugeincreaseinfavorability,adoptedtheoppositeposition;thatMuslimsarenotinfacta
threattothecountry’sidentityorsecurity.ThisshouldprovidetheAmericanpeoplewith
hopeandoptimismforthefuture.Thesilverliningofapolarizingpresident,Trumpmay
opentheeyesoftheAmericanpeopletoapreviouslyunimaginedfutureandmobilizehis
opposition.HopefullythesameistrueofFrance,shouldLePenwin.
Trump’sapproachtoIslamisnotnew,butithasbeenthemostshockingofpast
presidents.TheU.S.tendstoreacttonationalsecuritythreatswithanoutwardapproach.
After9/11theU.S.respondedwithanoffenseandinvadedtwoMuslimmajoritycountries.
AfewyearslatertheU.S.soughttoreduceAlQaeda’sinfluencebymobilizinggroupsin
AfghanistantoaidtheU.S.initsoperationtoneutralizeBinLaden.Furthermore,theU.S.
hascontinuedtodefendmoderateleadersandgovernmentsabroadagainstradicalIslamic
governments.MeanwhileFrancetendstolookforpotentialdangerswithinthenation.Past
legislationinFrance,suchasthe2011headscarfban,hastargetedtheMuslimpopulation
withinthecountry.Morerecentlyafterastringofterrorattacksfrom2015to2017,the
FrenchgovernmenthasimposedlegislationthatlimitsthereligiousexpressionofMuslims
suchastheburkiniban,andhasimplementedpoliciesliketheDeclarationofStateof
EmergencypolicyfollowingtheNovemberattacks,thathasconstrainedthecivillibertiesof
thepopulation.Trump’sbanexemplifiesthecompletelydifferentAmericanpolicypattern.
Accordingtohim,hisExecutiveOrderseekstocontaintheforeignthreats.Itisdifficultto
determineifonepolicyresponsehasworkedbetterthananotherconsideringallofthe
192Telhami,Shibley."HowTrumpchangedAmericans’viewofIslam–forthebetter."TheWashingtonPost.
WPCompany,25Jan.2017.Web.15Apr.2017.
93
geopoliticalfactorsthatinfluenceeachnation.Howeveronaverybasiclevel,itmaybe
possiblethattheU.S.strategyofeliminatingforeignthreatshasworkedbetterthan
France’sstrategyofpolicingitsMuslimpopulation.
BycomparingthenumberofIslaminspiredterrorattacksandchallengesto
religiousfreedomineachcountrywecandeducetheeffectivenessofeachstrategy.TheU.S.
hassufferedfewerterrorattacksbyMuslimsoradherentsoftheIslamicStatethanFrance
inthelastfewyears.193TherehavealsobeenfewerchallengesbyMuslimsovertherightto
religiousfreedom.AreasonableconclusionthenmaybethattheUnitedStates’strategyof
focusingonexternalthreatshasworked.But,uponcloserexaminationthistheoryseems
incorrect.ItisnotthatthefocusonoutsidethreatshasthwartedterrorattacksintheU.S.,
butratherthelackofstringentlawsthattargetandtreatallMuslimsasasecuritythreat
hasnotcreatedthesenseofexclusionofMuslimsthatFrenchpolicyhas.
TheFrenchhaveaproblemwithhomegrownterrorismthattheU.S.,atleastuntil2015,
didnothave.AresidentoftheFrenchbanlieueexplainedthathebelievedLarossiAbballa,
theFrenchjihadistterroristwhostabbedaFrenchpoliceofficerinDecemberof2016,had
committedanactofterrorbecauseofrevenge.HesaidtheFrenchgovernmentkeeps
pressuringthemtoconformandputthestatefirst,“butwewillnotgiveupourreligion.And
ifitleadstoaclash…”194ItthereforeseemslikelythattherootofFrance’sMuslimdilemma
stemsfromitsresponseofrestrictingreligion,whichhasdisproportionatelyaffected
Muslims.Thisbringsustoanotherpointofcomparison:integrationofeachcountry’s
Muslimpopulation.
193Therehavebeen17IslaminspireterrorattacksinFranceinthelastyearand11intheU.S.from2011-
2015.
194Worth,RobertF."TheProfessorandtheJihadi."TheNewYorkTimes.TheNewYorkTimesCompany,05
Apr.2017.Web.14Apr.2017.
94
IntegrationhasfailedinFranceforseveralreasons.Itsrigidsenseofwhatitmeansto
beFrenchanditsone-waymodelofintegrationhavecreatedanenvironmentwhere
discriminationcanflourishbehindtheveiloftheFrenchtraditionofunity.Thelawsthat
attempttomakeeveryonethesamebyinstillingaregimeofsecularismcertainlyhavenot
helpedtheMuslimcommunityintegrate.OneissueisthattherigidFrenchidentitydoesnot
supportintegration.Forintegrationtobesuccessfulboththereceivingcountryandthe
immigrantpopulationmustmakeculturalsacrificesandcompromise.InsteadFrancehasa
modelofassimilation,whichclearlyhasnotbeensufficient.TheoppositiontoIslamin
Francehasbeenmanifestedinlegislationbanningveilsandburkinis.IndoingsoFrancehas
developedareputationespeciallyamongitsMuslimpopulationofbeingasanti-Islam.
FranceisunwillingtoacceptsomeoneasFrenchandMuslim.Thishascreatedanattitudinal
andsocialproblemcausingMuslimsinFrancetofeelunwelcome,isolatedandexcluded,
whichinturnhasledthemtowithdrawfromsocietyandhashurttheiroddsofsocioeconomicintegration.
Stillitisnotjusttherestrictivelawsaffectingreligion,butalsothelackofeconomic
progressamongMuslimimmigrantsthathasstifledintegration.Thetwoareveryclosely
related.Religiousdiscriminationhaspreventedimmigrantsfromeconomicintegration,just
aseconomicintegrationandthesettlementofMuslimsinthebanlieuehasledtheFrenchto
viewtheminanegativelight,as“other.”Muslimshavesettledinthebanlieueweretheyare
separatedfromtheFrenchandlackaccesstogoodeducationandschools.Theoutcomeis
lowerlevelsofincomeandeducationamongMuslimsinFrance.Muslimshavelessaccessto
education,facesocialdiscriminationinhiring,liveindefactoghettos,andlackgovernment
programstoincludeMuslimimmigrantsintotheworkforce.Thede-factodiscriminationis
95
linkedtoFrance’scolonialhegemonypriorto1960.However,therecenttensionshave
exacerbateddiscrimination.Lackofintegrationandsocio-economicinequalityisfarmoreof
anissueinFrance,thanitisinU.S.anditislikelybecausetheFrenchgovernmenthas
createdlegislationthatdisproportionatelyandobviouslydiscriminatesagainstMuslims. Thegovernments’warinesstowardsMuslimsandfailureofintegrationhascreateda
greaterpotentialfordomesticterrorismtothrive.TheterroristoftheApril20,shootingin
ParisontheChamps-Eylsees,forwhichISISclaimedresponsibility,wasaMuslimFrench
nationallivinginabanlieueEastofPariswhohadaffirmedhishatredforpoliceandFrench
authorityonmultipleoccasions.195Theideologyusedtojustifytheterrorattackshas
nothingtodowithprotectingjobsorlegislationonreligion:itseesallofFrenchsocietyas
theenemy.Asaresult,France’santi-Muslimpolicieshavenotsucceededinintegratingtheir
Muslimcommunities,whichhascreatedasharpdivideinthenationthatincreasinglyposes
anationalsecuritythreat.
TheU.S.ontheotherhandhassucceedinginbalancingreligiouspolicyandnational
identityandsecurity.OneindicationofthisistheextentofintegrationamongMuslim
Americans.Apolicyofmulticulturalismandreligioustolerancehasencouragedintegration
intheU.S..Thispolicyhasledtoconsistentratesofeducationandsocio-economicand
culturalintegration.AhighpercentageofMuslimAmericans(30percent),foreignand
nativeborn,arecollegesgraduates,comparedto18percentofthegeneralAmerican
population.196Intermsofincome,MuslimsseemtobeonequalgroundwithAmericans,at
195Chazan,BarneyHenderson;David."Parisattack:policeofficerandsuspectshotdeadonChampsElysees."
TheTelegraph.TelegraphMediaGroup,20Apr.2017.Web.20Apr.2017.
196Bailey,Brian."Section1:ADemographicPortraitofMuslimAmericans."PewResearchCenterforthe
PeopleandthePress.PewResearchCenter,29Aug.2011.Web.13Apr.2017.
96
leastforthosewhomakeover$100,000ayear.197 Amonglowerincomebracketsthegap
widens.TherehasalsobeenaslightdeclineinMuslims’incomesrecentyears,whichcould
betheresultofhigherratesofIslamophobiaandtheeconomicrecessionof2007to2009.
Furthermore,amajorityofMuslimAmericans(56percent)haveadesiretointegrateand
adoptAmericancustoms,astrongindicatorthatthecountryappearswelcoming.Another
markerofsuccessfulintegrationistheanswertothequestionof“howdoyouthinkof
yourselffirst?”OfU.S.Muslimspolled,49percentsaidMuslimsfirst,comparedto46
percentofChristianswhorespondedthattheyidentifyasChristianbeforeAmerican.These
areallsignsthatAmericanpolicyhassucceededinwelcomingandintegratingMuslims.
However,thiscouldallchangeinthenextfouryearsundertheTrump
Administration.ThebriefperiodsintheU.S.duringwhichanti-Catholicsandanti-alien
sentimentprevailedwerelimited,butTrumphasawokenanAmericanspiritthatfearsthe
foreignalienandcouldhaveaprofounddomesticimpact.Theleadersofanycountry,the
president,hisadministrationandanyofhisappointees,havethepowertochangelaws,
createnewlawsthroughexecutiveorders,andinterprettheminnewways.Iftheyhave
differentvaluesthanpastadministrations,theycaninfluenceachangeinestablished
precedentandattempttoredefinethemeaningofthelaws.Trumpandhisappointeeshave
thepotentialtodothis.Throughouthiscampaignandinthefirstfewmonthsofhis
presidencyPresidentTrumphasshownthathisvaluesandpolicysuggestionsare
strikinglydifferentthanourlastfewpresidents.Hispolicieswillaffecttheentirecountry,
butwillhavethestrongestimpactonMuslimswhohebelievesthreatentochangethe
Americanfabric.
197Bailey,Brian.
97
InFrancethefuturetoo,isshaky.Theideologicalgapbetweenthetwopresidential
candidates,thecentristMacron,andthefarrightLePen,resemblesthepolarizingU.S.
campaignbetweenClintonandTrump.Macronwonthefirstroundbyaslimmarginofthree
points.Whoeveriselectedwillimposehisorherviewsandpoliciesonthecountry,as
Trumphadbeguntodo.Thecandidatesstandmilesapartintermsofideologyandpolicy
agendas.TheworldisawaitingtoseewhowillcapturethevotesofFrenchcitizens.If
MarineLePenwinstheelection,FrancecouldshiftinthesamedirectiontheU.S.has.
PresidentialhopefulMarineLePenhassimilarpoliticstoTrump.Shehasrunonthe
sameplatformofclampingdownonIslamandkeepingMuslimsoutandoftenrefersto
radicalIslamandglobalismastwoevilforcesthathavethepotentialtodestroyFrance.Asof
now,noproposalforaMuslimimmigrationbanhasreachedtheFrenchsenate.But
accordingtoNationalFrontmayorSteeveBriois,aleadingmemberofLePen’scampaign,
thereisthepossibilityofaMuslimbanifLePenwins.Whenaskedwhetherhispartywould
consideremployingthesamebanasTrumphereplied,“Whynot…sometimeswemaytake
authoritarianmeasures,eveniftheyshock.”198ThisisapolicytheNationalfronthas
supportedsincethe1990’s,butonlyinthelastfewmonthshasitseemedlikely.
ThecurrentFrenchgovernmenthashowevercondemnedtheban,whichissurprising
consideringFrancedoeshaveseveralreligiouslawsthatwouldbyAmericanstandardsbe
considereddiscriminatoryandunconstitutional.
TheelectionofLePencouldradicallychangethefutureofreligiousfreedomand
discriminationpolicyinFrance,justasTrump’sbanandfuturepolicieshavethepotentialto
dismantlethecountry’sidentityasanationthatvaluesfreedom,rightsanddiversity.The
198“France’sFarRightNationalfrontsaysitcouldcopyTrump’stravelban.”TheLocal.TheLocal,Jan30.
2017.02Apr.2017.
98
policytensionhereisthatAmerica,forthemoment,stillupholdsitsidentityasacountryof
immigrants,a“meltingpot”whereimmigrantscanbecomeAmericansandprosper,but
Trump’sactionsthreatentochangethis.InFrancetheelectionofMacroncouldshiftFrench
policytoamoreopenmodelthatembracesitsdiversepopulation,ortheelectionofLePen
couldreinforcerigidFrenchnationalidentity.Thefutureremainstobeseen.
Thereismuchatstakeinbothcountries.However,thereisalsomuchthatcanbe
drawnfromeachcountry’svaluesandlegalsystemthatcanbeusedtoimplementpositive
policychange.TheFrenchshouldtakeapagefromtheAmericansandadoptamore
inclusivespirit.IntermsofpolicyFranceshouldmoveawayfrommodelofstatefirst,by
changingthestandardforreligiousfreedomdisputestotheAmericanmodelwhichjudges
claimsthrougha“leastrestrictivemeans”test.Inaddition,citiesinFranceshouldcreate
trustbuildingandinformantprogramsamongpoliceandresidentsoftheMuslimmajority
banlieuetoreducetensionbetweenmarginalizedMuslimcitizensandthestate.IntheU.S.,
thegovernmentshouldcontinuetosupportreligiousfreedomandfurthermoredistance
itselffromreligion.ItshouldgetridofthereferencestoGodinthepledgeoftheallegiance,
onmoney,andinpublicschoolsespeciallyasthepercentageofChristianAmericans
declines.199Balancingreligiousfreedomandnationalidentityhasbecomeincreasingly
difficultasthemajorityineachcountryhasshrunkwiththearrivalofnewimmigrants
fromdiversereligiousandethnicbackgrounds.Withnewpresidentsineachcountrythe
futureisunpredictable.Butultimately,findingacomfortablebalancebetweenreligious
199ThepercentofChristiansintheU.S.hasdeclinedfrom74%in2007to63%in2014.Inaddition
Protestantismisnolongerthemajorityreligionofthecountry.Itispredictedby2050thatthenumberof
MuslimswillbenearlyequaltothenumberofChristians.
“Nones”ontheRise:One-in-FiveAdultsHaveNoReligiousAffiliation.”PewForumonReligion&PublicLife.
99
freedomandnationalidentitywillincreaseeachnation’ssecuritymaketheoddsof
harmonyandunityfarmorelikely.
100
APPENDIX:TheMuslimPopulationoftheU.S.
3.3 Million Muslims in the U.S.
1% of the U.S. population
69%
U.S. M USLIM S
70%
U.S.CHRISTIANS
Say religion is very important to them
101
APPENDIX:TheMuslimPopulationofFrance
7.5 %
of the population is Muslim
15% of Paris is Muslim
Only 2,000
46% of Muslims French
Women wear veils
accept laïcité and
French values of
secularism
Attend religious services…
5.1%
FRENCH M USLIM S
Everyday
16.6%
31.3%
FRENCH M USLIM S
FRENCH M USLIM S
Once a week
Never
Veils….
57%
of French Muslim women do not wear a veil
23% always wear a veil
7% wear a veil except at their place of work or
school
Percent Foreign born…
50% of French Muslims were born French
24% of French Muslims acquired French citizenship
26% remain foreigners
(Source: “Un Islam Francais Est Possible.” Institute Montaigne, Sept 2016.)
102
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