Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Latitudinal gradients in species diversity wikipedia , lookup
Biological Dynamics of Forest Fragments Project wikipedia , lookup
Introduced species wikipedia , lookup
Occupancy–abundance relationship wikipedia , lookup
Island restoration wikipedia , lookup
Reconciliation ecology wikipedia , lookup
V OVLO ULMUEM 6 E 6 N UNMUBMEBRE 4 R 4 FEB FE RB UR AU RA Y R2Y0 0260 0 6 KNOWLEDGE V-O LCONSERVATION U M E 6 N U M B E R 4 F E B R U-A RSUSTAINABILITY Y 2006 JOURNAL OF LIFE ON EARTH 2 T R O P I C A L C O N S E R V A N C Y TROPIA C ARL TCIOCN L S EERSV A N C Y Conservation status and threats to species associated with oldgrowth forests within the range of the Northern Spotted Owl (Strix occidentalis caurina) in British Columbia, Canada S. Yezerinac1 and F. M. Moola2 1 Biology Department Bishop’s University 100 College Road, P.O. Box 5000, Lennoxville, Quebec J1M 2A7 [email protected] Abstract. Decline of the Northern Spotted Owl (Strix occidentalis caurina) has drawn attention to the management of oldgrowth and late-successional forest habitat in the Canadian Pacific Northwest. Here we expand this focus to include 138 additional species of vertebrates and vascular plants that are found with Spotted Owls in old-growth forests in the southwestern mainland of British Columbia, Canada. We amassed up-to-date conservation status designations and enumerated known threats to survival for these species using online databases (NatureServe, COSEWIC, and SARA Public Registry) in order to assess the taxonomic and trophic breadth of species at risk in this community. Not unexpectedly, we found species at risk in all major taxonomic groups and that regulatory designations at provincial and federal levels are inconsistent for many species. 16% of species are classified as endangered, threatened or of special concern by the B.C. government, yet just 6% are being managed by B.C. Only 50% of species designated at risk by B.C. have been federally assessed by COSEWIC and only 36% currently have protection under Canada’s Species at Risk Act (SARA), which mandates protection of critical habitat. The threats to these species are varied, but timber harvesting and its indirect effects (e.g. road building, forest fragmentation) make up the majority. Although recovery planning for Spotted Owls has the potential to impact many other species at risk, we argue that the Spotted Owl is not a good Indicator, Keystone or Umbrella species, and that even as a Flagship species it may be insufficient. So we outline a new flagship fleet concept, nominate its members and summarize how it relates to conservation reserve planning. Author for correspondence - The David Suzuki Foundation, Suite 219, 2211 West 4th Avenue, Vancouver, BC V6K 4S2 [email protected] 2 INTRODUCTION Northern Spotted Owls (Strix occidentalis caurina) live in old-growth and late-successional coniferous and mixed-coniferous forests from California to British Columbia (B.C.) (Gutiérrez et al. 1995). Populations have been declining for over 30 years and the species is legally listed as endangered in both the USA and Canada. The primary cause of endangerment is the loss of old-growth forest habitat necessary for foraging, nesting and dispersal behaviors (Kirk 1999), though disease, predation and competition may also be secondarily operating (Hamer et al. 2001, Peterson and Robins 2003, Kelly et al. 2003). Since 1993 the United States has implemented a forest ecosystem management plan with the goal of conserving suitable habitat, recovering Spotted Owl populations and protecting cooccurring species (FEMAT 1993, Thomas et al. 1993). In Canada, the Spotted Owl is found only in the southwestern mainland of British Columbia (Kirk 1999). A provincial plan in place since 1997 seeks to manage “...habitat conditions and to maintain owl populations, so long as the impact of those prescriptions is no more than approximately a 10 % reduction in long-term timber supply over [current]...levels” (SOMIT 1997a,b). Field surveys indicate the population in B.C. is declining at about 10% per year and 22 known owls remain (government sources say that one ‘known’ juvenile died recently) from an historical population of approximately 500 pairs (Barlee et al. 2005). A recovery strategy for Northern Spotted Owls is still in preparation as of December 2005. As one of Canada’s most endangered species, the Spotted Owl receives much attention. Here we focus on potential threats to other species that inhabit late-successional and old-growth forests within B I O D I V E R S I Northern Spotted Owl (Strix occidentalis caurina). (Copyright Art Wolfe -www.artwolfe.com) T Y 6 ( 4 ) 2 0 0 6 3 (e.g. Crooks & Soulé 1999, Schmidt 2003). Thus, the pattern and extent of endangerment across a set of cooccurring species indicates the degree of perturbation of ecological processes in a community. Our second goal in this study is to compare the pattern of endangerment across several major taxonomic groups (vascular plants, amphibians, fish, birds, mammals) for species that co-occur with Spotted Owls in oldgrowth forests to the pattern of endangerment for these same taxonomic groups across British Columbia as a whole. Because this analysis reveals endanger-ment in this old-growth commu-nity to be taxonomically and trophically widespread, our final goal is to consider the utility of the northern Spotted Owl as a focal species for conservation planning. METHODS Decades of logging have taken their toll on prime Spotted Owl habitat in the Anderson Creek Valley in British Columbia. (Photo by Jeremy Sean Williams, 2005, courtesy of Western Canada A comprehensive list of species associated with oldgrowth and late-successional forests of British Columbia would ideally derive from extensive field work, yet limited resources have so far prevented such a compilation. We used the list of species generated by the Canadian Spotted Owl Recovery Team, which used their local expertise to edit the list of species previously compiled for old-growth and late-successional forests of the Pacific Northwest region of the United States (Thomas et al. 1993). The list for British Columbia includes 71 species of vertebrates (4 amphibians, 34 birds, 17 mammals, 16 fish) and 67 species of vascular plants that are similarly associated with late-successional and old growth habitat as Spotted Owls, as well as 89 species of Arthropods and 49 species of Molluscs listed as “at risk” (Harper & Millikin 1994). Because “at risk” was not defined by Harper and Millikin (1994), and a companion list of Arthropods and Molluscs not at risk is unavailable, we do not consider Arthropods and Molluscs further. We note that 1 of these species is rated as Special Concern by COSEWIC 2000. It is also important to stress that while these other species share with Spotted Owls a common dependence on late-seral forest habitat conditions, they may not necessarily be ecologically associated with owls (Harper and Millikin 1994). the historic range of the Spotted Owl in British Columbia. Canada has a Species at Risk Act (SARA) in force as of June 2003. While the SARA prescribes actions for focal species, it does allow for multi-species and community level planning and protection if circumstances warrant (http://www.sararegistry.gc.ca see SARA Public Registry). A recent national analysis across major watersheds shows that at risk terrestrial species are concentrated in three areas of Canada as of 2001: the southwestern mainland of British Columbia, southern Vancouver Island, and southern Ontario (Kerr and Cihlar 2004). However, this analysis did not examine the distribution of at risk terrestrial species among different ecological communities. Thus, our first goal in this study is to focus on co-occurring vertebrates and vascular plants within the old-growth forest community and assess which species are at risk of extinction and to enumerate the threats to species survival. Obtaining up-to-date information on biodiversity and conservation is difficult. We used the NatureServe portal (http://www.naturserve.org) to amass current (as of July 2004) conservation status designations. At the Provincial level these came through the Conservation Data Center of the BC Ministry of Sustainable Resource Management (http://srmwww.gov.bc.ca/cdc/). British Columbia uses the system developed by NatureServe to classify extant species on a scale extending from 1 (critically imperiled), through 2 (imperiled), 3 (vulnerable), 4 (apparently secure), and 5 (secure) determined at a global, national, or provincial scale. Species are then categorized onto Red (endangered), Blue (special concern) and Yellow (apparently secure) lists. Herein we focus on Red-listed and Blue-listed species at risk. We amassed status designations at the Federal level through the website of A group of co-occurring species represents a functioning ecological community in which interspecific interactions (e.g. mutualisms, competition, herbivory, predation) affect the relative abundance of species at different trophic levels, as well as the flux of nutrients and energy through food webs. The Northern Spotted Owl, for example, is a large-bodied predator situated near the top of the food web (Gutiérrez et al. 1995, Forsman et al. 2001), so its decline presumably results in increases of its squirrel prey plus other unspecifiable changes. Although such trophic cascades are difficult to predict, it is wellsupported that anthropogenically-created endanger-ment at one level can affect species at other trophic levels 4 T R O P I C A L C O N S E R V A N C Y the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (http://www.cosewic.-gc.ca/). COSEWIC classifies extant species on a scale extending from Endangered (facing imminent extirpation or extinction), through Threatened (likely to become endangered if limiting factors are not reversed), Special Concern (particularly sensitive to human activities or natural events but not endangered or threatened) and Not at Risk. Herein we focus on those species classified as Endangered, Threatened or Special Concern by COSEWIC as being at risk. Finally, we used the NatureServe Explorer portal to gather citations to the scientific literature summarizing known threats to species. We reviewed each of the 138 species and counted the number of known threats for each species in the following categories (Agriculture, Alien Species Introduction, Disruption of Fire Regimes, Environmental Contamination, Human Disturbance, Indirect Effects of Timber Harvesting, Intentional and Accidental Mortality, Livestock Grazing, Timber Harvesting, Mining + Oil & Gas, Tourism, Restricted Distribution, Urbanization, Other, Unknown). We compared the proportion of the Spotted Owl’s co-occurring taxa at risk with provincewide data for British Columbia available from the government’s website (http://srmwww.gov.bc.ca/atrisk/ toolintro.html). concern (Appendix 1), which puts them in the purview of Canada’s Species at Risk Act. Species that are put forward by COSEWIC and not denied by Federal Minister(s) pass onto Schedule 1 of the SARA. Eight of the 138 species we examined are on Schedule 1, and two species are on either Schedule 2 or 3 (Appendix 1), which serve as waiting lists for species assessed by COSEWIC prior to October 1999 and which must be reassessed before consideration for addition to Schedule 1. Nonetheless, the SARA normally applies to areas of Federal jurisdiction, which excludes almost all of terrestrial British Columbia, so over most of B.C. only those species designated as “Identified Wildlife” by the B.C. Ministry of Environment receive any special management attention. Moreover, the Identified Wildlife strategy contains a limitation on impact to timber supply (SOMIT 1997a,b). As of July 2004 only 8 of the 22 cooccurring species identified as at risk by B.C. are formally “Identified Wildlife” and are being managed by B.C. (Appendix 1). It is important to note that these regulatory patterns are evident for each of the taxonomic groupings we examined except for vascular plants, in which 2 species are Red listed and 3 species are Blue listed in B.C., none have achieved federal conservation status, and none is “Identified Wildlife”. Averaging across taxonomic groups, the proportion of species at risk differs little between the set of species cooccurring with Spotted Owls (26% ± 6.1 S.E.) and all species in these major taxonomic groupings found throughout British Columbia (33% ± 6.1); the average percentage of species at risk is not significantly different between these two groups (t=0.86, d.f.=8, P=0.42; Figure 1). RESULTS Provincial and Federal legislation is such that conservation listings under the British Columbia Ministry of Environment, the national Committee on Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC), and the national Species at Risk Act (SARA) are often inconsistent (Table 1). Typically, a species would initially be listed provincially; 22 of the 138 species co-occurring species are Red listed (Endangered or Threatened) or Blue listed (Special Concern) by the B.C. government (Appendix 1). (available at: http:// www.davidsuzuki.org/WOL/Publications.asp). Provincial listing does not necessarily lead to any conservation action, though at the discretion of cabinet the Wildlife Act may be applied to endangered species. However, at the federal level COSEWIC has assessed 11 of these 22 species and also found them to be endangered, threatened or of special From the scientific literature cited at NatureServe we were able to identify 119 specific threats for these 138 species. Timber harvesting was the most commonly stated threat, followed in frequency by a set of threats that indirectly arise from timber harvesting (road building, forest fragmentation, and herbicide application to tree plantations). Timber harvesting plus indirect effects of timber harvesting comprised 41% and 44% of all identified threats to species classified as at risk and secure, respectively. The pattern of threats to species at risk did not differ noticeably from the threats to species classified as secure (Figure 2). Moreover, the pattern of threats Table 1. Percentage of species at risk in different taxonomic groups for species that are found with Spotted Owls (n=138) and that are found throughout British Columbia (n=2892). British Columbia’s Red and Blue lists contain “critically imperiled”, “imperiled” and “vulnerable” species. COSEWIC: E = Endangered, T=Threatened, SC=Special Concern. SARA Schedule: 1=protected under law, Schedule 2 or 3 = awaiting assessment. N o. of Species Taxon B.C.1 COSEWIC2 SARA Schedules3 % Red or Blue % E or T % SC %1 % 2 or 3 Amphibians 4 50 25 50 50 0 Fish 16 17 25 25 13 0 Mammals 17 24 0 6 0 12 Birds 35 17 9 14 11 0 Vascular Plants 66 8 0 0 0 0 B I O D I V E R S I T Y 6 ( 4 ) 2 0 0 6 5 TAXON Figure 1. Conservation status of species associated with late-successional and old-growth forests within the range of the Northern Spotted Owl in British Columbia, Canada. A=Amphibians, F=Fish, M=Mammals, B=Birds, VP=Vascular Plants. varied little among taxonomic groups. Timber harvesting was the most common single threat for amphibians (50% of 6 threats), birds (38% of 40 threats), vascular plants (40% of 20 threats), and fish (14% of 35 threats), whereas human disturbance was the most common threat for mammals (28% of 18 threats). data that further timber harvesting of old-growth and latesuccessional forests will negatively affect many species at risk in this biological community, not only Spotted Owls. Current conservation planning for old-growth and latesuccessional forests of the southwestern mainland of British Columbia is focused on Spotted Owls (Chutter et al. 2003). Seven of the other 21 species at risk are listed under Schedule 1 of SARA and thus legally required to have critical habitat defined and protected. The strategy of habitat conservation being employed for recovery of Spotted Owls is to use current owl locations to define particular habitat types and specific areas for protection, as well as to prescribe particular timber harvesting techniques to conserve, enhance or create habitat for owls (Chutter et al. 2003). Notwithstanding considerable uncertainty about the efficacy of these practices for owls (Barlee et al. 2005), the results of this study demonstrate that it is also important to know whether this focal species approach and associated actions also serve the conservation needs of other species in this community and what should be done to improve conservation planning for all these species at risk. DISCUSSION Our analysis reveals that 24% of a sample of vertebrates (amphibians, birds, mammals, fish) and 8% of vascular plants in old-growth and late-successional forests of southwest British Columbia are at risk of extirpation or extinction. These species at risk are broadly distributed across the taxonomic groups and trophic levels of this community. Only 50% of these species have been assessed by COSEWIC and therefore eligible for some protection under Canada’s new Species at Rick Act, and only 36% are being managed by B.C. The causes of decline and threats to these species are varied, but timber harvesting, road building, and forest fragmentation are the most common. Our analysis showed that the proportion of these co-occurring species at risk was not significantly different from the province-wide level of species at risk. In fact, vascular plants in this community appear to be at relatively little risk compared to the rest of British Columbia. However, it is possible that formal assessments of conservation status may be biased towards particular taxonomic groups, and, as our list of co-occurring species did not derive from fieldwork in British Columbia, some species may have been erroneously omitted or included. It is almost certain that some ecologically important taxa are missing from our list. For example, although non-vascular plants were not considered (Harper and Milliken 1994), data from Washington and Oregon reveal hundreds of these species are dependent upon the forests utilized by Spotted Owls (Thomas et al. 1993). The pervasive pattern of endangerment in the taxa we have examined suggests that many of these unexamined species are also at risk, albeit undocumented. Nonetheless, resolving these questions could not alter the main conclusion from these 6 T R O P I C A L FOCAL SPECIES CONSERVATION PLANNING The theory of conservation biology suggests that focal species that serve as Indicators, Keystones, Umbrellas, or Flagships in conservation planning can indirectly benefit other species. An ideal indicator species is easy to monitor, quickly reflects changes in the physical environment, and exhibits population changes corresponding to those of unmonitored species, thereby revealing the general efficacy of conservation practices (Simberloff 1998). The northern Spotted Owl fails as an ideal indicator species for several reasons: its breeding biology, life history and demography make it slow to respond (Rosenberg et al. 2003, Forsman et al. 2003) and thereby indicate effects of environmental changes and management experiments; its recent population decline has eliminated it from many formerly occupied sites, so its distribution no longer encompasses C O N S E R V A N C Y as an umbrella species, but there are several reasons to other species at risk; and if, as seems likely, critically RO I C Ato LdirectC O N S EthisRproposition. V A N C Although Y doubt the co-occurring species imperiled populations of Spotted TOwls arePsubject in this study have been identified as denizens of old-growth interventions (e.g. food supplementation, translocations and forest, their specific habitat requirements are unlikely to habitat alterations), then natural correlations to other species exactly coincide with those of owls. For example, several will be broken. Second, management of keystone species of the threatened co-occurring species are aquatic. (that have ecological effects on numerous other species Protected reserves created to meet the habitat needs of above what would be expected from their abundance and Spotted Owls will not provide well for these species or for biomass) can link focal species and ecosystem anadromous fish that are central to the ecology of this management by maintaining a species that has overriding region (see Franklin 1994). Also, to the extent that the effects on other species and trophic levels (Davic 2003). distribution of populations across the landscape is patchy, Although Spotted Owls are large predators near the top of remaining locations of other species at risk are unlikely to their food chains they apparently do not have community wide impacts indicative of a keystone species (Forsman et Logging in the Nesikep Creek area near Lillooet, BC. In 2002 this area al. 2001, Rosenberg et al. 2003). Third, an umbrella species A, was home to one of BC’s last remaining Spotted Owls. Since logging occurred is one that has such extensive habitat requirements and the Spotted Owl has vacated this territory and has not been relocated; B, of the Lillooet logging; C, Spotted Owl biologist Andy Miller, former large area requirements that protection of its habitat will Detail member of the BC Spotted Owl Recovery Team, surveys recent logging; D, incidentally protect sufficient suitable habitat for other This huge red cedar, located in Spotted Owl habitat in the lower mainland of Columbia (B.C.), is a majestic representative of the massive cedars threatened species (Lambeck 1997, Roberge & Angelstam British that once populated the B.C. coast (Photos by Jeremy Sean Williams, 2004). The northern Spotted Owl is on occasion mentioned 2003, courtesy of WCWC). A B C D B I O D I V E R S I T Y 6 ( 4 ) 2 0 0 6 7 Figure 2. Number of instances of different threats to survival for species that co-occur with northern Spotted Owls in British Columbia, shown separately for species classified as secure and those at risk by the B.C. Government (see Methods for full names of threats) B.C. Timber Sales logging in a Spotted Owl Special Resource Management Zone in the heart of the Manning/Skagit Park complex. This recent logging took place in the immediate vicinity of A an historic Spotted Owl site, and within the home range of one of B.C.’s last remaining pairs of Spotted Owls (Photo by Joe Foy, 2004 courtesy of WCWC) correspond to remaining populations of Spotted Owls. Moreover, these species at risk represent several major taxonomic groups and empirical results from several other communities in which detailed distributional data are available for many different taxa demonstrate that protection of sites for one species or taxonomic group rarely provides adequate protection for the other taxa excluded from the site selection process (reviewed by Roberge & Angelstam 2004). We hypothesize that the same pattern of weak protection for co-occurring species will derive from habitat protection designed solely for Spotted Owls in British Columbia. To do otherwise requires that the species at risk spatially co-occur on the landscape at the scale of protected areas. A valuable research project would be to assess the sites proposed for protection of Spotted Owl habitat in B.C. to determine the occurrence of other species at risk and hence the more general value of these sites for conservation of this community. easily understood and which inspire widespread public sympathy and action (Bowen-Jones & Entwistle 2002). Our analysis reveals a group of potential flagship species from which to select a representative species for old-growth forests in British Columbia, though we believe that by its size and diversity this group also shows that expansion of the flagship concept is appropriate. The nautical roots of flagships trace back to ancient Athenian mariners who hoisted various flags as signals to other members of the fleet. Over time, as maritime tactical complexity increased so did flag signals. For example, by 1691 British Royal Navy flagships were using a combination of 11 flags displayed at 9 different points to convey at least 45 fixed messages. By analogy, in the discipline of Conservation Biology a single flagship species may not always be adequate to convey the extent of conservation needs and the scale of conservation actions required. Indications are that public understanding of the scale of conservation needs and tactical responses is also increasing (e.g. Suzuki & Dressel 2002) and it is the public at which flagships are signaling. Thus, we propose a new, larger flagship fleet for the old-growth forests of British Columbia. This flagship fleet is not only truer to the maritime roots of flagship signaling, it better conveys the community-wide pattern of conservation needs. Our proposed fleet contains a bird (Northern Spotted Owl), a frog (Coast Tailed Frog), a mammal (Fisher) and a plant (Redwood Sorrel) and has 18 other species available at present (Appendix 1). This new flagship fleet conveys the message that many species in this community are at risk and conservation actions must be directed at the full community. A FLAGSHIP FLEET A fourth role that a single focal species has served in conservation planning is as a flagship species, a compelling species whose lifestyle, and plight are B 8 T R O P I C A L C O N S E R V A N C Y operational definition of the keystone species concept. Conservation Ecology 7 (http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol7/iss1/resp11/). FEMAT (Forest Ecosystem Management Assessment Team). 1993. Forest ecosystem management: an ecological, economic , and social assessment. “http://pnwin.nbii.gov/nwfp/FEMAT”. Report of the Forest Ecosystem Management Assessment Team. U.S. Department of Argiculture, U.S. Department of the Interior. Forsman, E. D., I. A. Otto, S. C. Sovern, M. Taylor, D. W. Hays, H. Allen, S. L. Roberts, & D. E. Seaman. 2001. Spatial and temporal variation in diets of Spotted Owls in Washington. Journal of Raptor Research 35:141-150. Forsman, E. D., R. G. Anthony, J. A. Reid, P. J. Loschl, S. G. Sovern, M. Taylor, B. L. Biswell, A. Ellingson, E. C. Meslow, G. S. Miller, K. A. Swindle, J. A. Thrailkill, F. F. Wagner, & D. E. Seaman. 2002. Natal and breeding dispersal of northern Spotted Owls. Journal of Wildlife Management 66:1-35. Franklin, J. F. 1994. Response. Ecological Applications 4:208-209. Gutiérrez, R.J., A.B. Franklin, & W.S. Lahaye. 1995. Spotted Owl (Strix occidentalis). In The Birds of North America, No. 179 (A. Poole and F.Gill, eds.). The Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, and The American Ornithologists’ Union, Washington, D.C. Hamer, T. E., D. L. Hays, C. M. Senger, and E. D. Forsman. 2001. Diets of Northern Barred Owls and Northern Spotted Owls in an area of sympatry. Journal of Raptor Research 35:221-227. Harper, W.L. & R. Milliken. 1994. Other species associated with late successional forests. Appendix C. in Dunbar, B. and I. Blackburn (1994) Management options for the northern Spotted Owl in British Columbia. Report of the Canadian Spotted Owl Recovery Team. B.C. Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks. Surrey, B.C. Kelly, E.G., E.D. Forsman & R.G. Anthony. 2003. Are Barred Owls displacing Spotted Owls? Condor 105:45-53. Kerr, J. T. & J. Cihlar. 2004. Patterns and causes of species endangerment in Canada. Ecological Applications 14:743-753. Kirk, D.A. 1999. Update COSEWIC status report on the Northern Spotted Owl Strix occidentalis caurina. Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. Ottawa. 1-14 pp. Lambeck, R. J. 1997. Focal species: A multi-species umbrella for nature conservation. Conservation Biology 11:849-856. NatureServe. 2004. “ http://www.natureserve.org/explorer”. NatureServe Explorer: An online encyclopedia of life [web application]. Version 3.1. NatureServe, Arlington, Virginia. Available.. Noss, R. F. 1996. Protected areas: how much is enough? in R. G. Wright, editor. National Parks and protected areas. Blackwell, Cambridge, Mass. Noss, R. F., E. Dinerstein, B. Gilbert, M. Gilpin, B. J. Miller, J. Terborgh, and S. Trombulak. 1999. Core areas: where nature reigns. Pages 99-128 in M. E. Soule, and J. Terborgh, editors. Continental Conservation: Scientific Foundations of Regional Reserve Networks. Island Press, Washington, D.C. Peterson, A.T. & C.R. Robins. 2003. Using ecological-niche modeling to predict Barred Owl invasions with implications for Spotted Owl conservation. Conservation Biology 17:1161-1165. Roberge, J. M., & P. Angelstam. 2004. Usefulness of the umbrella species concept as a conservation tool. Conservation Biology 18:76-85. Rosenberg, D. K., K. A. Swindle, &R. G. Anthony. 2003. Influence of prey abundance on northern Spotted Owl reproductive success in western Oregon. Canadian Journal of Zoology 81:1715-1725. Schmidt, K. A. 2003. Nest predation and population declines in Illinois songbirds: a case for mesopredator effects. Conservation Biology 17:1141-1150. Simberloff, D. 1998. Flagships, umbrellas, and keystones: Is single-species management passe in the landscape era? Biological Conservation 83:247-257. SOMIT (Spotted Owl Management Inter-Agency Team) 1997a. Spotted Owl management plan. Strategic component. B.C. Ministry of Forests and Ministry of Environment Victoria, B.C. SOMIT (Spotted Owl Management Inter-Agency Team) 1997b. Managing Spotted Owl habitat: Operational Guidelines Component of the Spotted Owl Management Plan. B.C. Ministry of Forests and Ministry of Environment Victoria, B.C. Suzuki, D., and H. Dressel 2002. Good news for a change: how everyday people are helping the planet. Greystone Books, Vancouver. Thomas J., M.G. Raphael, R. Anthony, E.D. Forsman, A. Gunderson, R. Holthausen, B. Marcot, G. Reeves, J. Sedell, & D. Solis. 1993. “http:/ /pnwin.nbii.gov/nwfp/viability/”. Viability Assessments and Management Considerations for Species Associated with LateSuccessional and Old-Growth Forests of the Pacific Northwest. U.S. Department of Agriculture. Finally, a flagship fleet also suits the first of the three central tasks of conservation reserve planning (Noss 1996, Noss et al. 1999) mapping the locations of special elements for conservation. As outlined by Noss et al. (1999), Special Element Mapping involves identifying the locations of threatened species and geographical formations that require protection. For old-growth forests in the southwestern mainland of British Columbia we can point to 22 threatened species that could be mapped. The second step is to mesh these special element locations with the output from a separate mapping of habitat types that serves to proportionately protect the full variety of habitat types. Finally, the third track of conservation reserve planning focuses on the spatial arrangement of conservation areas and explicitly considers species whose movement and life history make them most dependent on large areas. The northern Spotted Owl and fisher are appropriate for this analysis. Our ultimate conclusion is that such a design process for conservation areas of old-growth forest in the southwestern mainland of B.C. can prevent the flagship fleet and its associated vessels from sinking, that is this process can prevent well-known species and their little-known and unknown co-occurring species from going extinct. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We thank our dedicated colleagues Andy Miller and Michelle Connolly for assistance with data collection, Derek Martin, Ann Rowan, Cheri Burda, Panos Grames and Gwen Barlee for discussions, and Devon Page for helping us understand legislation. Photographs appear courtesy of the Western Canada Wilderness Committee and were previously published in the report “In Defense of Canada’s Spotted Owl” (Barlee et al. 2005). NOTES Appendix 1 is available at: http://www.davidsuzuki.org/ WOL/Publications.asp Spotted Owls in Washington. Journal of Raptor Research 35:141-150. REFERENCES Barlee, G., D. Page, & A. Miller. 2005. In Defense of Canada’s Spotted Owl. 2005. Western Canada Wilderness Committee and Sierra Legal Defense Fund. Vancouver, B.C. “http://www.wildernesscommittee.org”. Blackburn, I.R. & S. Goodwin. 2003. Status of the northern Spotted Owl in British Columbia. Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection. Surrey, B.C. Bowen-Jones, E., & A. Entwistle. 2002. Identifying appropriate flagship species: the importance of culture and local contexts. Oryx 36:189195. Chutter, M., I. Blackburn, D. Bonin, J. Buchanan, B. Costanza, D. Cunnington, A. Harestad, T. Hayes, D. Heppner, L. Kiss, J. Surgenor, W. Wall, L. Waterhouse, & L. Williams. 2003. National recovery strategy for the Northern Spotted Owl. Report. Recovery of Nationally Endangered Wildlife Committee, Ottawa, ON. COSEWIC 2000. COSEWIC assessment and update status report on the Northern Spotted Owl Strix occidentalis caurina in Canada. Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. Ottawa. vii + 14 pp Crooks, K. R., & M. E. Soulé. 1999. Mesopredator release and avifaunal extinctions in a fragmented system. Nature 400:563-566. Davic R. D. 2003. Linking keystone species and functional groups: A new B I O D I V E R S I Received: 20 September 2005; Accepted: 5 January 2006 T Y 6 ( 4 ) 2 0 0 6 9