Download chapter 20 - european state building and worldwide conflict

CHAPTER 20 - EUROPEAN STATE BUILDING AND WORLDWIDE CONFLICT
CHAPTER SUMMARY
The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries witnessed monumental, but very different developments
in England and France. In England, a limited monarchy, Parliamentary government and measured
religious toleration prevailed; in France, absolute monarchy and closed Catholicism. The chapter also
focuses on Russia's entry into the European political arena under Peter the Great, developments in central
and eastern Europe, and the rivalries between the Habsburgs in Austria and the Hohenzollerns in Prussia.
James I set the tone of English politics in his troubled reign (1603-1625). Beset by a large royal
debt, a fiercely divided church and a Parliament restive over his predecessor's claims to royal authority,
James worsened his own situation by lack of tact and strong advocacy of the divine right of kings. The
scandalous corruption of his court and an unpopular pro-Spanish foreign policy further alienated James'
subjects.
His son, Charles I (1625-1649) fought even more openly with Parliament and the Puritans. He
made war on Spain and financed it with extra-Parliamentary taxes and forced loans. Continued conflict
with Parliament led to its dismissal and for eleven years, Charles tried to rule as an absolute monarch,
exploiting neglected laws and extending existing taxes to raise money. In the 1640s, however, an
invasion from Scotland forced Charles to recall Parliament and the resulting quarrels over taxation and
conflict with the Puritan opposition, led to civil war.
Two factors led to Parliament's final victory: alliance with Scotland and the reorganization of the
Parliamentary army under Oliver Cromwell. In 1649, Charles I was executed. For the next eleven years,
England was officially a Puritan republic under Cromwell's leadership. In reality, it was a military
dictatorship, made unpopular by its harsh rule, expensive foreign policy, inattention to trade and
commerce and stern regulation of moral life. In 1660, after Cromwell's death, Charles' son was restored
as King Charles II (1660-1685). Politically and religiously, he returned England to the status quo of
1642.
Charles favored religious toleration, but the strict Anglican Parliament excluded Catholics and
Puritans from English religious and political life.
Charles launched a bold new foreign policy,
challenging the Dutch for the commercial leadership of Europe.
Charles was succeeded in 1685 by his brother James II (1685-1688), who quickly became
unpopular because of his open Catholicism and absolute rule.
In 1688, Parliament invited James'
Protestant daughter, Mary, and her husband, William of Orange, leader of the Netherlands, to take over
the government.
James fled and the coup, known as the Glorious Revolution, succeeded without
bloodshed. The new rulers cooperated with Parliament and recognized a Bill of Rights which limited the
monarchy's powers and guaranteed the civil liberties of the English privileged classes. It also banned
Roman Catholics from the English throne. Unlike future movements, the Glorious Revolution was not a
popular revolution, but provided a model for them.
France set out on the opposite path. Louis XIV (1643-1715) was determined to be a strong and
absolute ruler. The palace of Versailles proclaimed the glory of the "Sun King." Aristocrats were barred
from high government positions: Louis reserved these for hand-picked townsmen who thus owed their
success to him which in turn assured their loyalty. Louis believed that political unity required religious
conformity and persecuted France's Protestant minority by revoking the Edict of Nantes in 1685.
The chapter continues to chronicle Louis' wars, especially against Spain. The alliance between
England, the Netherlands and the Holy Roman Empire kept Louis from winning the European empire he
sought. At Louis' death in 1715, England was Europe's great rising power.
Britain had won the War of the Spanish Succession, but it needed a period of recovery after 1713.
With Robert Walpole as his chief minister, George I consolidated the power of the new Hanoverian
monarchy. Walpole pursued a policy of peace abroad and the status quo at home. In pursuit of stability,
Walpole was greatly aided by Britain's political system. In theory, Parliament had two political parties,
the Tories and the Whigs. In reality, there were no major differences between the two-both were
dominated by wealthy nobles and property owners. Similar interests fostered governmental unity.
The chapter then examines the states of central and eastern Europe (Sweden, the Ottoman
Empire, and Poland) and their reasons for failing to compete with the strength of the western European
monarchies. Factors included overextension of resources, domestic disunity and poor leadership.
Austria, under the Habsburg dynasty was more successful. The Habsburgs possessed a great
amount of territory which was separated by long distances and controlled to a great extent by the local
nobility. Consequently, in order to control their lands, Leopold I (1657-1705) and Charles VI (1711-1740)
had to make great concessions to this nobility. By an agreement known as the Pragmatic Sanction,
Charles got the nobles of his realm and the kings of Europe to recognize his daughter, Maria Theresa
(1740-1780) as his heir.
Another German dynasty, the Hohenzollerns of Prussia, succeeded where the Habsburgs failed.
They turned a collection of separate feudal domains into a strong, central monarchy.
The main
instrument of their success was the Prussian army, to which they subordinated every social class and most
economic pursuits.
The most important personalities in this transformation include Frederick I
(1688-1713) and Frederick William I (1713-1740).
The most consequential power shift in the east, however, was the rise of Russia as a great power.
Tsar Peter the Great (1682-1725), an admirer of the West, organized a four-fold drive to westernize
Russia. In large measure, he succeeded in breaking the power of the nobles (boyars) and the Moscow
guard (streltsi) who had long disrupted the country. He also took control of the church, reorganized
Russia's internal administration and promoted economic development (most successfully, the iron
industry). These measures aimed at preparing Russia for war and in 1721 Russia obtained large territories
on the Baltic from Sweden. On the Gulf of Finland, Peter built his new capital city of St. Petersburg, with
construction on even a vaster scale than Versailles.
This chapter then discusses the European rivalries of the middle eighteenth century. The conflict
involved two separate but interrelated struggles. Austria and Prussia fought for dominance in central
Europe, while Great Britain and France dueled for supremacy in commerce and empire. Their large and
expensive wars led to a new balance of power in which Britain gained a world empire and Prussia was
recognized as a great power. Because of the costliness of these wars, the major European governments
reorganized their financial and taxation systems after the Peace of Paris in 1763. This trend, in turn, led
to its own significant results: the American Revolution, enlightened absolutism on the Continent, and
financial crisis for France's kings.
Men with economic interests in the West Indies formed significant pressure groups in each of the
three powerful European colonial nations. In England, the "West Indian Interest" was able in 1739 to
drive the country into war with Spain (War of Jenkins' Ear). By aiding Spain, France's leader, Fleury,
hoped to capture Britain's existing commercial advantages in the Spanish empire for his own country.
However, the aggressive actions of the Prussian king, Frederick II, upset his policy. The chapter goes on
to detail the mid-century conflicts of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) and the Seven Years' War
(1756-1763).
KEY POINTS AND VITAL CONCEPTS
1.
Developmental Differences Between England and France: The chapter emphasizes the very
different pathways taken by these two countries in the 17th century. England was essentially a
monarchy theoretically limited by Parliament. When monarchs (or protectors) initiated absolute
or despotic rule (Charles I, Oliver Cromwell, James II) the tendency was always to return to
Parliamentary government. In France, the movement toward absolutism began under Henry IV
and continued through Louis XIII. The chaotic rule of the Fronde seemed to galvanize absolutist
government.
2.
Oliver Cromwell: Cromwell and his motives have intrigued historians over the years. Some
have viewed him as an intolerant, self-righteous leader who had no more regard for the traditions
and laws of England than did Charles I - and certainly as little regard for Parliament. Others have
viewed him as the "Lord Protector" who governed for Right and steered England through a
difficult period in her
history.
The decision to restore the monarchy under Charles II is
compelling proof, however, of the unpopularity of Puritan rule.
3.
The Revocation of the Edict of Nantes: This important edict promulgated by Henry IV in 1598,
granted freedom of worship, right of assembly, etc., to Huguenots under an official policy of
Catholicism. In pursuit of political unity, Louis demanded religious conformity: Protestantism
would no longer be tolerated. Still, the revocation of this act was a blunder since it created
Protestant guerrillas at home, sent a quarter million Frenchmen into emigration and galvanized
foreign opposition to Louis.
4.
Political Centralization: During this period, those states which were able to establish or maintain
a strong monarchy, standing army, efficient tax structure, large bureaucracy and a more or less
domesticated, divided or loyal nobility were able to emerge as major powers until World War I.
Spain, the United Netherlands, Poland, Sweden and the Ottoman Empire declined while Britain,
France, Austria, Prussia and Russia grew more powerful.
5.
The Supremacy of the English Parliament: One of the major reasons for the strong position of
England from 1686-1740 must lie in the Parliament. Parliament was dominated by landowners
and nobles of similar interests. The House of Commons was neither a representative nor a
democratic body. The nobility, suspicious of the royal bureaucracy, took the initiative of serving
as administrators, judges and militia commanders. Consequently, the supremacy of Parliament
provided Britain with the kind of unity sought elsewhere through absolutism.
6.
Future Considerations: This period bequeathed two long term conflicts to the future: Britain and
France competed for trade and overseas empire; Austria and Prussia fought for the leadership of
Germany.
7.
Eighteenth Century European States in World Perspective: The European states of the eighteenth
century displayed certain problems that also characterized the governments of China and Japan
during the same time.
Like Japan, the problem of a balance between centralization and
decentralization arose in all European states as did the process of legal codification and the
growth of bureaucracy. However, none achieved so brilliant a group of trained civil servants as
those who administered China. European states, however, took the lead in establishing far flung
commercial empires.
Consequently, European states made their power and influence felt
throughout the world; this opened the way for a temporary European domination of the world
until the mid-twentieth century.
SUGGESTED FILMS
The Age of Absolute Monarchy in Europe. Coronet. 14 min.
English History: Absolutism and Civil War. Coronet. 11 min.
Unquiet Land. United Films. 28 min.
Puritan Revolution: Cromwell and the Rise of Parliamentary Democracy. Learning Corporation of
America. 33 min.
Colonial America: The Roots of Revolution. Benchmark Films. 19 min.
The Colonial Economy. Contemporary Films. 25 min.
Samuel de Champlain. National Film Board of Canada. 16 min.
Wolfe and Montcalm. National Film Board of Canada. 30 min.
Civilization VIII: The Light of Experience. Time-Life. 52 min.
The Sun King. National Education TV. 30 min.
Rembrandt Van Rijn: Self Portrait. Lutheran Church in America. 27 min.