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Contents Part 1 Primitive Society 1 Part 2 The Xia, Shang and Western Zhou Dynasties 9 Part 3 The Spring and Autumn and the Warring States Periods 29 Part 4 The Qin Dynasty 55 Part 5 The Han Dynasty 67 Part 6 The Three Kingdoms Period 85 Part 7 The Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties 97 Part 8 The Sui Dynasty 108 Part 9 The Tang Dynasty 112 Part 10 The Song Dynasty 127 Part 11 The Yuan Dynasty 141 Part 12 The Ming Dynasty 149 Part 13 165 The Qing Dynasty Appendices Glossary 184 Guide to Reading Questions & Answers Additional information History at a glance Key events of each period Illustrations Comics Easy reading Quotations Memorable quotes by historical figures Primitive Society 1 01-Prehistory (1-8) rev.pmd 1 24/09/2013, 10:21 AM A Map of Sites of Primitive Society A large number of human traces in remote antiquity have been discovered in the reaches of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River. The map below shows the traces found, and the manner of livelihood led by early Chinese people. Yangshao Culture (5000-4300 BC): A large number of pottery articles were made, also known as “Painted Pottery Culture.” Lantian Man (circa 700,000 years ago): The stone implements he made were rough and large, but showed signs of being used for different purposes. Peking Man (circa 500,000700,000 years ago): He gathered fruits and nuts, engaged in hunting, and used and controlled natural fire. Yellow River Yangtze River Yuanmou Man (circa 1.7 million years from now): He was able to make stone implements and use natural fire. Hemudu Culture: (5000-3300 BC): Rice was planted and wooden houses built. Upper Cave Man (Shandingdong Man, about 18,000 years ago): He was able to make finer stone implements and decorations, and weave animalskin garments. Longshan Culture (circa 2500 BC): A kind of glossy black pottery was discovered. It was also called the “Black Pottery” Culture. Liangzhu Culture (5300-4300 BC): The people achieved a lot in farming, weaving and spinning, jademaking and potterymaking. 2 01-Prehistory (1-8) rev.pmd 2 24/09/2013, 10:21 AM Life in the Paleolithic Age The Paleolithic Age was from one million years ago to around 25,000 years ago. Let us look at how the Peking Man and the Upper Cave Man lived as they represent two different periods in evolution. Peking Man The Peking Man lived in the Longgu Hill at Zhoukoudian in Beijing some 500,000 years ago and belonged to the period of Homo Erectus. Their head retained some features of the ape, such as flat nose, protruded mouth, heavy brow bone, while their feet and hands were close to modern human beings. They still could not build houses and lived in natural caves. They could not make clothes either. They gathered fruits and nuts and hunted animals for food. Peking Man made stone tools through chipping. At the site of the Peking Man, over 100,000 pieces of stone worked by man were discovered. Flat stone tools with sharp edges were used for cutting trees and fashioning wooden hunting clubs. Men in this period had already learnt how to use fire. They brought fire into their caves to preserve it. Whenever they wanted to use it, they would put in branches and animal bones to make them catch fire. Three-edged sharp tools were used for digging plant roots and cutting animal skins. The use of fire enabled mankind to bring the natural forces under control for the first time. Fire was useful in the following ways: Cooking food — eating raw animal flesh caused men to become ill easily. Cooked food could improve human health and increase men’s expected lifespan; Dispelling cold — fire could keep men warm in cold time and reduce mortality; Lighting — men could still move around in the dark; Keeping beasts away — fire was another “effective weapon” against fierce animals. 3 01-Prehistory (1-8) rev.pmd 3 24/09/2013, 10:21 AM Upper Cave Man The Upper Cave Man lived in the Upper Cave of Longgu Hill in Beijing some 18,000 years ago, belonging to the late period of homo sapiens. Their physical make-up was hardly different from that of modern man. They were able to make animal skin clothing with bone needles; they also started to appreciate beauty by wearing ornaments made from animal teeth, bones and clam shells and pebbles. The use of bone needles and ornaments showed that the Upper Cave Man had already mastered grinding and drilling techniques. (The bone needle became shiny and round through cutting and scraping; the needle eye was drilled with sharp objects.) Men in this period had already learnt how to make fire through artificial means (drilling wood). From then on mankind was able to use fire freely. Apart from fruit gathering and hunting, the Upper Cave Man was also good at fishing and his food supply became much richer. He also started to venture out and his scope of daily activities expanded gradually. 4 01-Prehistory (1-8) rev.pmd 4 24/09/2013, 10:21 AM Life in the Neolithic Age The Neolithic Age extends from around 6000 BC to 2000 BC. The means of production available to men became much more diversified. The living standard also improved notably. Roughly in this period there appeared two distinct cultures in the valleys of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River. Banpo Culture (Yangshao Culture) Located in Banpo Village to the east of Xi’an City of Shaanxi Province, the Banpo Culture was the epitome of the Neolithic Period in the Yellow River valley. A large number of painted pottery articles were unearthed at its site. The primitive men used pottery articles to contain water, cook food and store things. Pottery articles included basins, pots and bottles. On their surface were painted geometric designs, human faces, fish and deer in black or brown. Residents of Banpo raised pigs, dogs, oxen, sheep and poultry. They also grew millet. They lived in subterranean houses. The pottery spindle whorls unearthed at the site revealed that primitive weaving and sewing was already in existence. People then wove flax and wore clothes made of flax or animal skins. 5 01-Prehistory (1-8) rev.pmd 5 24/09/2013, 10:21 AM Hemudu Culture Hemudu Culture was located at Hemudu Village of Yuyao in Zhejiang Province. Abundant traces of rice cultivation have been found. This is the earliest human grown rice so far discovered around the world. Bone plough was a representative farming tool of the Hemudu Culture. The plough was made of animal’s blade bone. Over 1,800 bone arrowheads were found at the site, indicating that hunting remained the major production activity then. Wooden structures at the Hemudu site. Differences in life between the Paleolithic Age and the Neolithic Age at a glance Paleolithic Age Fishing, hunting, gathering fruits and nuts Making tools through chipping stone and grinding Living in natural caves Inventing the way of making fire through drilling Neolithic Age Starting to engage in farming, growing millet and rice, and raising livestock Knowing how to make sharp tools and aesthetic painted pottery articles Knowing how to build houses and living in subterranean residences (Yangshao Culture) or raised wooden structures (Hemudu Culture) 6 01-Prehistory (1-8) rev.pmd 6 24/09/2013, 10:22 AM The Three August Ones and Five Model Rulers The legendary “Three August Ones and Five Model Rulers” had played significant roles in promoting the development of Chinese culture. They also represented different periods of prehistorical human society. The Three August Ones Suiren taught men to get fire through drilling wood, bringing light and warmth. Men therefore started to eat cooked food. He represents the invention of fire. Fuxi taught people how to weave fishing nets, and how to fish and hunt. He represents the period of fishing and hunting. Shennong, also known as Yandi, invented farming tools and taught men how to grow grains. He also distinguished herbs and made pottery articles. He thus represents the period of agricultural cultivation. The Five Model Rulers They were five rulers who built states in China for the first time. Huangdi or the Yellow Emperor In the distant past, there were many tribes in the reaches of the Yellow River and inter-tribal conflicts occurred from time to time. Huangdi conquered all other tribes except one headed by Chiyou in the east which refused to bow to him. Therefore a full-scale battle broke out in Zhuolu (today’s Xie County of Shanxi Province) between the troops led by Huangdi and those commanded by Chiyou. The latter was defeated and Huangdi became the widely respected leader in the Central Plains (the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River). After becoming the ruler of China, Huangdi invented many things such as carts, boats, houses and the calendar. His wife, Leizu, reared silkworms and made clothes with silk. His subordinate Cangjie invented Chinese characters. Under his rule the people’s living standards improved significantly. 7 01-Prehistory (1-8) rev.pmd 7 24/09/2013, 10:22 AM Zhuanxu, the grandson of Huangdi, was good at utilizing talents and maintaining social order. Diku, the great grandson of Huangdi, won popular trust with his benevolent administration. Yao, reportedly the son of Diku, abdicated his throne to Shun instead of his son Danzhu, initiating the system of determining successors by talent and virtue. Shun, successor of Yao, was known for his filial piety and sagacity. A Diagram of Human Evolution Ancient Ape-man—Homo Habilis—Homo Erectus—Early Homo Sapiens—Late Homo Sapiens 8 01-Prehistory (1-8) rev.pmd 8 24/09/2013, 10:22 AM Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties The Xia Dynasty (2070-1600 BC) The Shang Dynasty (1600-1066 BC) Western Zhou Dynasty (1046-771 BC) 2070 BC 1600 BC 1300 BC 1046 BC 1042 BC 1035 BC 965-961 BC 841 BC 771 BC Yu inherited the throne from Shun; following Yu’s death, his son Qi acceded to the throne, starting the hereditary system and founding China’s first dynasty — the Xia dynasty. Tang launched a punitive campaign against King Jie of Xia and the Xia dynasty gave way to the Shang dynasty. King Pan Geng relocated the capital of Shang to Yin. The Battle of Muye broke out in which King Wu overthrew the Shang regime and ushered in the Western Zhou dynasty. King Cheng inherited the throne with Duke of Zhou acting as his regent; rebellion of Duke of Zhou’s three brothers. Duke of Zhou returned the state power to King Cheng and passed away in the same year. King Mu of Zhou went on a westward journey. King Li of Zhou provoked a widespread rebellion with his tyrannical rule; Duke Zhouding and Duke Zhaomu joined hands in ruling the state, known as “joint administration through peace and harmony”. Marquis Shen united with Quanrong for an attack on the capital of Haojing. King You of Zhou was killed, spelling the end of Western Zhou. 9 02-XiaShangZhou (9-28) rev.pmd 9 24/09/2013, 10:27 AM The Xia Dynasty Shun put Yu in charge of water-control projects. Thanks to Yu’s good performance, Shun abdicated his throne to him. After Yu came to the throne, he divided the country into nine administrative regions and cast nine bronze cauldrons (ding) to represent “the land under the heaven.” Later, the term “nine regions” was used to signify China. Following Yu’s death, his son Qi came to the throne, initiating the hereditary system. Qi established the first dynastic regime in Chinese history — the Xia dynasty. Yu’s successor should have been Boyi, a man who had scored notable achievements by helping Yu tame the river and inventing well-digging techniques. Fall of the Xia Dynasty Four hundred years later, Jie ascended the throne. He turned out to be the first notorious despot in Chinese history. He was a ruler detested by the people. At that time, to the east of the Xia regime there was a kingdom called Shang which grew stronger day by day. Shang had a kind sovereign named Tang. He raised his army for a punitive attack on Jie and overthrew the Xia dynasty. Since this military expedition led by Tang conformed to the mandate of Heaven and the people, it was called “the Revolution by Tang of Shang.” So Tang became China’s first political revolutionary. Cauldrons Cauldrons were used for cooking food in the olden days. Later, they evolved into a symbol of royal power. Today we have the following phrases related to this cooking vessel: Wen ding (asking about the cauldron’s size and weight) means an attempt to seize state power. Yi yan jiu ding (one word with the weight of nine cauldrons) means a solemn promise. 10 02-XiaShangZhou (9-28) rev.pmd 10 24/09/2013, 10:27 AM Erlitou Culture The lack of historical records about the Xia dynasty had led some scholars to question its existence. This controversy lasted until the discovery by archaeologists of the dynasty’s site in Erlitou Village, Yanshi County of Henan Province. As the site indicates, the Xia dynasty had already built fortresses and large palaces. Farming tools including stone sickles, stone hatchets, bronze and pottery articles were also unearthed there. 11 02-XiaShangZhou (9-28) rev.pmd 11 24/09/2013, 10:27 AM