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Contents
Part 1
Primitive Society
1
Part 2
The Xia, Shang and Western Zhou Dynasties
9
Part 3
The Spring and Autumn and the Warring States Periods
29
Part 4
The Qin Dynasty
55
Part 5
The Han Dynasty
67
Part 6
The Three Kingdoms Period
85
Part 7
The Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties
97
Part 8
The Sui Dynasty
108
Part 9
The Tang Dynasty
112
Part 10 The Song Dynasty
127
Part 11 The Yuan Dynasty
141
Part 12 The Ming Dynasty
149
Part 13
165
The Qing Dynasty
Appendices
Glossary
184
Guide to Reading
Questions & Answers
Additional information
History at a glance
Key events of each period
Illustrations
Comics
Easy reading
Quotations
Memorable quotes
by historical figures
Primitive Society
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A Map of Sites of Primitive Society
A large number of human traces in remote antiquity have been discovered in the
reaches of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River. The map below shows the
traces found, and the manner of livelihood led by early Chinese people.
Yangshao Culture
(5000-4300 BC): A
large number of pottery
articles were made, also
known as “Painted
Pottery Culture.”
Lantian Man (circa
700,000 years ago):
The stone implements
he made were rough
and large, but showed
signs of being used
for different purposes.
Peking Man
(circa 500,000700,000 years ago): He
gathered fruits and nuts,
engaged in hunting, and
used and controlled
natural fire.
Yellow
River
Yangtze River
Yuanmou Man
(circa 1.7 million years
from now): He was able
to make stone
implements and use
natural fire.
Hemudu Culture:
(5000-3300 BC): Rice
was planted and wooden
houses built.
Upper Cave Man
(Shandingdong
Man, about 18,000
years ago): He was
able to make finer
stone implements
and decorations,
and weave animalskin garments.
Longshan
Culture (circa
2500 BC): A kind
of glossy black
pottery was
discovered. It was
also called the
“Black Pottery”
Culture.
Liangzhu Culture
(5300-4300 BC):
The people
achieved a lot in
farming, weaving
and spinning, jademaking and potterymaking.
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Life in the Paleolithic Age
The Paleolithic Age was from one million years ago to around 25,000 years ago. Let
us look at how the Peking Man and the Upper Cave Man lived as they represent two
different periods in evolution.
Peking Man
The Peking Man lived in the Longgu Hill at
Zhoukoudian in Beijing some 500,000 years ago and
belonged to the period of Homo Erectus. Their head
retained some features of the ape, such as flat nose,
protruded mouth, heavy brow bone, while their feet
and hands were close to modern human beings. They
still could not build houses and lived in natural caves.
They could not make clothes either. They gathered
fruits and nuts and hunted animals for food. Peking
Man made stone tools through chipping. At the site of
the Peking Man, over 100,000 pieces of stone worked
by man were discovered.
Flat stone tools
with sharp edges
were used for
cutting trees
and fashioning
wooden hunting
clubs.
Men in this period had already learnt
how to use fire. They brought fire into
their caves to preserve it. Whenever they
wanted to use it, they would put in
branches and animal bones to make
them catch fire.
Three-edged
sharp tools
were used for
digging plant roots
and cutting animal
skins.
The use of fire enabled mankind to bring the natural forces under control for the
first time. Fire was useful in the following ways:
Cooking food — eating raw animal flesh caused men to become ill easily. Cooked
food could improve human health and increase men’s expected lifespan;
Dispelling cold — fire could keep men warm in cold time and reduce mortality;
Lighting — men could still move around in the dark;
Keeping beasts away — fire was another “effective weapon” against fierce animals.
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Upper Cave Man
The Upper Cave Man lived in the Upper Cave of Longgu Hill in Beijing some
18,000 years ago, belonging to the late period of homo sapiens. Their physical
make-up was hardly different from that of modern man.
They were able to make animal skin clothing with bone needles; they also started
to appreciate beauty by wearing ornaments made from animal teeth, bones and
clam shells and pebbles.
The use of bone needles and
ornaments showed that the Upper Cave
Man had already mastered grinding
and drilling techniques. (The bone
needle became shiny and round through
cutting and scraping; the needle eye was
drilled with sharp objects.)
Men in this period had already learnt how
to make fire through artificial means
(drilling wood). From then on mankind
was able to use fire freely.
Apart from fruit gathering and hunting,
the Upper Cave Man was also good at
fishing and his food supply became
much richer. He also started
to venture out and his scope of
daily activities expanded
gradually.
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Life in the Neolithic Age
The Neolithic Age extends from around 6000 BC to 2000 BC. The means of production
available to men became much more diversified. The living standard also improved
notably. Roughly in this period there appeared two distinct cultures in the valleys of
the Yellow River and the Yangtze River.
Banpo Culture
(Yangshao Culture)
Located in Banpo Village to the
east of Xi’an City of Shaanxi
Province, the Banpo Culture was
the epitome of the Neolithic
Period in the Yellow River valley.
A large number of painted
pottery articles were unearthed
at its site. The primitive men
used pottery articles to contain
water, cook food and store
things. Pottery articles included
basins, pots and bottles. On their
surface were painted geometric
designs, human faces, fish and
deer in black or brown.
Residents of Banpo raised pigs, dogs, oxen,
sheep and poultry. They also grew millet. They
lived in subterranean houses.
The pottery spindle whorls
unearthed at the site revealed that
primitive weaving and sewing was
already in existence. People then
wove flax and wore clothes made
of flax or animal skins.
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Hemudu Culture
Hemudu Culture was located at Hemudu Village of Yuyao in Zhejiang Province.
Abundant traces of rice cultivation have been found. This is the earliest human
grown rice so far discovered around the world.
Bone plough was a representative farming tool of the Hemudu Culture. The plough
was made of animal’s blade bone.
Over 1,800 bone arrowheads were found at the
site, indicating that hunting remained the major
production activity then.
Wooden structures
at the Hemudu site.
Differences in life between the Paleolithic Age and the Neolithic Age at a glance
Paleolithic Age
Fishing, hunting, gathering fruits and nuts
Making tools through chipping stone and
grinding
Living in natural caves
Inventing the way of making fire through
drilling
Neolithic Age
Starting to engage in farming, growing
millet and rice, and raising livestock
Knowing how to make sharp tools and
aesthetic painted pottery articles
Knowing how to build houses and living
in subterranean residences (Yangshao
Culture) or raised wooden structures
(Hemudu Culture)
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The Three August Ones and Five Model Rulers
The legendary “Three August Ones and Five Model Rulers” had played significant
roles in promoting the development of Chinese culture. They also represented
different periods of prehistorical human society.
The Three August Ones
Suiren taught men to get
fire through drilling wood,
bringing light and warmth.
Men therefore started to
eat cooked food.
He represents the
invention of fire.
Fuxi taught people how to
weave fishing nets, and how
to fish and hunt.
He represents the period
of fishing and hunting.
Shennong, also known as
Yandi, invented farming tools
and taught men how to grow
grains. He also distinguished
herbs and made pottery
articles.
He thus represents the
period of agricultural
cultivation.
The Five Model Rulers
They were five rulers who built states in China for the first time.
Huangdi or the Yellow Emperor
In the distant past, there were many tribes in the reaches of the Yellow River and inter-tribal
conflicts occurred from time to time. Huangdi conquered all other tribes except one headed by
Chiyou in the east which refused to bow to him. Therefore a full-scale battle broke out in
Zhuolu (today’s Xie County of Shanxi Province) between the troops
led by Huangdi and those commanded by Chiyou. The latter was
defeated and Huangdi became the widely respected leader in the
Central Plains (the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River).
After becoming the ruler of China, Huangdi invented many things
such as carts, boats, houses and the calendar. His wife, Leizu, reared
silkworms and made clothes with silk. His subordinate Cangjie
invented Chinese characters. Under his rule the people’s living
standards improved significantly.
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Zhuanxu, the
grandson of
Huangdi, was
good at utilizing
talents and
maintaining social
order.
Diku, the great
grandson of
Huangdi, won
popular trust with
his benevolent
administration.
Yao, reportedly the
son of Diku,
abdicated his
throne to Shun
instead of his son
Danzhu, initiating
the system of
determining
successors by
talent and virtue.
Shun, successor
of Yao, was known
for his filial piety
and sagacity.
A Diagram of Human Evolution
Ancient Ape-man—Homo Habilis—Homo Erectus—Early Homo Sapiens—Late
Homo Sapiens
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Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties
The Xia Dynasty (2070-1600 BC)
The Shang Dynasty (1600-1066 BC)
Western Zhou Dynasty (1046-771 BC)
2070 BC
1600 BC
1300 BC
1046 BC
1042 BC
1035 BC
965-961 BC
841 BC
771 BC
Yu inherited the throne from Shun; following Yu’s death, his son Qi
acceded to the throne, starting the hereditary system and founding
China’s first dynasty — the Xia dynasty.
Tang launched a punitive campaign against King Jie of Xia and
the Xia dynasty gave way to the Shang dynasty.
King Pan Geng relocated the capital of Shang to Yin.
The Battle of Muye broke out in which King Wu overthrew the
Shang regime and ushered in the Western Zhou dynasty.
King Cheng inherited the throne with Duke of Zhou acting as his
regent; rebellion of Duke of Zhou’s three brothers.
Duke of Zhou returned the state power to King Cheng and passed
away in the same year.
King Mu of Zhou went on a westward journey.
King Li of Zhou provoked a widespread rebellion with his
tyrannical rule; Duke Zhouding and Duke Zhaomu joined hands in
ruling the state, known as “joint administration through peace
and harmony”.
Marquis Shen united with Quanrong for an attack on the capital of
Haojing. King You of Zhou was killed, spelling the end of
Western Zhou.
9
02-XiaShangZhou (9-28) rev.pmd
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24/09/2013, 10:27 AM
The Xia Dynasty
Shun put Yu in charge of water-control projects. Thanks to Yu’s good performance,
Shun abdicated his throne to him. After Yu came to the throne, he divided
the country into nine administrative regions and cast nine bronze
cauldrons (ding) to represent “the land under the heaven.” Later,
the term “nine regions” was used to signify
China. Following Yu’s death, his son Qi
came to the throne, initiating the hereditary
system. Qi established the first dynastic
regime in Chinese history — the Xia
dynasty.
Yu’s successor should have been Boyi, a man who had
scored notable achievements by helping Yu tame the river
and inventing well-digging techniques.
Fall of the Xia Dynasty
Four hundred years later, Jie ascended the throne. He turned
out to be the first notorious despot in Chinese history. He
was a ruler detested by the people. At that time, to the east of
the Xia regime there was a kingdom called Shang which grew
stronger day by day. Shang had a kind sovereign named Tang.
He raised his army for a punitive attack on Jie and overthrew
the Xia dynasty. Since this military expedition led by Tang
conformed to the mandate of Heaven and the people, it was
called “the Revolution by Tang of Shang.” So Tang became
China’s first political revolutionary.
Cauldrons
Cauldrons were used for cooking food in the olden days. Later, they evolved into a
symbol of royal power.
Today we have the following phrases related to this cooking vessel:
Wen ding (asking about the cauldron’s size and weight) means an attempt to seize
state power.
Yi yan jiu ding (one word with the weight of nine cauldrons) means a solemn promise.
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Erlitou Culture
The lack of historical records about the Xia dynasty had led some scholars to
question its existence. This controversy lasted until the discovery by
archaeologists of the dynasty’s site in Erlitou Village, Yanshi County of Henan
Province. As the site indicates, the Xia dynasty had already built fortresses and
large palaces. Farming tools including stone sickles, stone hatchets, bronze
and pottery articles were also unearthed there.
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