Download Theory and Methods: Is Sociology a Science?

Review: Can Sociology be Value-Free?
POSITIVISM
Weber
* Sociology should be totally
value-free.
* Sociology should be value
relevant, but cannot be value-free.
* Sociology should study
observable stuff: social facts, that
can be recorded as quantitative
data so correlations can be
identified between variables.
* Sociologists will use their
subjective feelings to identify a
research topic & the concepts they
feel are relevant.
* But sociologists can be objective
in how they carry out their
research, once they’ve
identified concepts.
Values in the research process:
Choosing
which topic
to research.
Interpreting
findings.
Selecting
which
findings to
include in
the report.
Getting
funding.
Choosing a
research
method.
Operationalising
key concepts.
Recording
responses.
Selecting
appropriate
questions.
Deciding
what report
will be used
for.
Deciding
where report
will be
published.
All these values and considerations make it very
hard for Sociologists to remain objective.
Civitas are
funding
my
research.
They’re
conservative.
My research
will have to
agree with
them.
So, I’ll have to
focus on how
absent dads
create deviant
sons.
Don’t bite
the hand that
feeds you…
Interpretivists argue Sociology can’t be valuefree because Sociologists are human beings
studying other human beings.
What did you look at
me like that for, you
silly sausage.
They understand the social world through
exploring the meanings and motivations of
others, using their own experience & verstehen.
Different researchers
interpret every scenario
differently.
Briefly, churn out a
sentence about what
this fella’s doing here.
Would you go on
holiday with him?
This is HOWARD BECKER.
He says it’s impossible to study anything
without using your personal and political beliefs
to understand and judge it.
So, researchers do need to state clearly which
side they’re on, but it’s a big dilemma.
We can never avoid taking sides because you
have to understand what life is like from the
perspective of the actor involved.
Some Sociological theories are clearly allied to a
particular political leaning.
For instance, Marxism is a conflict theory
which sees capitalism as problematic for
human happiness and fairness.
Marxism is therefore left wing.
Feminism also, is a conflict theory which
sees patriarchy as problematic for women’s
happiness and fairness.
Feminism also, is therefore left wing.
Postmodernists
There is no
longer a
unifying
truth that we
all believe…
Sociology
can’t be
value-free.
There are
just a
number of
‘truths’ or
theories for
us to pick
from.
Sociology
can’t be
objective.
Review: Relationship between
Sociology and Social Policy?
Theory and Methods:
Is Sociology a
Science?
Essay Questions (33 Marks)
1.
Sociology can be like the natural sciences. To
what extent do sociological arguments and
evidence.
2. . “Sociology cannot and should not be a
science.” To what extent do sociological
arguments and evidence support this view?
3.
Assess the arguments for and against the
view that sociology is not and will never be a
scientific discipline.support this view?
Is
Sociology
a
Science?
Starter: Is Sociology a Science?
1. Define Science.
2. Evidence for and
against the statement.
3. What might Positivist,
Interpretivist, Popper,
Kuhn, Feminist,
Postmodern, Realist
writers argue?
• https://www.youtube.c
om/watch?v=ty33v7UY
Ybw#t=36
What is Science?
Positivism
Is
considered a
science?
Can be a
science?
Should be a
science?
Interpretivism
Popper
Kuhn
Realism
Ms B Clip and Liz Voges
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JMTl58sLO
hA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xKZfLulUe2
k
Positivists
• They believe that sociology is a science.
• They assert that sociologists should aim to uncover
social laws, in the same way that a natural scientist
uncovers the biological, physical or chemical laws.
• However, the positivist sociological approach has
been criticised. Many argue that despite a century
of research, no ‘scientific’ social laws have been
identified.
Task:
Which of these words do
Positivists love and why?
VALUEFREE
QUESTIONNAIRES
QUALITATIVE
DATA
EXPERIMENTS
OBJECTIVE
RAPPORT
QUANTITATIVE
DATA
CONTROL
HYPOTHESIS
SUBJECTIVE
PARTICIPANT
OBSERVATION
VERSTEHEN
OFFICIAL
STATISTICS
DETACHMENT
EVIDENCE THAT SUPPORTS
SOCIOLOGY AS A SCIENCE.
Positivism
Comte – Sociology is the ‘Queen of the Sciences’.
The Enlightenment
Objectivity
Observable social facts
Inductive Reasoning and Verficationism
Hypothesis testing
Qualitative data
General Laws of Cause and Effect
Detachment
Value Freedom
Social Facts as things
Durkheim’s Study of Suicide.
1.It’s possible to discover the laws that
control and shape the behaviour of
people in society.
2. Science isn’t there to tell us why something came into
being.
3. Science is there to explain how things relate to each other,
using laws. So, Asian lads and the Police don’t relate well
because of a social fact called racism.
(Yes, I know
that’s up for debate).
4. The main task of Sociology is to discover general laws of
social development;
i) Laws of co-existence: looking at the relationship between
parts of society;
ii) Laws of succession: what are the laws that govern social
change?
Inductive Logic is a big part of Positivism, like narcissism, is a big
part of Big Brother.
Inductive logic is a type of reasoning about something that
involves moving from a set of specific facts to a general conclusion.
All the apples I’ve
ever eaten were SO
tasty! This one will
be, too…
It uses premises from objects that have
been examined and experiments that
have been conducted to establish a
conclusion about an object that has not
been examined.
Seven steps of Inductive Positivism:
1. Our knowledge about the social world starts
with the collection of facts –
For example, the crime rate, the divorce rate
and the number of men that are victims of
domestic violence.
2. The facts are classified & identified
objectively – without using opinion, and
statistical relationships established.
Eg. Children from low income households are
more likely to become criminal.
3. Once classification has been done, we can
look for (study) correlations – where two or
more things happen at the same time between
different social facts.
For example, a correlation between women
being in care and becoming deviant.
4. If positive correlation is found, a cause and
effect relationship can be established.
For example, educational failure causes greater
likelihood of criminality.
5. Once we’ve sorted out positive correlations
and cause and effect relationships, we can
develop theories that explain the relationship
between different facts.
Eg. Having insufficient integration into society
explains why some commit suicide.
6. Once we have a theory – test it further. If
nothing happens to disprove the theory, we
have discovered a universal law of human
behaviour.
7. Once a law is identified in human behaviour,
we can incorporate it into social policy – we can
organise people through laws & legislation that
will engineer the best results for society.
Durkheim thought Comte had failed to establish Sociology as a
science.
Durkheim thought, instead, that Sociology should study social
facts as things to observe and measure. So, things like the
suicide rate.
the basis of positivist science & sociology
Stage 1:
Stage 2:
Observation
of social
phenomena
is made
A hypothesis
explaining
the
phenomena
is made
Stage 3:
Stage 4:
Evidence is
collected in a
systematic,
objective and
RELIABLE fashion
to deduce
whether the
hypothesis is true
or not.
If sufficient data
supports the
hypothesis, it
becomes a theory
and eventually a
scientific or social
law.
Activity: What problems are there in
the 7 reasons of inductive logic?
Problems with this
position so far?
Interpretivism
In a nutshell…
• Interpretivists believe sociology should not model
itself on the natural sciences.
• The positivist approach is unsuited to human
beings.
• The subject matter of sociology is meaningful
social actions (interactionism).
• It is important to interpret these actions and
make sense of them.
• Interpretivists say sociology is about internal
meanings NOT cause and effect – as cause and
effect does not always apply to humans.
How Sociology is absolutely NOT a science…
Interpretivism is THE alternative, THE total opposite of Positivism.
* People like Weber say Sociology should study society from the
perspective of other people to understand how and why things
happen.
* Using Weber’s perspective of
verstehen requires subjective
understanding which draws on
people’s opinions.
* Science is strongly objective and
does not allow opinion to influence
research.
* For this reason, Interpretivists argue
Sociology cannot ever be a science.
Interpretivism
Sociology should NOT model itself on natural
sciences.
Subject matter of sociology
Meaningful social action
Sociology is about internal meanings and not
external causes.
Individuals are not puppets.
Verstehen
Qualitative Data
Case study – Suicide.
Example: A car
Cause
approaches a red light
and the driver thinks…
“Oh, red light…That
means I have to slow
down and stop”
Effect
Is it always that simple?
“I’m late for
work…I’ll jump it”
“I WANT TO RUN
These examples demonstrate that
how people act is often THAT OLD LADY
determined by the meaning they
DOWN!!!!”
give to the situation, and how they
choose to respond to it.
“I’m following that
car, I can’t lose it”
• If a motorist does stop, it is not because of an
external force determining their behaviour, it is
because they have chosen to stop.
• Interpretivists do not see individuals as puppets
on a string, that are manipulated by external
‘social facts’.
• We are autonomous, and we construct our
world by the meanings we choose to give
things.
Doorbell
Cause = Press button
Effect = Ringing sound
Human
Cause = doorbell rings
Effect = ?
“Wow, I feel like I
understand your
plight so much
better now…”
Verstehen
Postmodernism (Lyotard, Foucault)
Sociology should NOT be a science.
Science is a meta-narrative, with no special
claim on the truth. Just another big story.
Relativism – There are many truths. Science
claims a monopoly of the truth but no objective
way of assessing its validity.
Feminism / Poststructuralist
Positivist malestream methods are not useful in
Sociology as they fail to capture the reality of
women’s lives.
Beck – Risk Society
Science is not an appropriate model for
Sociology.
March of Progress Vs Risk Society.
Science has created all modern risks and does
not innevitably benefit humankind.
Karl Popper FALSIFICATION
Fallacy of the Induction Method.
Rejects positivist inductive reasoning and verificationism.
Scientific knowledge must be capable of being falsified by
the evidence.
Science is an open system – open to challenge.
A good theory is not necessarily true but it is simply one
which has stood up to challenges.
Karl Popper thought that all
academic subject areas that
wanted to be called a ‘science’
should subject themselves to a
process of falsification.
To test itself, therefore,
Sociology must come up with
testable hypotheses, such as;
suicide is caused by insufficient
regulation and integration.
Karl Popper rejected Marxism as a pseudo-science,
because its concepts, such as false class
consciousness, were too abstract to be seen and
measured.
A positivist would
claim that after seeing
999 white swans that
all swans were white.
This is bad science.
They could go to
another country, and
the 1,000th swan they
see could be black
Deductive method
Inductive method
•This starts with a theory.
•This starts with a theory.
•Then the theory is
bombarded with
challenges to its
hypothesis in order to
see if it stands up to its
claims.
•Then finds loads of evidence
to prove itself right.
I my
theory!
Karl Popper
• There is no such thing as objective truth.
• It cannot be discovered and documented.
• All knowledge is provisional or temporary
(contingent).
• No matter how many times an experiment is
conducted or a phenomenon is observed, the
scientist can never be certain the same results
will occur in the future.
Karl Popper
Sociology is NOT a science because it has
theories which cannot be put to the test /
falsified.
Counter:
• Sociology COULD be scientific if it develops
testable hypotheses?
• Sociology is a young science and perhaps its
ideas will become testable later.
Thomas Kuhn is proudly sitting on the fence of the debate.
In answer to the question, “Is or can Sociology ever be a
science?”, his answer is:
Well…yes and
no.
Paradigms
That’s not how
we do things
round here!!!
A paradigm is something that is
shared by members of a scientific
community (eg: Biologists/Physicists)
A paradigm defines what science is
and provides a framework of
assumptions, principles and methods
within which those scientists work.
• The paradigm is essentially a set of norms and
values or the ‘culture of science’. It tells
scientists how they should view the world.
• Scientists are socialised into this culture, and
they accept in uncritically.
• They do not consider rival perspectives. For
example, biologists and medical professionals
are critical of alternative medicines like
homeopathy.
Kuhn believe there cannot be science
until there is one shared paradigm
• Until then there are just schools of thought.
Normal science:
• This is what occurs when the paradigm goes
unquestioned.
• Scientists observe a phenomenon, apply questions
and their pre-existing knowledge and then fill in the
blanks.
• For example: A 1,000 piece jigsaw will have a
picture of what it should look like on the box. We
‘know’ how to put it together. For Kuhn, normal
science is about putting the pieces together to get
the known end result.
Scientific revolutions:
• However, when scientists find that a
missing piece of the jigsaw, or many
missing pieces, this undermines the
paradigm.
• If these anomalies build up, confidence
in the paradigm starts to decline. Its
taken for granted foundations start to
crumble.
About 100 years ago,
Physics hit a crisis...
“It was as if the ground
had been pulled out from
under one, with no firm
foundation to be seen
anywhere upon which one
could have built” -
Einstein
• New paradigms emerge and they compete
with one another.
• As they offer alternative explanations for
phenomena and a different way of doing
things, they cannot be judged on the same
grounds, so they continue to compete and
refute each other.
• To move from one paradigm to another, for a
scientist, would be like undergoing a religious
conversion.
Eventually, one paradigm wins!
• Over time it becomes
accepted by the scientific
community.
• Normal science resumes –
but using a different set of
principles.
• New paradigms are initially
popular with younger
scientists who have fewer
credentials – older scientists
have more face to lose.
What is a science?
According to Khun a science should
have a shared set of :
1. Assumptions
2. Scientific methods
3. Terminology
American
1922-1996
Does psychology share these things?
What is a science?
American
Philosopher
1922-1996
Science goes through 3 historical
stages:
1.Pre-science
2. Normal science
3. Revolutions (Paradigm-shift)
e.g. Einstein, Newton, Galileo, Darwin,
shift happens normal science returns.
Where is
psychology?
Justify your answer
Paradigm shifts take place when theories in normal science, such
as the idea that the MMR jab is totally safe, are challenged by
revolutionary scientists such as Andrew Wakefield, who argued it
causes autism.
Paradigm shifts are when one (old) way of thinking is shoved away
by a newer way of thinking.
Paradigm
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cXr2kF0zEgI
#t=295
Sociology, then, behaves like
it’s in the pre-science stage:
there’s no dominant
perspective and there are
lots of competing theories
and perspectives.
It’s totally valid to refer to
Sociology as a young science
that still needs to find its
unifying theory.
Kuhn – Scientific Revolutions.
Sociology is NOT a Science.
It is a Pre-Science.
Sociology could become a science if it could
unite around a common paradigm and
approach.
Popper VS Kuhn
Popper:
• There are no objective truths.
• The scientific community is open – progress occurs
through challenging assumptions.
Kuhn:
• Science is not necessarily open.
• Most of the time, scientists are working within rigid
frameworks and assumptions – conforming to
norms and rules.
Realism Keat and Urry (1982)
Closed Systems –
Researcher can control all
variables and make
precise predictions.
Open Systems –
researcher cannot control
and measure all relevant
variables so cannot make
precise predictions.
Realism
Both open and closed systems
are scientific.
Sociologists study open
systems where processes are
too complex to make exact
predictions but we can still
study human behaviour
scientifically.
Science studies hidden
phenomena by observing their
effects. (Gravity).
Sociology studies hidden
phenomena (Patriarchy,
Poverty) by observing their
effects.
Marxism IS scientific as it is
looking at hidden structures of
K. by the effects of poverty.
Positivism
Interpretivism
Is
considered a
science?
Can be a
science?
Should be a
science?
Plenary
Popper
Kuhn
Realism
Summary of Theory and Method…
1. Consensus theories see society as a
functional unit.
2. Functionalists neglect meanings that
individuals give to social situations and
don’t give a full account of social
conflict.
3. Conflict theories are based on
ideology, capitalism and domination.
4. Marxism is
criticised for not
providing a
thorough
enough account
of social
interaction and
for having an
overly simplified
view of power.
5. Conflict theories such as feminism
divide into several branches; the key
concept of feminism is patriarchy.
6. Feminism has influenced a broad
range of sociological research in areas
such as the family and the workplace.
7. Consensus and conflict theories
explain how social structure shapes
individual behaviour.
8. Weber identified four types of action
and was influential in the development
of the sociology of everyday life.
9. Microsociology is concerned with
face-to-face social interaction.
10. Microsociology is criticised for
struggling to explain conflict and failing
to explain the connections between
individuals and society.
11. The structure/action debate is an
important debate in Sociology.
12. Classic Sociologists propose concepts
to understand the social processes
involved in the transition from premodern to modern society: anomie, iron
cage and alienation.
13. Contemporary Sociologists suggest
that the defining features of modernity
have changed.
14. Urry argues that the process of
globalisation has generated a ‘postsocietal stage of Sociology’.
15. Positivism and Interpretivism are
different theories of methodology that
affect which research methods are used.
16. The Sociology of suicide can be used
to highlight the difference between
Positivism and Interpretivism.
17. Alternative theories of methodology
make assumptions about society and
how research should be conducted.
18. Many Sociologists think the purpose
of Sociology is to make policy proposals
based on research.
19. Some Sociologists are critical of the
relationship between Sociology and
social policy.
20. Sociologists use a range of methods
to do research.
21. Sociological research can contribute
to effective social policies.
22. The different research methods
produce different types of data with
their own strengths and limitations.
23. It is common for researchers to use a
range of different data in their research.
24. Sociologists who design research
face issues about operationalisation of
concepts, data sampling and data
collection.
25. Much sociological research involves
distinct stages where the validity,
reliability and representativeness can be
questionned.
26. The science debate divides
sociologists and involves a broad range
of ideas.
27. Postivists argue that society can be
studied objectively and empirically, like
natural scientists study natural
phenomena.
28. Popper thought that if social
sciences were based on falsification,
sociology could be accepted as a
science.
29. Many sociologists contest the
positivist scientific tradition.
30. Sociologists disagree about whether
sociology is value-free.
31. Gomm argues that sociology cannot
avoid values as society is made up of
values, among other things.
SOME POTENTIAL QUESTIONS: all 33 marks.
1. Assess the usefulness of functionalist theory to an understanding of
society as a functional unit.
2. Marxism is no longer relevant to an understanding of contemporary
society. To what extent do sociological arguments and evidence
support this view?
3. Assess the usefulness of feminism and feminist research to an
understanding of society.
4. Assess the usefulness of microsociology to our understanding of
society.
5. Assess the extent to which the structure / agency debate has been
resolved.
6. Assess the extent to which theories of modernity are relevant to
understanding contemporary society.
7. Assess the extent to which sociological arguments and evidence
support the view that society has entered a stage of postmodernity.
8. Assess the extent to which positivism can be seen as a useful theory
of methodology in sociological research.
9. Alternative theories of methodology are far more useful for gaining
an understanding of society today than those used by positivists and
interpretivists. To what extent do sociological arguments and
evidence support this view of sociological research?
10.Sociology is not very useful in informing social policy. To what extent
do sociological arguments and evidence support this claim?
11.Assess the view that survey-based research does not produce a valid
picture of social behaviour.
12.Assess the view that qualitative data is the most valid and reliable
type of data.
13. Assess the practical, ethical and theoretical factors that sociologists
face in conducting research.
14. Sociology can be like the natural sciences. To what extent do
sociological arguments and evidence support this view?
15. Assess the extent to which sociology can be value-free and
objective.
16. “Sociology cannot and should not be a science.” To what extent do
sociological arguments and evidence support this view?
This was the question from the January 2010 exam:
“Feminism has revolutionised sociology by placing women at the
centre of its analysis of society. However, while all feminists share this
starting point, there are now many different ‘feminisms’ within
sociology.”
Assess the contribution of feminist theorists and researchers to an
understanding of society today.