Download Chapter 5 – How Sociologists Do Research

Chapter 5 – How Sociologists Do Research
Learning Objectives

Discuss which areas of human behavior and aspects of social life
are valid topics for sociological research.

Explain why there is a need for sociological research.

List and describe the eight basic steps for conducting scientific
research.

Know and discuss the six research methods that sociologists use,
the tools that they employ, and the strengths and limitations of
each.

Cite the four primary factors that determine which research method
or methods a sociologist uses to conduct his or her research.

Define, describe, and discuss the significance of the various
elements of the research process.

Define, describe, and discuss the significance of the six research
methods.

Understand the Hawthorne effect and talk about its significance.

Distinguish between quantitative and qualitative research methods.

Discuss the role that gender can play in sociological research.

Know the ethical guidelines that sociologists are expected to follow
and talk about the ethical issues raised in Mario Brajuha's and Laud
Humphrey's research.

Discuss how and why research and theory need to work together in
order to fully explore and understand human behavior.
Chapter Summary
Sociologists conduct research on almost every area of human behavior. The research
conducted may be at the macro level that encompasses broad matters such as social structure
or at the micro level which addresses individualistic and small group interaction. Sociological
research is necessary for a variety of reasons. Research will confirm or deny the validity and
extent of what is considered as true simply because it "makes sense". Whereas culture has a
significant impact on what one believes as being true, there needs to be a more objective
manner in which to discover truth. Research provides the method through which truth can be
discovered. To discover this truth, scientific research is used.
Henslin identifies eight steps in the scientific research model. These are (1) selecting a topic,
(2) defining the problem, (3) reviewing the literature, (4) formulating a hypothesis, (5)
choosing a research method, (6) collecting the data, (7) analyzing the results, and (8) sharing
the results. Other authors may identify more than eight steps or fewer than eight, but the
basic model remains the same. Two key elements to research are validity and reliability.
Validity addresses whether or not the research measures what it is intended to measure.
Reliability is the extent to which research produces consistent or dependable results.
In conducting research, sociologists choose between the following six research methods: (1)
survey, (2) participant observation, (3), secondary analysis, (4) documents, (5) unobtrusive
measures, and (6) experiments. Sociologists choose their research method(s) based on four
primary factors: resources, access to subjects, purpose of the research, and the researcher's
background.
There are a number of factors researchers must take into consideration beyond the research
method chosen. Some of these are beyond the control of the researcher. The Hawthorne Effect
is one of these. It involves a change in the subject's behavior because he or she knows they
are being studied. Gender is also a consideration that must be addressed by the researcher,
especially when the sample being studied or the subject of the research is gender related.
Gender can be a significant factor in sociological research, and sociologists need to take
careful steps to prevent gender differences from biasing their findings.
Ethics are of fundamental concern to sociologists when it comes to doing research. Although
sociologists are expected to follow ethical guidelines that require openness, honesty, truth,
and the protection of research subjects, their studies can occasionally elicit great
controversies. The Brajuha research created considerable controversy and legal complications
over the protection of subjects. Laud Humphreys generated a national controversy when he
misled his subjects while conducting sensitive research into the personal lives of bisexual men.
A national columnist referred to his research as being the product of "sociological snoopers"
and a court case loomed over his actions.
Although a vital part of sociology, research cannot stand alone any more than theory can
stand alone. Research and theory need to work together in order to fully explore and
understand human behavior. Theories need to be tested, which requires research. And
research findings need to be explained, which requires theory. Or to put this another way:
research produces facts, and theory provides a context for those facts.
Key Terms in Chapter Five
closed-ended questions: Questions that are followed by a list of possible answers to be selected
by the respondent. (p. 133)
control group: The group of subjects not exposed to the independent variable. (p. 135)
dependent variable: A factor that is changed by an independent variable. (p. 137)
documents: In its narrow sense, written sources that provide data; in its extended sense, archival
material of any sort, including photographs and movies. (p. 135)
experiment: The use of control groups and experimental groups, as well as dependent and
independent variables, to test causation. (p. 135)
experimental group: The group of subjects exposed to the independent variable. (p. 135)
generalizability: The extent to which the findings from one group (or sample) can be generalized
or applied to other groups (or populations). (p. 134)
hypothesis: A statement of the expected relationship between variables according to predictions
from a theory. (p. 127)
independent variable: A factor that causes a change in another variable, called the dependent
variable. (p. 137)
interview: Direct questioning of respondents. (p. 133)
interviewer bias: Effects that interviewers have on respondents that lead to biased answers.
(p. 133)
open-ended questions: Questions that respondents are able to answer in their own words.
(p. 133)
operational definition: The way in which a variable in a hypothesis is measured. (p. 127)
participant observation (or fieldwork): Research in which the researcher participates in the
research setting while observing what is happening there. (p. 133)
population: The target group to be studied. (p. 129)
qualitative research methods: Research in which the emphasis is placed on observing,
describing and interpreting people's behavior. (p. 138)
quantitative research methods: Research in which the emphasis is placed on measurement, the
use of statistics, and numbers. (p. 138)
rapport: A feeling of trust between researchers and the people they are studying. (p. 133)
questionnaires: A list of questions to be asked. (p. 131)
random sample: A sample in which everyone in the target population has the same chance of
being included in the study. (p. 130)
reliability: The extent to which research produces consistent results. (p. 128)
replication: Repeating a study in order to test its findings. (p. 128)
research method (or research design): One of six procedures sociologists use to collect data,
including surveys, participant observation, secondary analysis, documents, unobtrusive
measures, and experiments. (p. 127)
respondents: People who respond to a survey, either in interviews or by self administered
questionnaires. (p. 131)
sample: The individuals intended to represent the population to be studied. (p. 130)
secondary analysis: The analysis of data already collected by other researchers. (p. 134)
self-administered questionnaire: Questionnaires filled out by respondents. (p. 131)
stratified random sample: A sample of specific subgroups of the target population in which
everyone in each subgroup has an equal chance of being included in the study. (p. 131)
structured interviews: Interviews that use closed-ended questions. (p. 133)
survey: The collection of data by having people answer a series of questions. (p. 128)
unobtrusive measures: Various ways of observing people who do not know they are being
studied. (p. 137)
unstructured interviews: Interviews that use open-ended questions. (p. 133)
validity: The extent to which an operation definition measures what it was intended to measure.
(p. 127)
variable: A factor thought to be significant for human behavior, which varies from one case to
another. (p. 127)
Key People in Chapter Five
Mario Brajuha: When law enforcement officials demanded Brajuha turn over his field notes
after the restaurant where he was doing research burned down, he refused on the grounds
that these were “privileged information.” Through numerous court hearings and threats of
jail, Brajuha stuck to his principals. Finally, the district attorney dropped the matter. (p.
142)
Laud Humphreys: Humphreys’ doctoral dissertation on tearooms raised ethical questions about
how sociologists need to represent themselves in their studies, and also stirred great
controversy in the sociological community over how far a sociologist should go in pursuit
of data. (p. 142)
Elton Mayo: Mayo headed a team of researchers who tested the relationship between worker
productivity and work conditions at the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric
Company. After a series of contradictory findings, Mayo finally concluded that it was the
research process itself, rather than any changes in work conditions that affected the
workers’ productivity. His findings eventually became knows as the Hawthorne effect—
the change in behavior that occurs when people know they are being studied. (p. 138)
C. Wright Mills: Mills argued that research without theory is simply a collection of unrelated
facts, while theory without research is abstract and empty. (p. 143)
Peter Rossi: Rossi and his associates used a stratified random sample to count the homeless
population in Chicago and, projecting those finding to the rest of the country, concluded
that the total homeless population in the United States is about 350,000. Although his
research methods were sound, his findings angered many homeless advocates whose own
estimates were much higher. (p. 140)
Diana Scully and Joseph Marolla: Through a series of interviews with convicted rapists in
prison, Scully and Marolla concluded that rapists are not sick or overwhelmed by
uncontrollable urges, but rather men who are motivated by power and had learned to
view rape as appropriate in various circumstances. (p. 141)