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PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL SCIENCE Gulliver’s journal of History, Politics, economics and SOciety ____________________________________________________ Published by the Social Sciences Department at Gulliver Preparatory Volume 3, Issue I Spring, 2016 Table of Contents Introduction to Issue………………………………………………………………………………1 Francisco Di Capua Domestic and Foreign Censorship of American Films ……………….…………………………..3 Marina Wakil Gender, Culture and Identity: Catholic-Syrians in Modern Venezuela…………………………………………………….…......19 Alaz Sengul Take the Gun, Leave the Cannoli: The Godfather as a Transitional Italian-American Film…………...….………………………...29 Ryan Hellinger The Ancien Regime and the Revolutions of France……………………………………………..36 Grace Gilbert The Cuban Embargo Act: Political Economy After the Cold War………………….………………….……………………...47 Fiona Hanly-Jorda The Cultural Effects of the Islamic Conquest of Spain…..………………………………………56 Yannick Schmied Commercial Crossroads: A History of late-Medieval Istanbul…..………………………………64 Introduction to Issue The Social Sciences Department aims to instill in Gulliver students respect for advanced scholarship. In the balance of their time, the authors whose essays appear in this year’s issue showcase their commitment to research and writing. Equally important, the students exhibited the devotion necessary to see their scholarly project through to fruition. Francisco Di Capua sketches a brief history of film censorship in the United States and abroad. Mr. Di Capua’s essay covers decades of opposition against the cultural nuances of Hollywood executives. Mr. Di Capua also illustrates how foreign governments opposed the American film industry often for their own political reasons. Marina Wakil’s essay deals with Syrian-Catholic refugees in Venezuela. She explores gender and identity in this distinct cultural enclave. Ms. Wakil’s essay relies on tradition sources for analysis, but her work also depends on personal interviews with friends and family. Dr. Mario Cubas, Gulliver Preparatory School Social Sciences Faculty, encouraged Ms. Wakil to take on the project and he also provided critical advice with research and writing style. Dr. Cubas should be commemorated for inspiring interest among students in anthropological studies. Alaz Sengul’s work deals with the depiction of Italian-Americans in twentieth-century gangster movie genres. Mr. Sengul argues that The Godfather trilogy played an instrumental role in transforming cultural stereotypes. Ryan Hellinger’s essay on the French Revolution covers familiar ground, but offers a novel understanding to political history in modern France. Mr. Hellinger finds that the principles of 1789 were not realized by ordinary French citizens until the middle of the twentieth century. Grace Gilbert deals with the pressing topic of the Cuban Embargo. An enormously sensitive 1 Domestic and Foreign Censorship of American Films Domestic Domestic and and Foreign Foreign Censorship Censorship of of American American Films Films Principles of social science issue in South Florida politics, Ms. Gilbert traces the ebbs and flows of Cuban-American relations with objectivity and a strong sense of scholarly purpose. Fiona Hanly-Jorda offers readers an exposition on the influence of Islamic culture in Spanish history. Both Ms. Gilbert and Ms. Hanly-Jorda completed their essays under the guidance of Mr. Gabriel Medina, Gulliver Preparatory School Social Sciences Faculty. Finally, Yannick Schmied’s essay discusses the impact of the Mongolian dynasty on the commercial patterns of medieval Eurasia. Istanbul experienced a surge in commercial prosperity during the thirteenth century, mainly in consequence of the political stability brought to the region by Mongolian hegemony. The student editors, James Britt and Amanda Vera, played a critical role in the production Francisco Di Capua Francisco Francisco Di Di Capua Capua In 1896, Thomas Edison’s The Kiss was one of the first films viewed by a mass In Edison’s The was one of the viewed by mass In 1896, 1896, Thomas Thomas The Kiss Kisslong wasfilm onewas of highlighted the first first films films by aa actors mass American audience.Edison’s The fifty-second by a viewed kiss between American audience. The fifty-second long film was highlighted by aa kiss actors American The which fifty-second longfrom film the wasfinal highlighted kiss between between actors May Irwinaudience. and John Rice was taken scene ofby the musical The Widow May and John Rice was taken the of musical The May Irwin Irwin Johnsparked Rice which which was taken from from the final final scene scene of the the groups musicalargued The Widow Widow Jones. Theand scene public outrage. Conservative advocacy such Jones. The sparked outrage. Conservative advocacy groups such Jones. exhibitions The scene scene undermined sparked public public outrage.social Conservative groupsAsargued argued such carnal important and moraladvocacy conventions. the movie carnal undermined important social moral conventions. As movie carnal exhibitions exhibitions social and and moralregular conventions. As the the movie industry expanded undermined and motion important pictures became a more part of the American industry expanded and pictures regular of American 1 became industry calls expanded and motion motion pictures became aa more more regular part part of the theworried American Middle-class evangelical reformers the pastime, for censorship increased. of this year’s issue. The editorial responsibilities require a serious commitment, they are time 1 1 Middle-class evangelical reformers worried the pastime, calls censorship increased. evangelical reformersmoral worried the pastime,picture calls for for censorship increased. motion industry peddled vice thatMiddle-class threatened to destroy society’s fabric. consuming, and they demand from both Mr. Britt and Ms. Vera intellectual rigor and attention to motion picture peddled that threatened to destroy moral motion picture industry industry peddledbyvice vice that that threatened to burglary, destroy society’s society’s moral fabric. fabric. The American elite, troubled films pictured theft, violence, and detail. They have completed their tasks with a sense professional accountability that should not The elite, by films pictured burglary, theft, violence, and The American American elite, troubled troubled by weary films that that burglary, theft, in violence, and celebrated a “criminal class,” grew of thepictured role of motion pictures an America go unrecognized. Talia Pfeffer sacrificed valuable time and energy to complete work on this celebrated “criminal class,” grew of celebrated aa divided “criminal grew weary weary of 2the the role role of of motion motion pictures pictures in in an an America America increasingly by class,” social-economic class. year’s cover. 2 2 increasingly divided social-economic class. increasingly dividedofby by social-economic class. Censorship Hollywood has often served as a barometer for American morality. Censorship of has served as for American of Hollywood Hollywood has often often as aa barometer barometer for organizations, American morality. morality. Indeed, Censorship most Americans are familiar withserved attempts by domestic both Editor Indeed, most Americans are with attempts by domestic organizations, both Indeed, and mostpublic, Americans are familiar familiar with films. attemptsBut by less domestic organizations, private to censor Hollywood attention is paid to both the Christopher Calvo private public, censor films. But less attention is to private and and scope public,of to to censor Hollywood Hollywood lesstwentieth attention is paid paid to the the international censorship. During thefilms. first halfBut of the century, domestic Student Editors international scope of During the first of twentieth domestic international scope fought of censorship. censorship. During first half half of the the Domestically, twentieth century, century, domestic and foreign groups Hollywood on a the number of fronts. censorship James Britt ‘17 Amanda Vera ‘18 and and foreign foreign groups groups fought fought Hollywood Hollywood on on aa number number of of fronts. fronts. Domestically, Domestically, censorship censorship Francisco Di Capua ‘16, plans to study international business at Florida International University. Francisco Di Capua ‘16, plans Francisco Di Capua ‘16, plans to to study study international international business business at at Florida Florida International International 1University. University. Lee Grieveson, Policing Cinema: Movies and Censorship in Early Twentieth-Century America (Berkeley, CA, 2004), p. 13. 1 21 Lee Grieveson, Policing Ibid., p. 17. Lee Grieveson, Policing Cinema: Cinema: Movies Movies and and Censorship Censorship in in Early Early Twentieth-Century Twentieth-Century America America (Berkeley, (Berkeley, CA, 2004), p. 13. CA, 2004), p. 13. 2 2 Ibid., p. 17. 3 Ibid., p. 17. 2 3 3 Principles of social science FILM Censorshiip attempts were most often concerned with the social and moral implications of opening up When nickelodeons were introduced in 1905 the public was granted certain ethically ambiguous films to a general audience. Politically motivated censorship unprecedented access to motion pictures. was popular during the World War I and World War II eras. Censorship of Hollywood precipitated the rapid expansion of cinema theatres. Theatres established new public films reached its peak with the McCarthy trials during the early Cold War. As new spaces for the middle and lower classes to interact, and theatres also afforded women a political and social views arose throughout the twentieth century, the nature of censorship new opportunity to participate in leisurely activity outside of the home. In theatres and regulation of cinema ran parallel with the moral and social conventions of traditionalists recognized the potential for the movie industry to influence and disrupt Americans. time-honored familial and gender roles in more than one way. The five-cent entry fee for nickelodeons The opening of Children and adolescence were almost always the cohort targeted for protection nickelodeons marked the beginning of a new set of connections between the public and with censorship. It was feared that young people, being easily influenced, were likely to private spheres, and initiated new forums for the sexes to interact. Movie theaters were imitate the bad behavior and poor moral choices exhibited in film.3 Restricting access to criticized for being hotbeds of license, hubs of sexual immorality. morally ambiguous films would ensure the youth of today became ethically sound organizations opposed them almost immediately, describing them as “breeding places of citizens in the future. Conservative family and religious organizations fretted over the vice.”5 Conservative effects that films had on children’s impressionable minds. James Mark Baldwin, an Shortly after the introduction of nickelodeons, conservative social and political influential turn-of-the-century psychologists and author described young people as groups established formal organizations to demand the government intervene and “veritable copying machines,” with a propensity for imitating on-screen antics. possibly regulate the kinds of materials shown in public theatres. In 1907, municipal and Regulators also feared the role Hollywood might play in the spread of juvenile city censorship boards emerged across the country. delinquency. Indeed, in a widely reported case study by the Juvenile Court Committee in Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), demanded government censorship. Chicago in 1907 and the Juvenile Protective Association of Chicago in 1911 there was The WCTU called films “addictive,” and accused Hollywood of glorifying war and established a direct causal link between movies and juvenile delinquency. Cinema was celebrating crime and corruption. Pennsylvania passed the first statewide censorship law described as a “school of crime,” a “training school of mischief, mockery, lawbreaking.”4 in 1911. By 1915 the constitutionality of film censorship was raised in Mutual Film 3 4 5 Ibid., p. 17. Ibid., pp. 13-15. 44 Ibid., p. 18. 5 5 Other organizations, like the Film Censorship Principles of Social Science Principles of Social Science Corporation v. Industrial Commission of Ohio. The Mutual Film Corporation argued Corporation v. Industrial Commission of Ohio. The Mutual Film Corporation argued that movies were a form of expression, and thus protected by the First Amendment. The that movies were a form of expression, and thus protected by the First Amendment. The Supreme Court ruled that films were products of an industry, and were thus categorized Supreme Court ruled that films were products of an industry, and were thus categorized as a business, not an art.6 Therefore, motion pictures were not protected by the First as a business, not an art.6 Therefore, motion pictures were not protected by the First Amendment and subject to government regulation. By 1922 35 states had similar Amendment and subject to government regulation. By 1922 35 states had similar censorship laws. State politicians were demanding federal legislation. Soon a censorship laws. State politicians were demanding federal legislation. Soon a nationwide call for federal control of the film industry and the prevention of “indecent,” nationwide call for federal control of the film industry and the prevention of “indecent,” “obscene,” or “sacrilegious” behavior was heard from state capitals.7 “obscene,” or “sacrilegious” behavior was heard from state capitals.7 Hoping to slow the momentum on government regulation of motion pictures, Hoping to slow the momentum on government regulation of motion pictures, Hollywood’s major motion picture studios established the Motion Picture Producers and Hollywood’s major motion picture studios established the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America (MPPDA) in 1922. The organization was led by William H. Distributors of America (MPPDA) in 1922. The organization was led by William H. Hays, a Republican lawyer who had formerly been United States Postmaster General. Hays, a Republican lawyer who had formerly been United States Postmaster General. The MPPDA managed to block federal legislation for the time being, but private The MPPDA managed to block federal legislation for the time being, but private organizations continued to pressure Hollywood. The WCTU argued that movies were the organizations continued to pressure Hollywood. The WCTU argued that movies were the most influential expression of popular culture on America’s youth. Moreover, the most influential expression of popular culture on America’s youth. Moreover, the WCTU claimed that the MPPDA was not doing enough to stop Hollywood from WCTU claimed that the MPPDA was not doing enough to stop Hollywood from destroying youth morality.8 The WCTU created the Motion Picture Department in 1925 destroying youth morality.8 The WCTU created the Motion Picture Department in 1925 to lobby for more government regulation. Between the 1900s and 1930s a number of American organizations were established with the explicit purpose of censoring motion pictures. Hollywood faced a growing orchestra of criticism domestically, but film producers were also confronted with foreign attempts at censorship. During the 1910s the American movie industry began distributing films to a more international audience. Indeed, foreign markets became an important source of revenue for Hollywood producers. By the start of World War I, Hollywood’s film exports accounted for nearly 35 % of its gross revenue.9 The growing circulation of Hollywood films in foreign markets contributed to the emergence of censorship boards in those countries. Mexico became a principal consumer of Hollywood films. During the late 1910s and 1920s Mexican audiences and Mexican authorities disapproved of what then was the most popular genre of Hollywood films, the western. Many Hollywood westerns featured Mexicans as villian. In 1922, Mexico placed an embargo on all American films. Hays quickly issued the Mexican Resolution, promising that the MPPDA would “do everything possible to prevent the production of any new motion picture films which present the Mexican character in derogatory or objectionable manner.” Then the MPPDA sent a chief industry representative, Bernon T. Woodle, to negotiate with Mexican authorities about lifting the ban. In 1922, the 6 N.A., “A Brief History of Film Censorship in the United States.” 6http://ncac.org/resource/a-brief-history-of-film-censorship/. N.A., “A Brief History of Film Censorship in the United States.” 7 N.A., “The Supreme Court and Movie Censorship: The State Censors.” http://ncac.org/resource/a-brief-history-of-film-censorship/. 7http://moviehistory.us/censoring-americans-movies.html. N.A., “The Supreme Court and Movie Censorship: The State Censors.” 8 N.A., “A Brief History of Film Censorship in the United States.” http://moviehistory.us/censoring-americans-movies.html. 8 N.A., “A Brief History of Film Censorship in the United States.” 6 66 9 Francis Couvares, Movie Censorship and American Culture (Amherst, MA, 2006), p. 213. 7 7 saw that nearly every European nation was trying to diminish the degree of American influence in their domestic cinema industry. According to Lowry, European countries Film Censorship Principles of Social Science saw that nearly every European nation was trying to diminish the degree of American Principles of Social Science influencethe in their domesticofcinema industry. to Lowry,“political European and countries resisted importation American films According for predominantly patriotic saw that nearly every European nation was trying to diminish the degree of American reasons.” Lowry identified intense feelings of nationalism engendered during WWI as Film Censorship influence in their domestic cinema industry. According to Lowry, European countries well as economic imperatives spread by the global depression as the main culprits to the resisted the importation of American films for predominantly “political and patriotic Film Censorship increases of prohibitions. Lowry argued that European nations aimed to establish reasons.” Lowry identified intense feelings of nationalism engendered during WWI as domestic movie industries political purposes, specifically as resisted the importation of primarily American for films for predominantly “political to and“serve patriotic well as economic imperatives spread by the global depression as the main culprits to the 14 propaganda and that will reflect the life, the customs, and the habits of its own people.” reasons.” Lowry identified intense feelings of nationalism engendered during WWI as increases of prohibitions. Lowry argued that European nations aimed to establish Hollywood executive Schenck announced a film well as When economic imperatives spread Joseph by the global depression as the mainadaptation culprits to of theA domestic movie industries primarily for political purposes, specifically to “serve as Woman the German released nations a statement increasesDisputed, of prohibitions. Lowryconsul’s argued office that European aimed condemning to establish propaganda and that will reflect the life, the customs, and the habits of its own people.”14 Hollywood. The industries film featured a French submitting the sexual advances a domestic movie primarily forheroine political purposes,to specifically to “serveof as When Hollywood executive Joseph Schenck announced a film adaptation of A German officer order assure of herand fivethe friends. The sent14a propaganda and in that will to reflect thethe life,freedom the customs, habits of its Germans own people.” Woman Disputed, the German consul’s office released a statement condemning letter directly then president of theJoseph MPPDA Williamannounced Hays warning that production When to Hollywood executive Schenck a film adaptation of of A Hollywood. The film featured a French heroine submitting to the sexual advances of a A WomanDisputed, Disputed would undermine “all… efforts bring about peace and condemning cooperation Woman the German consul’s office toreleased a statement German officer in order to assure the freedom of her five friends. The Germans sent a on the field of filmheroine presentation” between United States of anda Hollywood. Thefilm filmproduction featured aand French submitting to thethe sexual advances letter directly to then president of the MPPDA William Hays warning that production of Germany. In collaboration with Hays, Schenckofproposed the Germans German officer German officer in order to assure the freedom her five replacing friends. The sent a A Woman Disputed would undermine “all… efforts to bring about peace and cooperation with Russian,toensuring that theoffilm notWilliam suggestHays anything offensive to Germany. letteradirectly then president the would MPPDA warning that production of on the field of film production and film presentation” between the United States and Schenck Hays would stood to lose much lessefforts by possibly Bolshevik cultural A Womanand Disputed undermine “all… to bringupsetting about peace and cooperation Germany. In collaboration with Hays, Schenck proposed replacing the German officer officials. After all, Russia accounted for presentation” a small piecebetween of the American export on the field of film production and film the Unitedfilm States and with a Russian, ensuring that the film would not suggest anything offensive to Germany. 15 market. at the time, Bolsheviks policies regulating the Germany. Moreover, In collaboration withthe Hays, Schencklacked proposed replacing the German officer Schenck and Hays stood to lose much less by possibly upsetting Bolshevik cultural with a Russian, ensuring that the film would not suggest anything offensive to Germany. officials. After all, Russia accounted for a small piece of the American film export 14 Ibid., pp. 213-214. 15 Schenck and Hays stood to lose much less by possibly upsetting Bolshevik cultural Ibid., pp. 214-215. market.15 Moreover, at the time, the Bolsheviks lacked policies regulating the officials. After all, Russia accounted for 9a small piece of the American film export embargo was lifted, but problems with Mexican censorship authorities persisted. The embargo waswith lifted, but problems withofficials Mexicanprovided censorship authorities persisted.with Thea experiences Mexican censorship Hollywood executives 10 experiences with Mexican provided executives with a model for negotiating futurecensorship agreementsofficials with other nations.Hollywood 10 model for negotiating future agreements otherfornations. When Hollywood first began its with strategy large scale international distribution Whenthe Hollywood first confronted began its strategy for and largequotas scale from international of its films, industry was by tariffs foreign distribution legislatures of its films,tothe industry was confronted by tariffs and quotas from foreignBylegislatures attempting protect domestic film industry from American competition. the 1920s attempting to protect domestic film industry American competition. 1920s European governments increasingly called forfrom nationalist economic policiesBy thatthe included European governments increasingly for nationalist economic policies that included the imposition of regulations on the called importation of foreign films. Germany, followed by the imposition of regulations on thepassed importation of foreign films.that Germany, followedfilm by British, French and Austrians legislation to ensure their domestic the British, French and Austrians passed productions. legislation to11 ensure domestic Francethat andtheir China were atfilm the markets were not inundated with foreign 11 France and China at the markets wereofnot inundatedAmericans with foreign productions. avant-garde prohibiting films for political reasons. China waswere especially avant-garde prohibiting Americans films for political was especially sensitive to ofcontemporary cultural depictions. China reasons. prohibitedChina the importation of 12 sensitive contemporary cultural depictions. China prohibited the importation of Protective legislation American tofilms like Welcome Danger and East is West. American like Welcome Danger East ismarkets. West.12 hampered films Hollywood’s penetration intoandforeign Protective Diplomatic legislation pressure, hampered into foreign Diplomatic pressure, increasinglyHollywood’s in the tense penetration political environment that markets. followed WWI, levied politically increasingly in against the tense politicalfilms environment that national followedborders. WWI, levied politically motivated bans American across several motivated against across several national borders. In bans the face of American increasing films foreign diplomatic pressures against Hollywood, the the an face of increasing foreign pressures against in Hollywood, He MPPDAInsent envoy led by Edward G. diplomatic Lowry to study the situation Europe.13 the MPPDA sent an envoy led by Edward G. Lowry to study the situation in Europe.13 He 10 11 Ibid., p. 213. 12 Ibid., pp. 213-214. 10 Ibid., pp, 213-214, Ibid., p. 213. 13 11 Ibid., p. 214. 225. Ibid., pp. 213-214. 12 Ibid., pp, 213-214, 225. 13 Ibid., p. 214. 8 8 8 15 market. Moreover, at the time, the Bolsheviks lacked policies regulating the 14 15 14 15 Ibid., pp. 213-214. Ibid., pp. 214-215. Ibid., pp. 213-214. Ibid., pp. 214-215. 9 9 (PCA) was established, requiring all film companies to obtain a certificate of approval The economic and social climate of the Great Depression years did not facilitate proper enforcement of the code. However, in 1934 the Production Code Administration Film CENSORSHIP (PCA) was established, requiring all film companies to obtain a certificate of approval Principles of social science importation of American films. American film producers were in essence free to construct Russian personalities and exploit Russian stereotypes without fear of serious repercussion. To mitigate domestic and international censorship, in 1930 the MPPDA organized the Studio Relations Committee (SRC) and established a list of materials most susceptible to censorship. Industry leaders were expected to avoid these subjects. Hays called the list “the formula,” but it became known as the “Don’ts and Be Carefuls” list.16 Hays warned against sex and crime in films, while cultural stereotypes were included in the less foreboding “Be Careful” list. Still, a more codified set of guidelines was required. The same year a second, broader list was adopted by the MPPDA ̶ the so-called Motion Picture Production Code ̶ also known as the ‘Hays code,’ condemned movies that “lower the moral standards” of the audience, calling for a reduction of films that highlighted “crime, wrongdoing, evil, or sin.”17 The Hays code mandated restrictions on both the explicit showing and the mere suggestion of sex, crime, vulgarities, obscenities, nationalist and religious feelings.18 16 Ibid., p. 216. N.A., “A Brief History of Film Censorship in the United States.” 18 Association of Motion Pictures Producers, Inc., “The Motion Picture Production Code,” (1930). http://asu.edu/courses/fms200s/total-readings/MotionPictureProductionCode.pdf, pp. 593-596. 17 10 The economic and social climate of the Great Depression years did not facilitate before releasing a movie. Later that year, Joseph I. Breen was appointed head of the Film CENSORSHIP proper enforcement of the code. However, in 1934 the Production Code Administration PCA. Under Breen, the PCA established a partnership with the Catholic Legion of (PCA) was established, requiring all film companies to obtain a certificate of approval Decency and enforcement of the Production Code became more rigid.19 before releasing a movie. Later that year, Joseph I. Breen was appointed head of the The PCA pursued stringent regulations on the presentation of cultural stereotypes. PCA. Under Breen, the PCA established a partnership with the Catholic Legion of Film CENSORSHIP New movies inspired by Al Capone that featured Italian-American gangsters led to Decency and enforcement of the Production Code became more rigid.19 tensions between the Italian and American governments, as well as protests from ItalianThe PCA pursued stringent regulations on the presentation of cultural stereotypes. American community groupsLater and that statements of disapproval fromappointed the Italianhead embassy. before releasing a movie. year, Joseph I. Breen was of the New movies inspired by Al Capone that featured Italian-American gangsters led to Shortly after the Production Code was established, the MPPDA effort to PCA. Under Breen, the PCA established a partnership with theinitiated CatholicanLegion of tensions between the Italian and American governments, as well as protests from Italianobscure origins of ofthe allProduction movie characters, not solely those19of villains.20 For Decencythe andethnic enforcement Code became more rigid. American community groups and statements of disapproval from the Italian embassy. instance,The in 1931 Joy, head ofregulations the Studio Relations Community that PCA Jason pursued stringent on the presentation of (SRC), culturaladvised stereotypes. Shortly after the Production Code was established, the MPPDA initiated an effort to the You Desire Me and Italian-American So This Is Africa should led make Newexcitable movies characters inspired byinAlAsCapone that featured gangsters to obscure the ethnic origins of all movie characters, not solely those of villains.20 For ambiguous their Italian heritage. In 1932, governments, Joy’s successor theasSRC, James Wingate, tensions between the Italian and American as at well protests from Italianinstance, in 1931 Jason Joy, head of the Studio Relations Community (SRC), advised that advised thatcommunity in the popular film Betters, of thedisapproval ‘Pepi’ character was Italian likely embassy. to spark American groups andOur statements from the the excitable characters in As You Desire Me and So This Is Africa should make protests from the Latin AmericanCode countries, advising that “it wouldinitiated be wisean toeffort avoid Shortly after Production was established, the MPPDA to ambiguous their Italian heritage. In 1932, Joy’s successor at the SRC, James Wingate, difficulties….by omitting the dialogue labelthose him of as villains. anything20more For obscure the ethnic originsany ofreferences all movie incharacters, notthat solely advised that in the popular film Our Betters, the ‘Pepi’ character was likely to spark 19 instance, in 1931 Jason Joy,Censorship head of the Studio N.A., “A Brief History of Film in the UnitedRelations States.” Community (SRC), advised that protests American countries, that “it would be wise to avoid 20 Couvares,from Movie Latin Censorship and American Culture,advising p. 218. the excitable characters in As You Desire Me and So This Is Africa should make difficulties….by omitting any references in11the dialogue that label him as anything more ambiguous their Italian heritage. In 1932, Joy’s successor at the SRC, James Wingate, 19 N.A., “A Brief History of Film Censorship in the United States.” advised that in Censorship the popular Our Culture, Betters,p. 218. the ‘Pepi’ character was likely to spark Couvares, Movie andfilm American 20 protests from Latin American countries, 11 advising that “it would be wise to avoid difficulties….by omitting any references in the dialogue that label him as anything more 10 19 20 11 N.A., “A Brief History of Film Censorship in the United States.” Couvares, Movie Censorship and American Culture, p. 218. 11 to be modified to avoid possible foreign censorship. Hollywood villain characters were practically limited to American stereotypes, so as not to offend minorities or foreign definite than a ‘foreigner.’”21 Troubles concerning the ethnic backgrounds of characters When asked whether the popularity of war-themed films into the industry would alter the Code’s policy, Breen replied that the war “does not parallel or conflict with our function. Code’s policy, Breen replied that the war “does not parallel or conflict with our function. Film censorship Film censorship reached such levels that even fictitious characters like Dracula and Frankenstein needed Principles of social science to be modified to avoid possible foreign censorship. Hollywood villain characters were definite than a ‘foreigner.’”21 Troubles concerning the ethnic backgrounds of characters censorshiplimited boards.toIndeed, the stereotypes, “ethnic heterogeneity” American audiences encouraged practically American so as not toinoffend minorities or foreign reached such levels that even fictitious characters like Dracula and Frankenstein needed the growth of homogeneity in the film’s characters. In 1934, Clive M. Koon wrote: “the to be modified to avoid possible foreign censorship. Hollywood villain characters were Principles social science foreign villain of ̶ even the naturalized villain ̶ is disappearing from the motion picture.”22 practically limited to American stereotypes, so as not to offend minorities or foreign Throughout the 1930s the American film industry was under constant pressure censorship boards. Indeed, the “ethnic heterogeneity” in American audiences encouraged from foreign censorship authorities. The British were especially sensitive to Hollywood Principles of social science the growth of homogeneity in the film’s characters. In 1934, Clive M. Koon wrote: “the depictions of British colonial rule. Hollywood was expected to comply with British foreign villain ̶ even the naturalized villain ̶ is disappearing from the motion picture.”22 notions of white supremacy and present a favorable view of imperialism. In 1935, Spain censorship boards. Indeed, the “ethnic heterogeneity” in American audiences encouraged Throughout the 1930s the American film industry was under constant pressure and San Salvador became the first countries to ban films that contained offensive the growth of homogeneity in the film’s characters. In 1934, Clive M. Koon wrote: “the from foreign censorship authorities. The British were especially sensitive to Hollywood illustrations of Hispanics or Hispano-Americans (Nicaragua, Peru, Chile, and Costa Rica foreign villain ̶ even the naturalized villain ̶ is disappearing from the motion picture.”22 depictions of British colonial rule. Hollywood was expected to comply with British later joined). And Mexico grew irate with depictions of exotic Mexican women, and the Throughout the 1930s the American film industry was under constant pressure notions of white supremacy and present a favorable view of imperialism. In 1935, Spain constant appearance of donkeys and haciendas in Mexican-themed films. Hollywood from foreign censorship authorities. The British were especially sensitive to Hollywood and San Salvador became the first countries to ban films that contained offensive found itself in need of more exotic elements in its films without capturing harmful depictions of British colonial rule. Hollywood was expected to comply with British illustrations 23 of Hispanics or Hispano-Americans (Nicaragua, Peru, Chile, and Costa Rica stereotypes. notions of white supremacy and present a favorable view of imperialism. In 1935, Spain later joined). And Mexico grew irate with depictions of exotic Mexican women, and the The start of WW II added to censorship issues faced by the film industry. Films and San Salvador became the first countries to ban films that contained offensive constant appearance of donkeys and haciendas in Mexican-themed films. Hollywood were increasingly thought of as opportunities for hostile governments to advance warillustrations of Hispanics or Hispano-Americans (Nicaragua, Peru, Chile, and Costa Rica found itself in need of more exotic elements in its films without capturing harmful joined). And Mexico grew irate with depictions of exotic Mexican women, and the later 21 Ibid., p. 218. 23 stereotypes. 22 Ibid., p. 218. 23 constant of donkeys and haciendas in Mexican-themed films. Hollywood Ibid., pp.appearance 224-228. The start of WW II added to censorship issues faced by the film industry. Films 12 in its films without capturing harmful found itself in need of more exotic elements were increasingly thought of as opportunities for hostile governments to advance warstereotypes.23 resisted. Breen ruled the PCA with an iron fist. time propaganda. Initially, Hollywood 21 Ibid., p.The 218.start of WW II added to censorship issues faced by the film industry. Films 22 Ibid., asked p. 218. whether the popularity of war-themed films into the industry would alter the When 23 Ibid., pp. 224-228. were increasingly thought of as opportunities for hostile governments to advance warCode’s policy, Breen replied that the war “does 12 not parallel or conflict with our function. 21 Ibid., p. 218. Ibid., p. 218. 23 Ibid., pp. 224-228. 22 12 Film censorship 12 24 In June Today there are more filmsHollywood of that kind. That isBreen the only difference.” time propaganda. Initially, resisted. ruled the PCA with iron1942, fist. 1942, Today there are more films of that kind. That is the only difference.”24 InanJune Washington established Office of Information “tasked withwould coordinating When asked whether the the popularity ofWar war-themed films(OWI) into the industry alter the Washington established the Office of War Information (OWI) “tasked with coordinating 25 wartimepolicy, propaganda across civilian The OWI organized a special department 25 not parallel or conflict with our function. Code’s Breen replied that the media.” war “does wartime propaganda across civilian media.” The OWI organized a special department to deal with the film industry. Shortly after the OWI was founded, it published the to deal with the film industry. Shortly after the OWI was founded, it published the Film Government Information Manual for the Motion Picture Industry. Thecensorship publication not Government Information Manual for the Motion Picture Industry. The publication not only suggested measures that would certainly have obstructed cinematic creativity, but it only suggested measures that would certainly have obstructed cinematic creativity, but it Today there are more films of that kind. That is the only difference.”24 In June 1942, also accused Hollywood of hindering the war effort and being unpatriotic. also accused Hollywood of hindering the war effort and being unpatriotic. Washington established the Office of War Information (OWI) “tasked with coordinating But as the grim realities of WW II became more known to the general public, But as the grim realities of WW II became more known to the general public, wartime propaganda across civilian media.”25 The OWI organized a special department audiences demanded that the big screen put on full exhibition the horrors of a war-torn audiences demanded that the big screen put on full exhibition the horrors of a war-torn to deal with the film industry. Shortly after the OWI was founded, it published the world. Film historian Sheri Chinen Biesen argues that “as life on the home front became world. Film historian Sheri Chinen Biesen argues that “as life on the home front became Government Information Manual for the Motion Picture Industry. The publication not Indeed, WWII helped pave the increasingly hard-boiled, so too did American film.”26 26 increasingly hard-boiled, so too did American film.” Indeed, WWII helped pave the only suggested measures that would certainly have obstructed cinematic creativity, but it way for the noir film genre, illustrating that censorship and state-sponsored expressions way for the noir film genre, illustrating that censorship and state-sponsored expressions also accused Hollywood of hindering the war effort and being unpatriotic. of patriotism in films perhaps were not as harmful to cinematic creativity as of patriotism in films perhaps were not as harmful to cinematic creativity as But as the grim realities of WW II became more known to the general public, conventionally thought. conventionally thought. audiences demanded that the big screen put on full exhibition the horrors of a war-torn By war’s end in 1945, Will Hays had resigned as head of the MPPDA. Hays was 24 Thomas Doherty, Hollywood's Censor: Joseph I. Breen and the Production Code Administration (New 24 world. Film historian Sheri Censor: ChinenJoseph Biesen argues life onCode the home front became Thomas Doherty, I. Breen andthat the “as Production Administration (New York, 2009), 155.Hollywood's replaced byp.Eric Johnston, former head of the United States Chamber of Commerce. 25 York, 2009), p. 155. 25 26 Ibid., p. 155. Ibid., p. 155. hard-boiled, Sheri Chinen Biesen, Blackout: WarAmerican II and the Origins of Film Noir (Baltimore, 2005, p. 5). the Indeed, WWII helped pave increasingly so World too did film.”26 26 Johnston renamed organization theIIMotion Pictureof Association of America (MPAA). Sheri Chinen Biesen,the Blackout: World War and the Origins Film Noir (Baltimore, 2005, p. 5). 13 way for the noir film genre, illustrating that13censorship and state-sponsored expressions The same year, the House Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC) became a of patriotism in films perhaps were not as harmful to cinematic creativity as permanent committee. In 1947, HUAC began its notorious investigation on Hollywood. conventionally thought. The investigations stretched well beyond the film industry, and they were mostly 24 Thomas Doherty, Hollywood's Censor: Joseph I. Breen and the Production Code Administration (New York, 2009), p. 155. 25 Principles of social science Ibid., p. 155. 26 Sheri Chinen Biesen, Blackout: World War II and the Origins of Film Noir (Baltimore, 2005, p. 5). 13 13 connected to the Red Scare of the early Cold War years.27 The HUAC hearings transformed the focus of censorship from sex and crime to more sophisticated questions permanent committee. In 1947, HUAC began its notorious investigation on Hollywood. Hollywood actors, directors and staff to Washington. Those who complied with HUAC’s The investigations stretched well beyond the film industry, and they were mostly The investigations stretched well beyond the film industry, and they were mostly By war’s end in 1945, Will Hays had resigned as head of the MPPDA. Hays was were labeled “friendly” witnesses, and those who didn’t were labeled “unfriendly” were labeled “friendly” witnesses, and those who didn’t were labeled “unfriendly” replaced by Eric Johnston, former head of the United States Chamber of Commerce. Principles of social science Principles of social science not want the industry to get involved in contemporary politics if it threatened revenues Film censorship The early Cold War brought important changes to the movie industry. Film was The early Cold War brought important changes to the movie industry. Film was Film censorship and profits. Hollywood Ten were permitted to read their own statements. On principle the witnesses The HUAC hearings targeted Hollywood leftists, primarily writers, creating an Eleven the nineteen “unfriendly” testified. witnesses. refused to3030affirm or ofdeny their affiliation to thewitnesses Communist Party,One evenof iftheit eleven, meant witnesses. Eleven of the nineteen “unfriendly” witnesses testified. One of the eleven, atmosphere of suspicion and paranoia in the industry. HUAC subpoenaed dozens of professional suicide. Allcountry of the Hollywood Ten served month jail and the all Bertolt Brecht, left the after testifying. The6-12 remaining ten sentences, were labeled Bertolt Brecht, left the country after testifying. The remaining ten were labeled the Hollywood actors, directors and staff to Washington. Those who complied with HUAC’s were blacklisted. Hollywood Ten. 32 Hollywood Ten. were labeled “friendly” witnesses, and those who didn’t were labeled “unfriendly” The HUAC hearings left Hollywood under response the film Senator Joseph McCarthy, Chairman ofdeep the suspicion. PermanentInSubcommittee on Senator Joseph McCarthy, Chairman of the Permanent Subcommittee on Principles of social science considered a “potent ideological medium,” with the capacity for tremendous social and considered a “potent ideological medium,” with the capacity for tremendous social and industry launched a major public relationsprosecutor, program to Hollywood’s image. Investigations and HUAC’s most famous wasimprove deliberately confrontational. Investigations and HUAC’s most famous prosecutor, was deliberately confrontational. political change. John Howard Lawson, the intellectual head of a group of Hollywood political change. John Howard Lawson, the intellectual head of a group of Hollywood connected to the Red Scare of the early Cold War years.27 The HUAC hearings leftists that came to be known as the Hollywood Ten, stated that “film is ideology” and leftists that came to be known as the Hollywood Ten, stated that “film is ideology” and transformed the focus of censorship from sex and crime to more sophisticated questions crucial in the global “battle of ideas.” Future President and then actor Ronald Reagan crucial in the global “battle of ideas.” Future President and then actor Ronald Reagan of ideological infiltration.28 called Hollywood a “grand world-wide propaganda base,” and warned that whoever called Hollywood a “grand world-wide propaganda base,” and warned that whoever The early Cold War brought important changes to the movie industry. Film was While controlled the movie industry had a “weekly audience of 500,000,000 souls.”29 controlled the movie industry had a “weekly audience of 500,000,000 souls.”29 While considered a “potent ideological medium,” with the capacity for tremendous social and studio executives focused on the profitability of films, conservatives saw cinema as a studio executives focused on the profitability of films, conservatives saw cinema as a political change. John Howard Lawson, the intellectual head of a group of Hollywood source of dramatic social and political change. Producers did think movies could be source of dramatic social and political change. Producers did think movies could be leftists that came to be known as the Hollywood Ten, stated that “film is ideology” and influential from time to time, and each held a political opinion of their own, but they did influential from time to time, and each held a political opinion of their own, but they did crucial in the global “battle of ideas.” Future President and then actor Ronald Reagan not want the industry to get involved in contemporary politics if it threatened revenues called Hollywood a “grand world-wide propaganda base,” and warned that whoever and profits. 27 Censorship and American Culture, p.audience 237. 27 Couvares, Movie industry had a “weekly of 500,000,000 souls.”29 While controlled the movie 28 Couvares, Movie Censorship and American Culture, p. 237. 237.HUAC hearings targeted Hollywood leftists, primarily writers, creating an The 28 Ibid., p. 29 Ibid., p. 237. 29 Ibid., p. 238. Ibid., executives p. 238. studio focused on the profitability of films, conservatives saw cinema as a atmosphere of suspicion and paranoia in the 14 industry. HUAC subpoenaed dozens of 14 source of dramatic social and political change. Producers did think movies could be Hollywood actors, directors and staff to Washington. Those who complied with HUAC’s influential from time to time, and each held a political opinion of their own, but they did were labeled “friendly” witnesses, and those who didn’t were labeled “unfriendly” Organized by theTen newly-formed Motion inquisitorial Picture Industry Council (MPIC), the MPIC was The Hollywood argued HUAC’s methods were unconstitutional, and The Hollywood Ten argued HUAC’s inquisitorial methods were unconstitutional, and Johnston renamed the organization the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA). 27 The same year, House on Un-American Activities (HUAC) connected to thetheRed ScareCommittee of the early Cold War years. The HUACbecame hearingsa connected to the Red Scare of the early Cold War years.27 The HUAC hearings permanent committee. In censorship 1947, HUAC began its notorious investigation on Hollywood. transformed the focus of from sex and crime to more sophisticated questions transformed the focus of censorship from sex and crime to more sophisticated questions 28 The investigations stretched well beyond the film industry, and they were mostly of ideological infiltration. of ideological infiltration.28 27 Couvares, Movie Censorship and American Culture, p. 237. Ibid., p. 237. 29 Ibid., p. 238. Film censorship 28 witnesses testified. One of the eleven, witnesses.30 Eleven of the nineteen “unfriendly” 14 14 Bertolt Brecht, left the country after testifying. The remaining ten were labeled the Film censorship they defended themselves by citing the First Amendment.3131 Congressman J. Parnell 30 Congressman J. Parnell they defended themselves citing the First Amendment. Eleven of theby nineteen “unfriendly” witnesses testified. One of the eleven, witnesses. Principles of social science Thomas, the committee’s chair, had no sympathy for the Hollywood Ten. After six days Thomas, the committee’s chair, hadafter no sympathy the Hollywood Ten.were After six days Bertolt Brecht, left the country testifying.forThe remaining ten labeled the established in 1948 by staunch anti-communists Reagan and Walter Wagner, along with a of hyperbolic political theatrics the first of the Hollywood Ten, John Howard Lawson a ofHollywood hyperbolicTen. political theatrics the first of the Hollywood Ten, John Howard Lawson a group of conservative producers. The MPIC aimed to damage the reputation of the Broadway playwright who was also a self-proclaimed Marxist, was called to testify. “I Broadway playwright whoMcCarthy, was also a Chairman self-proclaimed Marxist, was called to testify. “I Senator Joseph of the Permanent Subcommittee on Hollywood Ten as well as convince Americans that the industry was free of communists. am not on trial here,” Lawson declared, “this committee is on trial here before the am not on trialand here,” Lawson declared, committee on trial here before the Investigations HUAC’s most famous “this prosecutor, was is deliberately confrontational. The MPIC campaigns destroyed careers, especially of known left-wingers.33 But the American people.” Witnesses were brought to testify against the Hollywood Ten, American people.” were brought to testify against Hollywood Ten, The Hollywood Ten Witnesses argued HUAC’s inquisitorial methods werethe unconstitutional, and Hollywood Ten were the first of many to become outcasts. HUAC revisited the film outlining the group’s associations with the Communist 31Party. Only two of the outlining the group’s associations the Communist Only twoJ. of the Congressman Parnell they defended themselves by citingwith the First Amendment.Party. industry again during the early fifties and pursued more severe methods of censorship Hollywood Ten were permitted to read their own statements. On principle the witnesses Thomas, and blacklisting. the committee’s 34 chair, had no sympathy for the Hollywood Ten. After six days 30 Ibid., p. 238. 30refused to affirm or deny their affiliation to the Communist Party, even if it meant 31Ibid., p. 238. hyperbolic p. 239. political theatrics the first of the Hollywood Ten, John Howard Lawson a 31ofIbid., Ibid., p.The 239. witch hunts associated with the HUAC hearings mark the apex of censorship professional suicide. All of the Hollywood 15 Ten served 6-12 month jail sentences, and all Broadway playwright who was also a self-proclaimed Marxist, was called to testify. “I industry that lasted for15 more than half a century. However, in 1952, tradition in the film 32 were blacklisted. am not on trial here,” Lawson declared, “this committee is on trial here before the the so-called “Miracle Decision” radically altered the role of regulators in Hollywood. In The HUAC hearings left Hollywood under deep suspicion. In response the film American people.” Witnesses were brought to testify against the Hollywood Ten, Burstyn v. Wilson, the Supreme Court struck down a ban on Roberto Rosselini’s film, industry launched a major public relations program to improve Hollywood’s image. outlining the group’s associations with the Communist Party. Only two of the The Miracle, which the New York Board of Regents had found “sacrilegious.” The Organized by the newly-formed Motion Picture Industry Council (MPIC), the MPIC was Supreme Court held that movies are “a significant medium for the communication of 30 Ibid., p. 238. of social science Principles 31 Ibid., p. 239. Ibid., p. 239. 33 15 Ibid., p. 240. established in 1948 by staunch anti-communists Reagan 34 N.A., “A Brief History of Film Censorship in the United States.” 32 15 and Walter Wagner, along with a group of conservative producers. The MPIC 16 aimed to damage the reputation of the Hollywood Ten as well as convince Americans that the industry was free of communists. industry industry launched launched aa major major public public relations relations program program to to improve improve Hollywood’s Hollywood’s image. image. Arm, including a scene containing the use drugs, but the MPAA did not. Also, Elia Arm, including a scene containing the use drugs, but the MPAA did not. Also, Elia Organized Organized by by the the newly-formed newly-formed Motion Motion Picture Picture Industry Industry Council Council (MPIC), (MPIC), the the MPIC MPIC was was Kazan’s film Baby Doll was approved by the MPAA, but its erotic content drew the Kazan’s film Baby Doll was approved by the MPAA, but its erotic content drew the ideas,” legitimate expression of art, and are therefore entitled to the protections of the ideas,” legitimate expression of art, and are therefore entitled to the protections of the Film censorship Film censorship First Amendment.35 35 First Amendment. Legion’sThe ire.“Miracle In 1956, the film industry the restrictive Production Code Decision” hastened the amended deconstruction of regulatory organizations. Legion’s In 1956, the film industry the restrictive Production Code Theire.“Miracle Decision” hastened the amended deconstruction of regulatory organizations. introduced in 1930. on drugLegion use, prostitution, abortion By 1956 the MPAAProhibitions and the Catholic of Decencymiscegenation held a publicand clash over introduced in 1930. on drugLegion use, prostitution, abortion By 1956 the MPAAProhibitions and the Catholic of Decencymiscegenation held a publicand clash over were loosened. of During the next decade censorship was reduced significantly, anda the interpretations normative values in films. "The Legion approved Man with Golden were loosened. ofDuring the next decade censorship reduced significantly, and interpretations normative values in films. "The was Legion approved Man with a the Golden courts consistently ruled that the Firstthe Amendment protected nearly all content displayed Arm, including a scene containing use drugs, but the MPAA did not. Also, Elia courts consistently ruled containing that the First nearly all displayed Arm, including a scene theAmendment use drugs, protected but the MPAA didcontent not. Also, Elia on screen.film ByBaby 1961, most appellate and federal courts refused to content issue censorship writs Kazan’s Doll was approved by the MPAA, but its erotic drew the on screen. 1961, most federal courts to content issue censorship Kazan’s filmByBaby Doll wasappellate approvedand by the MPAA, butrefused its erotic drew the writs on films. In 1966, Jack Valenti, a former assistant to President Lyndon B. Johnson, on films. In 1966, Jack Valenti, a former assistant to PresidentFilm Lyndon B. Johnson, censorship Hollywood Ten were permitted to read their own statements. On principle the witnesses ideas,” legitimate expression of art, and are therefore entitled to the protections of the Principles of social science Principles of social science refused to affirm or deny their affiliation to the Communist Party, even if it meant First Amendment.35 established 1948 staunch anti-communists Reagan and Wagner, along with established in insuicide. 1948 by byAll staunch Reagan6-12 and Walter Walter Wagner, alongand withallaa professional of theanti-communists Hollywood Ten served month jail sentences, The “Miracle Decision” hastened the deconstruction of regulatory organizations. group of producers. 32 groupblacklisted. of conservative conservative producers. The The MPIC MPIC aimed aimed to to damage damage the the reputation reputation of of the the were By 1956 the MPAA and the Catholic Legion of Decency held a public clash over Hollywood Ten as as Americans that was of Hollywood as well well as convince convince Americans that the the industry industry was free freeresponse of communists. communists. The Ten HUAC hearings left Hollywood under deep suspicion. In the film interpretations of normative values in films. "The Legion approved Man with33a Golden 33 But the The campaigns destroyed careers, especially of known left-wingers. the The MPIC MPIC campaigns destroyed especially left-wingers. industry launched a major publiccareers, relations programoftoknown improve Hollywood’s But image. Arm, including a scene containing the use drugs, but the MPAA did not. Also, Elia Hollywood Ten were the many to outcasts. HUAC revisited the film Hollywoodby Ten the first first of of manyPicture to become become outcasts. revisited the was film Organized the were newly-formed Motion Industry CouncilHUAC (MPIC), the MPIC Kazan’s film Baby Doll was approved by the MPAA, but its erotic content drew the industry industry again again during during the the early early fifties fifties and and pursued pursued more more severe severe methods methods of of censorship censorship Principles of social science 34 and and blacklisting. blacklisting.34 Film censorship established in 1948hunts by staunch anti-communists Reagan and Walter Wagner,ofalong with a The The witch witch hunts associated associated with with the the HUAC HUAC hearings hearings mark mark the the apex apex of censorship censorship Legion’s ire. In 1956, the film industry amended the restrictive Production Code group of inconservative producers.lasted The MPIC aimedhalf to damage theHowever, reputation of the tradition tradition in the the film film industry industry that that lasted for for more more than than half aa century. century. However, in in 1952, 1952, introduced in 1930. Prohibitions on drug use, prostitution, miscegenation and abortion Hollywood Ten as wellDecision” as convince Americans that therole industry was free ofHollywood. communists. the the so-called so-called “Miracle “Miracle Decision” radically radically altered altered the the role of of regulators regulators in in Hollywood. In In were loosened. During the next decade censorship was reduced significantly, and the 33 But the The MPIC campaigns Supreme destroyed careers, especially aofban knownRoberto left-wingers. Burstyn Burstyn v. v. Wilson, Wilson, the the Supreme Court Court struck struck down down a ban on on Roberto Rosselini’s Rosselini’s film, film, courts consistently ruled that the First Amendment protected nearly all content displayed Hollywood Ten werethe the first York of many to become outcasts.found HUAC revisited the film The The Miracle, Miracle, which which the New New York Board Board of of Regents Regents had had found “sacrilegious.” “sacrilegious.” The The on screen. By 1961, most appellate and federal courts refused to issue censorship writs industry again duringthat the early fifties and pursued more severe methods of censorship Supreme Supreme Court Court held held that movies movies are are “a “a significant significant medium medium for for the the communication communication of of on films. In 1966, Jack Valenti, a former assistant to President Lyndon B. Johnson, and blacklisting.34 ideas,” legitimate expression of art, and are therefore entitled to the protections of the 32 239. of the MPAA. Valenti helped establish the SMA category (“Suggested for 32 Ibid., p.head became 33 Ibid., p. 239. 240.witch hunts The associated with the HUAC hearings mark the apex of censorship 33 Ibid., p. 35 Ibid., p. 240. 34 First Amendment. “A Brief History of Film Censorship in the United States.” 34 N.A., N.A., “A Brief History of Filmfor Censorship in the United States.” Mature Audiences”) label films inappropriate for younger audiences. Finally, in tradition in the film industry that lasted for 16 more than half a century. However, in 1952, The “Miracle Decision” hastened the 16deconstruction of regulatory organizations. 1968, after objections to the Production Code and ambiguity from court decisions the the so-called “Miracle Decision” radically altered the role of regulators in Hollywood. In By 1956 the MPAA and the Catholic Legion of Decency held a public clash over MPAA instituted a nationwide rating system based on the viewer’s age, or the Burstyn v. Wilson, the Supreme Court struck down a ban on Roberto Rosselini’s film, interpretations of normative values in films. "The Legion approved Man with a Golden 36 With modifications, the scale Classification Ratings Administration (CARA). The Miracle, and which the New York Board of Regents hadsome found “sacrilegious.” The Arm, including a scene containing the use drugs, but the MPAA did not. Also, Elia is still usedCourt today.held that movies are “a significant medium for the communication of Supreme Kazan’s film Baby Doll was approved by the MPAA, but its erotic content drew the 32 Ibid., p. 239. Film censorship Ibid., p. 240. 34 N.A., “A Brief History of Film Censorship in the United States.” 35 N.A., “A Brief History of Censorship in the United States.” 36 N.A., “Theire. Supreme Movie Censorship: The State Censors.” Legion’s In Court 1956,andthe film industry16 amended the restrictive Production Code 33 16 17 introduced in 1930. Prohibitions on drug use, prostitution, miscegenation and abortion Film censorship became head of the MPAA. Valenti helped establish the SMA category (“Suggested for became head of the MPAA. Valenti helped establish the SMA category (“Suggested for Legion’s ire. In 1956, the film industry amended the restrictive Production Code Mature Audiences”) label the for filmsindustry inappropriate for the younger audiences. Finally, in Legion’s ire. In 1956, amended restrictive Production Code Mature Audiences”) label for film films inappropriate for younger audiences. Finally, in introduced in 1930. Prohibitions on drug use, prostitution, miscegenation and abortion 1968, after objections to the Production ambiguity from court decisions the introduced 1930. Prohibitions on drugCode use, and prostitution, miscegenation and abortion 1968, after in objections to the Production Code and ambiguity from court decisions the were loosened. During the next decade censorship was reduced significantly, and the MPAA instituted a nationwide ratingcensorship system based on thesignificantly, viewer’s age, or the were loosened. During the next decade was reduced and the MPAA instituted a nationwide rating system based on the viewer’s age, or the courts consistently ruled that the First Amendment 36protected nearly all content displayed With some modifications, the scale Classification and Ratings Administration (CARA). 36 courts consistently ruled that the First Amendment nearly all content displayed With some modifications, the scale Classification and Ratings Administration (CARA). protected on screen. By 1961, most appellate and federal courts refused to issue censorship writs is used today. onstill screen. By 1961, most appellate and federal courts refused to issue censorship writs is still used today. on films. In 1966, Jack Valenti, a former assistant to President Lyndon B. Johnson, on films. In 1966, Jack Valenti, a former assistant to President Lyndon B. Johnson, Since the establishment of CARA, restrictions on expressions have fallen became head of the MPAA. Valenti helped establish the SMA category (“Suggested for became head of the MPAA. Valenti helped establish the SMA category (“Suggested for dramatically. The rating system is designed to protect the young from more mature 35 Mature Audiences”) label for films inappropriate for younger audiences. Finally, in 35 N.A., “A Brief History of Censorship in the United States.” N.A., “AAudiences”) Brief History of Censorship in the UnitedThe States.” Censors.” Mature label for younger audiences. Finally, in 36 Supreme Court and Movie Censorship: content while not limiting whatfilms can inappropriate be shownState on for screen. Strict censorship has been 36 N.A., “The N.A., “The Supreme Court and Movie Censorship: The State Censors.” 1968, after objections to the Production Code and ambiguity from court decisions the 17 and ambiguity from court decisions the 1968, afterand objections to the isProduction overcome, today anyone allowed toCode produce virtually any film of almost any kind, 17 MPAA instituted a nationwide rating system based on the viewer’s age, or the MPAA instituted a nationwide rating system based on the viewer’s age, or the regardless of its genre, opinion, or message. With some modifications, the scale Classification and Ratings Administration (CARA).36 Classification and Ratings Administration (CARA).36 With some modifications, the scale is still used today. Principles of social science is still used today. Works Cited 35 N.A., “A Brief History of Censorship in the United States.” 35 36 Association of History Motion Pictures “TheCensors.” Motion Picture Production Code,” N.A., “A Brief of Censorship inCensorship: the United Inc. States.” “The Supreme Court and MovieProducers, The State 36 (1930). http://asu.edu/courses/fms200s/total-readings/MotionPictureProductionCode.pdf. N.A., “The Supreme Court and Movie Censorship: The State Censors.” 17 Biesen, Sheri Chinen. Blackout: World War17II and the Origins of Film Noir (Baltimore, 2005). overcome, overcome, and and today today anyone anyone is is allowed allowed to to produce produce virtually virtually any any film film of of almost almost any any kind, kind, regardless regardless of of its its genre, genre, opinion, opinion, or or message. message. Gender, Culture and Identity: Principles of social science Principles of social science Works Works Cited Cited Catholic-Syrians in Modern Venezuela Association Association of of Motion Motion Pictures Pictures Producers, Producers, Inc. Inc. “The “The Motion Motion Picture Picture Production Production Code,” Code,” (1930). http://asu.edu/courses/fms200s/total-readings/MotionPictureProductionCode.pdf. (1930). http://asu.edu/courses/fms200s/total-readings/MotionPictureProductionCode.pdf. Marina Wakil Biesen, Biesen, Sheri Sheri Chinen. Chinen. Blackout: Blackout: World World War War II II and and the the Origins Origins of of Film Film Noir Noir (Baltimore, (Baltimore, 2005). 2005). Couvares, Couvares, Francis Francis G. G. Movie Movie Censorship Censorship and and American American Culture Culture (Amherst, (Amherst, MA, MA, 2006). 2006). Doherty, Doherty, Thomas. Thomas. Hollywood's Hollywood's Censor: Censor: Joseph Joseph I. I. Breen Breen and and the the Production Production Code Code Administration (New York, 2009). Administration (New York, 2009). Grieveson, Grieveson, Lee. Lee. Policing Policing Cinema: Cinema: Movies Movies and and Censorship Censorship in in Early-Twentieth-Century Early-Twentieth-Century America (Berkeley, 2004). America (Berkeley, 2004). N.A. N.A. “A “A Brief Brief History History of of Film Film Censorship Censorship in in the the United United States.” States.” http://ncac.org/resource/a-brief-history-of-film-censorship/. http://ncac.org/resource/a-brief-history-of-film-censorship/. N.A. N.A. “The “The Supreme Supreme Court Court and and Movie Movie Censorship: Censorship: The The State State Censors.” Censors.” http://moviehistory.us/censoring-americans-movies.html. http://moviehistory.us/censoring-americans-movies.html. The history of Syrian migration includes the post-colonial emigration of Christians and other non-Muslims in the twentieth century, and most recently the exodus of more than four million people fleeing the violence and instability created by the civil conflict between the government of Bashar al-Assad and the various opposition factions, including the so-called Islamic State. While the long-term consequences of this mass migration remains largely speculative, Syrian migration to other countries in the Middle East and in Europe has fomented fears in host countries of the economic and cultural impact of receiving so many migrants. Additionally, the rise of Islamic extremism and the threat of global terrorism have led to the emergence of an essential view of Arabs among Westerners that leaves little room for rational consideration of the complex diversity of their identities. The fear and anxiety produced by the migrant crisis have led to misconceptions and negative stereotypes of what are a diverse and complex group of people. Some of the most pervasive are those concerning gender ideologies, and especially a monolithic and oversimplified critique of Arab patriarchy that fails to grasp the complexity of gender relations among Arabs, as well as the nuances of agency afforded to Arab women, 18 18 ____________________________ Marina Wakil ‘16, plans to study anthropology and film studies at Barnard College of Columbia University. 19 18 19 Principles of social science Principles of social science Gender, Culture and identity The most important defining criteria that a person must meet in order to identify as Arab especially in transnational or diasporic communities. This essay explores the complex nuances especially in transnational or diasporic communities. This essay explores the complex nuances of Arab gender ideologies, in the context of family life in Catholic-Syrian diasporic communities of Arab gender ideologies, in the context of family life in Catholic-Syrian diasporic communities are the Arabic language, membership in a patrilineal descent group, and adherence to a code of in Venezuela, by way of ethnographic analysis. in Venezuela, by way of ethnographic analysis. conduct meant to maintain the honor of one’s lineage and provide members with guides for During the 1950s, Arab Christians, mostly from Syria and Lebanon, migrated to Latin During the 1950s, Arab Christians, mostly from Syria and Lebanon, migrated to Latin proper Catholic-Arab behavior. Although many of the younger generations have lost the guttural America.11 Although Mexico, Brazil, Colombia, and Argentina were also destinations, significant America. Although Mexico, Brazil, Colombia, and Argentina were also destinations, significant strength required to speak Arabic, it is still the preferred language amongst older people, numbers settled in Venezuela.22 Immigrants often maintained strong familial bonds because numbers settled in Venezuela. Immigrants often maintained strong familial bonds because especially when speaking amongst themselves. whole families would migrate together, meaning that the traditional family structures remained whole families would migrate together, meaning that the traditional family structures remained importance of the last name pervades, but communication takes place mostly in Spanish.5 intact, and in many cases, were reinforced by the shared experiences of being uprooted and intact, and in many cases, were reinforced by the shared experiences of being uprooted and Beyond meeting these criteria, someone identifying as Syrian in Venezuela comes with an forced to adapt to life in a new and foreign land. Family and ethnic connections became vital, forced to adapt to life in a new and foreign land. Family and ethnic connections became vital, additional moral code combining Arab, Catholic, and Latin American traditions. By the second or third generation, the and many Syrians created their own places for gathering, establishing cultural points of and many Syrians created their own places for gathering, establishing cultural points of Kinship is strictly defined and adhered to in Arab society, making patrileaniality one of references through their diets, their social spaces, and many of the important traditions that references through their diets, their social spaces, and many of the important traditions that the most important aspects of Arab culture. As a result, family names are an essential part of identify them as both Syrian and Arab.33 identify them as both Syrian and Arab. someone’s identity and place in Syrian society. Men must give their surname to their children, As newcomers they settled throughout Venezuela, to places such as Caracas, Puerto La As newcomers they settled throughout Venezuela, to places such as Caracas, Puerto La and the name must be perpetuated, which is a sign of power and prestige for the family.6 In Cruz, and Bolivar, where the biggest Arabic populations still live today. As of the early 2000s, Cruz, and Bolivar, where the biggest Arabic populations still live today. As of the early 2000s, order to ensure that the family lineage is continued for generations to come, Syrian families favor there were approximately 400,000 Syrians living in Venezuela. there were approximately 400,000 Syrians living in Venezuela. Many of the Syrians and Many of the Syrians and having boys over girls. However, both genders are welcomed to the family and have their roles Lebanese men and women who migrated to Venezuela were Christians, predominantly Roman Lebanese men and women who migrated to Venezuela were Christians, predominantly Roman to play. The importance of names extends also to first names, since there are traditions in place Catholics. Catholics. Venezuela is a predominantly Catholic country, making it easier for Syrian Venezuela is a predominantly Catholic country, making it easier for Syrian that suggest, and sometimes require, men to name their sons after their fathers. Often this results immigrants to adapt since they already shared many of the same fundamental beliefs and values.44 immigrants to adapt since they already shared many of the same fundamental beliefs and values. in men referring to each other as Abu proceeded by the name of the man’s son, and in turn, the name of man’s father (Abu means ‘the father of’ in Arabic). The tradition showcases the pride 1 Kaldone Nweihad, “La Emigración de Sirios, Libaneses y Palestinos a Venezuela, Ecuador y Colombia: Balance 1 KaldonedeNweihad, “La Emigración de Sirios, Palestinos a Venezuela, y Colombia: Balance Cultural une Relación Sostenida Durante 110Libaneses Años,” ElyMundo Arabe y América Ecuador Latina, Raymundo Kabchi, ed. Cultural de une p. Relación (Madrid,1997), 242. Sostenida Durante 110 Años,” El Mundo Arabe y América Latina, Raymundo Kabchi, ed. 2(Madrid,1997), p. 242. Ibid., p. 242. 2 3 Ibid., p. 242. Jaqueline Sakkal, Personal Interview (2015). 3 4 Jaqueline Sakkal, Personal Interview (2015). Tony Frangie Mawad, ‘Miss Venezuela Es Árabe – Y Eso No La Hace Menos Venezolana Qué Tú’, 4 Tony Frangie Mawad, ‘Miss Venezuela Es Árabe – Y Eso No La Hace Menos Venezolana Qué Tú’, CARAQUISTÁN. http://www.tonyfrangie.com/blogespanol/2015/10/9/jwxko0hiht8dkbpsgbv2b6dxx14pl3.Ibid. CARAQUISTÁN. http://www.tonyfrangie.com/blogespanol/2015/10/9/jwxko0hiht8dkbpsgbv2b6dxx14pl3.Ibid. that men feel when their wives give birth to a male heir, because it represents family 5 Ahmed Mattar, Guía Social de la Colonia de Habla Arabe en Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Perú, Venezuela y las Islas Holandesas de Curazao y Aruba (Barranquilla, 1945). 6 Lila Abu-Lughod and Janet L. Abu-Lughod, Veiled Sentiments: Honour and Poetry in a Bedouin Society (Berkeley, CA, 1987), p. 53. 20 20 21 20 21 Principles of social science Gender, Culture and identity Gender, Culture and identity continuity in the only way possible with patrilineal descent. Sons may also include Ibn (‘son of’) before the names of their fathers.7 This reinforces the prestige that comes with being part of a certain patrilineage and the importance for the family’s continuity. There are no equivalent set of terms for women, showing the primacy of male lineages and masculine roles over those of women, a fact that has a profound impact on the lives of both men and women in Arab societies, including those who have migrated to Venezuela. Family names are important in that they also show links between different families that have been united through the marriage of two individuals. Marriages serve as a way to speak on behalf of both families that are part of the ceremony and the union, especially when the marriage crystalizes a union between families of relatively high status. It is not uncommon to see marriages between men who are at least 7 to 15 years older than their brides. Women usually marry between the ages of 18 to 25.8 The traditional rationale is women in this age cohort are still naïve but have a lot of energy, which means it is the perfect time for her to move out of her parent’s home and start a family. Men, on the other hand, are expected to be established and capable of providing for the financial well-being of the family. The husband is seen as an exemplary man if his family lives in luxury and is able to provide generously, without having to worry about expenses.9 Pressure is put on men to be independent because of the economic responsibility placed Pressure is put on men to be independent because of the economic responsibility placed on their shoulders.10 In contrast, a woman should not work, but instead, should stay home and on their shoulders.10 In contrast, a woman should not work, but instead, should stay home and take care of the children in order to ensure that they are brought up with the proper set of values take care of the children in order to ensure that they are brought up with the proper set of values and in accordance with the requisite moral code. This can sometimes be limiting because the and in accordance with the requisite moral code. This can sometimes be limiting because the woman takes on all of the responsibility of the home, even if her relative inexperience requires woman takes on all of the responsibility of the home, even if her relative inexperience requires her to rely on advice from other, older female relatives. Men are considered more independent, her to rely on advice from other, older female relatives. Men are considered more independent, relying more on their own judgement and experience than the advice of others, while women are relying more on their own judgement and experience than the advice of others, while women are meant to depend on men. In practice the wife’s role is traditionally meant to compliment that of meant to depend on men. In practice the wife’s role is traditionally meant to compliment that of her husband more than be completely subordinate and dependent on him.11 her husband more than be completely subordinate and dependent on him.11 A great deal of importance is also placed on a woman’s virginity, once again tying back A great deal of importance is also placed on a woman’s virginity, once again tying back to the significance of the patrilineal descent group and the importance this places on an to the significance of the patrilineal descent group and the importance this places on an individual’s paternity. Women who are not virgins are seen as immoral and impure because they individual’s paternity. Women who are not virgins are seen as immoral and impure because they have belonged to another man. Once this has occurred the paternity of her children can never be have belonged to another man. Once this has occurred the paternity of her children can never be truly relied upon. The moral code also equates virginity with pureness, naïveté, and the ideals of truly relied upon. The moral code also equates virginity with pureness, naïveté, and the ideals of modesty for women. Arab culture holds that women should not feel pleasure during sex. Instead modesty for women. Arab culture holds that women should not feel pleasure during sex. Instead the physical act should be seen purely as a mean of procreation and furthering the patrilineal the physical act should be seen purely as a mean of procreation and furthering the patrilineal group. Men, on the other hand, are expected to have sexual experience by the time they marry, group. Men, on the other hand, are expected to have sexual experience by the time they marry, which is another reason why the age gap is significant. Men have a free pass to experience other which is another reason why the age gap is significant. Men have a free pass to experience other aspects of life before they get marriage, and having sex is a sign of masculinity, strength, and aspects of life before they get marriage, and having sex is a sign of masculinity, strength, and 7 10 8 11 10 Wakil, Personal Interview. Abu-Lughod andInterview. Abu-Lughod, Veiled Sentiments, p. 118. Wakil, Personal 11 Abu-Lughod and Abu-Lughod, Veiled Sentiments, p. 118. Naman Wakil, Personal Interview (2015). Sakkal, Personal Interview. 9 Wakil, Personal Interview. 22 23 23 22 23 Gender, Culture and identity Principles of social science Gender, Culture and identity power that reflects positively on men. This double standard ensures that the gender roles are rigidly maintained and that the relationship between married couples continues to be one of dependence and subordination on the part of the women. Additionally, Arab immigrants generally do not marry someone that they consider shaab, meaning a person who is not of Arab descent. This is mainly because outsiders are not seen as having the same values, nor understanding of the moral codes that are expected of Arabs. The general expectation is that they will not understand nor adapt to the standards that are expected from men and women who are Arab. This lack of understanding would have negative consequences when rearing children meant to identify as Arab and to perpetuate the values and behaviors required of Arabs. This is especially critical for Syrians who migrate to non-Arab countries, as is the case with Syrians in Venezuela. Syrian-Venezuelan parents often pressure their Venezuelan-born children to end or avoid entering romantic relationships with non-Arabs out of a concern that this will lead to a diluting of the family’s Arab identity.12 Arab families in Venezuela have decreased in size in the last few generations. The first generation to arrive bore 3 to 7 children. Now, it has become less common to have more than 3 or 4. For Arabs, because of the emphasis on patrilineal descent, having a male child is critical.13 The more sons the family has, the more chances they have of furthering their lineage and passing on the last name. 12 13 Gender in the context of Arab culture is a defining factor in the role that an individual Gender in the context of Arab culture is a defining factor in the role that an individual plays in a society, although many of the social structures governing gender roles are also shared plays in a society, although many of the social structures governing gender roles are also shared by latin mainstream cultures like the one in Venezuela. This includes, but is not limited to, by latin mainstream cultures like the one in Venezuela. This includes, but is not limited to, expectations of dress, family etiquette and relations with outsiders.14 Because of these gender expectations of dress, family etiquette and relations with outsiders.14 Because of these gender ideologies, Arab culture can continue to grow and thrive by reproducing the core values that ideologies, Arab culture can continue to grow and thrive by reproducing the core values that define one as Arab and Syrian in a foreign land like Venezuela. define one as Arab and Syrian in a foreign land like Venezuela. One common Western critique of Arab gender ideologies is the limitations that are placed One common Western critique of Arab gender ideologies is the limitations that are placed on women’s liberties. Women are expected to cook, clean, and take care of the many children on women’s liberties. Women are expected to cook, clean, and take care of the many children they birth. The requirements of maintaining the integrity of patrilineal family descent places they birth. The requirements of maintaining the integrity of patrilineal family descent places limitations on women’s movements and creates double standards between what is required and limitations on women’s movements and creates double standards between what is required and expected of men and women. However, despite these limitations on their liberties, Syrianexpected of men and women. However, despite these limitations on their liberties, SyrianVenezuelan woman still enjoy spaces to freely express sentiments and behaviors otherwise Venezuelan woman still enjoy spaces to freely express sentiments and behaviors otherwise deemed in poor tasted or dishonorable in more public environments. One such space is known deemed in poor tasted or dishonorable in more public environments. One such space is known among Syrians as the shirke (reunion). among Syrians as the shirke (reunion). The shirke is a monthly or bi-monthly social gathering attended only by women. It takes The shirke is a monthly or bi-monthly social gathering attended only by women. It takes place in the home of one of the regular attendees. Each woman is expected to bring a casserole place in the home of one of the regular attendees. Each woman is expected to bring a casserole or dessert, which means that everyone contributes so the preparation of food for up to fifteen or dessert, which means that everyone contributes so the preparation of food for up to fifteen guests is not left to the host. The women sit down and converse over food and coffee. These guests is not left to the host. The women sit down and converse over food and coffee. These reunions can last five hours or more. It provides an opportunity to gossip about the lives of reunions can last five hours or more. It provides an opportunity to gossip about the lives of people in the community, whether they attend the shirke or not. Usually, the women hold the people in the community, whether they attend the shirke or not. Usually, the women hold the 14 Sakkal, Personal Interview. Sakkal, Personal Interview. 14 Abu-Lughod and Abu-Lughod, Veiled Sentiments, pp.109-110. Abu-Lughod and Abu-Lughod, Veiled Sentiments, pp.109-110. 24 25 25 24 25 Gender, Culture and Gender, Culture and identity Principles of social science Identity people they are talking about to high standards of morality. Topics of conversation can include Events like the shirke allow for women to at once express their individual sentiments, and yet upcoming weddings, births, or scandalous behavior, even among relatives and acquaitances maintain appropriate boundaries in their relationships. In the hours spent with their friends, they living in Syria. It is a moment for the women to engage in a kind of support group, but also are not merely mothers or wives, but also individuals with unique desires and sentiments that can share critical information, as well as provide women with a forum to express criticisms of what be expressed without reference to the assumed expectations of their gender. many see as the inequities of being a woman in an Arab-influenced community. Sometimes The place of women in Syrian-Venezuelan society is quite complex, and most women women simply reflect upon the suffering that they endure under the pressures of social live negotiating between the expectations of patriarchy and the possibilities for agency afforded expectations or problems with their marriages, and they are comforted by others who at the very to them in the context of culturally appropriate social spaces.15 Such spaces mean that Arab least commiserate on the shared experiences of being a Syrian woman in Venezuela. Women women are not completely silent as one might expect in a patriarchal system. Rather they and men in Arab society are highly scrutinized for their actions, especially when there is a reason express themselves through prescribed means to maintain their honor and that of their families to believe that they are falling out of line, and the shirke serves as an appropriate venue for while also working to earn respect and authority.16 The hierarchical system is not absolute. It is reflecting upon and responding to that scrutiny. very flexible, which can work to the advantage of some and to great disadvantage for others. By After they are done drinking coffee, they “read” their coffee cups. The liquid that doing so, they articulate some of the many ways that Syrians in Venezuela adapt to new social remains on the cup serves to create figures in the mug that are believed to have important conditions while maintaining strong attachments to the traditions that they share with other messages. The cup is flipped upside down and at an angle with the plate that they are given. Syrians around the world, and thus provide a model for understanding the outcome of more After a couple of minutes, they each flip their cups back and a designated reader, who is believed recent migrations out of Syria. to be the best one at reading the cups, does her job. At times, when there are younger women present who have just married or are expecting children, they also use a cross or crucifix to predict the sex, as well as the gender of the babies and the number of children the person is going to have. The reading of the coffee cups helps to diffuse anxiety that they might otherwise experience under the scrutiny of other women by incorporating a supernatural or fate-driven element to events in their lives, and sharing the mutual interpretation of those events. 15 16 Sakkal, Personal Interview. Abu-Lughod and Abu-Lughod, Veiled Sentiments, p. 109. 27 26 26 27 Principles of social science Leave the Gun, Take the Cannoli: Principles of social science The Godfather as a Transitional Italian-American Film Works Cited Works Cited Abu-Lughod, Lila and Janet L. Abu-Lughod. Veiled Sentiments: Honour and Poetry in a Bedouin Society (Berkeley, CA,L.1987). Abu-Lughod, Lila and Janet Abu-Lughod. Veiled Sentiments: Honour and Poetry in a Bedouin Society (Berkeley, CA, 1987). Klich, Ignacio & Lesser, Jeffrey, ed. Arab and Jewish Immigrants in Latin America: Images and Realities (London, 1998).Jeffrey, ed. Arab and Jewish Immigrants in Latin America: Images and Klich, Ignacio & Lesser, Realities (London, 1998). Mattar, Ahmed. Guía Social de la Colonia de Habla Arabe en Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Perú, Venezuela las Islas Holandesas de Curazao y Aruba (Barranquilla, Mattar, Ahmed. y Guía Social de la Colonia de Habla Arabe en Bolivia,1945.) Colombia, Ecuador, Perú, Venezuela y las Islas Holandesas de Curazao y Aruba (Barranquilla, 1945.) Mawad, Tony Frangie. “Miss Venezuela Es Árabe – Y Eso No La Hace Menos Venezolana Qué Tú,” CARAQUISTÁN. Mawad, Tony Frangie. “Miss Venezuela Es Árabe – Y Eso No La Hace Menos Venezolana Qué http://www.tonyfrangie.com/blogespanol/2015/10/9/jwxko0hiht8dkbpsgbv2b6dxx14pl3. Tú,” CARAQUISTÁN. http://www.tonyfrangie.com/blogespanol/2015/10/9/jwxko0hiht8dkbpsgbv2b6dxx14pl3. Nweihad, Kaldone. “La Emigración de Sirios, Libaneses y Palestinos a Venezuela, Ecuador y Colombia:Kaldone. Balance Cultural de une Relación 110 Años,” El Mundo Arabe yy Nweihad, “La Emigración de Sirios,Sostenida LibanesesDurante y Palestinos a Venezuela, Ecuador América Latina, Raymundo ed. (Madrid, 1997). Durante 110 Años,” El Mundo Arabe y Colombia: Balance Cultural Kabchi, de une Relación Sostenida América Latina, Raymundo Kabchi, ed. (Madrid, 1997). Sakkal, Jaqueline. Personal Interview. October 13, 2015. Sakkal, Jaqueline. Personal Interview. October 13, 2015. Salloum, Habeeb. “Arabs Making Their Mark in Latin America: Generations of Immigrants in Colombia,Habeeb. Venezuela andMaking Mexico.” 2000. September, 2015. Generations of Immigrants in Salloum, “Arabs Their Mark in Latin America: http://www.aljadid.com/content/arabs-making-their-mark-latin-america-generations-immigrantsColombia, Venezuela and Mexico.” 2000. September, 2015. colombia-venezuela-and-mexico. http://www.aljadid.com/content/arabs-making-their-mark-latin-america-generations-immigrantscolombia-venezuela-and-mexico. Wakil, Naman. Personal Interview. September 24, 2015. Wakil, Naman. Personal Interview. September 24, 2015. Alaz Sengul Since its release in 1972, The Godfather has reached cult status among gangster movie aficionados. Despite its popular appeal, to wide stretches of American audiences, young and old, sophisticated and non, the film also manages to capture subtle shifts in the American film industry. The Godfather relays important transitional themes in Hollywood’s evolutionary depiction of Italian-American culture. The Godfather represents a significant transition in how the American movie industry and popular culture have interpreted Italian-Americans. Before its release, Italian-Americans were portrayed as stereotypical mobsters seeking nefarious paths to fortune. Following The Godfather, however, Italian-Americans were portrayed as more dynamic characters, overcoming early twentieth-century stereotypes. Italian-Americans have been a staple in American films since the introduction of motion picture cinemas in 1903.1 By the 1950s, movies that featured mobster culture almost always highlighted Italian-American on-screen characters as gangster prototypes. But in the 1960s and 1970s, a domestic ethnic revival took place. Hollywood film producers, keen on capitalizing on domestic cultural shifts, considered “the commercial possibilities of ethnicity,” so filmmakers began to “examine their own ethnic identities via movies.”2 28 28 Alaz Sengul ‘17, plans to study economics and music in university. 1 2 28 Barry Keith Grant, Schirmer Encyclopedia of Film (Detroit: Schirmer Reference, 2005). Carlos E Cortés, “Italian-Americans in Film: From Immigrants to Icons,” in MELUS (Oxford University Press, 1987), p. 14. http://www.jstor.org/stable/467405. 29 29 Principles of social science The godfather The godfather The ethnic revival in Hollywood was centered on the growing social concerns and appreciations for the culture and experiences of immigrant and minority groups. During the 1960s and 1970s, ethnic groups and their roles in society were portrayed as accurately as possible in order to supersede previous false stereotypes, a movement that resonated outside of the classroom and into Hollywood as well. This change contributed to Francis Ford Coppola’s revolutionary film presentations of Italian-American gangster culture into a typecast that incorporated both paradigms. The Godfather thus served as the turning point in Hollywood’s depiction of Italian-Americans. Before The Godfather, “Italian-American film hoodlums” were depicted as abject failures in the American Dream matrix of immigrant success. Italian-American characters in film usually “turned to illegal avenues in their quest for pride, power, and prosperity.” 3 Edward G. Robinson’s performance in Little Caesar (1930) as Rico Bandello solidified the on-screen reputation of Italian-Americans as immigrant thugs.4 The box-office success of Little Caesar further implanted the Italian-American immigrant-gangster perception in American popular culture. In the film, Bandello’s “pursuit of the American dream as well as his failure to obtain it, made him as endearing to the populace as the doomed Gatsby.”5 In the popular 1938 film A 3 James A Banks, “The Social Studies, Ethnic Diversity, and Social Change,” The Elementary School Journal (May, 1987). 4 Jenna Lotardo, “Italian American Stereotypes in the Media,” University of Hartford. http://uhaweb.hartford.edu/LOTARDO/. 5 “Little Caesar,” University of Virginia. http://xroads.virginia.edu/~ug02/gangsters/littlecaesar.html. Slight Case of Murder, the “bumbling bootlegger Remy Marco” plays the lead Italian-American Slight Case of Murder, the “bumbling bootlegger Remy Marco” plays the lead Italian-American character whose laughable but tragic lowly gangster tales of failures furthered the stereotypes character whose laughable but tragic lowly gangster tales of failures furthered the stereotypes most white Americans had of their Italian neighbors.6 most white Americans had of their Italian neighbors.6 The Italian-American gangster typecast came to reflect a broader cultural disposition The Italian-American gangster typecast came to reflect a broader cultural disposition inherent to all immigrants from Europe. Directors neglected the more homey, conservative inherent to all immigrants from Europe. Directors neglected the more homey, conservative tradition of Italian-American families and even portrayed female Italian-Americans as mobster tradition of Italian-American families and even portrayed female Italian-Americans as mobster accomplices. Ma Magdalena of Little Caesar reiterated the screen pattern of Italian-American accomplices. Ma Magdalena of Little Caesar reiterated the screen pattern of Italian-American criminality in both genders. 7 These stereotypes continued during World War II. Indeed, criminality in both genders. 7 These stereotypes continued during World War II. Indeed, American participation in World War II against Italian fascism in Europe solidified this American participation in World War II against Italian fascism in Europe solidified this perception. The domestic climate of hostility towards the Axis during World War II further perception. The domestic climate of hostility towards the Axis during World War II further vilified all Italian’s as violent gangsters. World War II turned cinema into propaganda, vilified all Italian’s as violent gangsters. World War II turned cinema into propaganda, exemplified with the 1946 film Lady of the Lake. The film’s violent overtones and associations exemplified with the 1946 film Lady of the Lake. The film’s violent overtones and associations between criminality and Italian culture continued decades after war’s end with minor films like between criminality and Italian culture continued decades after war’s end with minor films like Knock On Any Door (1949), The Young Savages (1961), and The Incident (1967).8 Knock On Any Door (1949), The Young Savages (1961), and The Incident (1967).8 It was not until the release of The Godfather that Hollywood began to modify its It was not until the release of The Godfather that Hollywood began to modify its portrayals of Italian-Americans. 9 These revisions were, in part, reflective of the wider portrayals of Italian-Americans. 9 These revisions were, in part, reflective of the wider transformations American society underwent in its perceptions of minority groups. The social transformations American society underwent in its perceptions of minority groups. The social protest movements of the 1960s and 1970s advocated for social justice and minority civil protest movements of the 1960s and 1970s advocated for social justice and minority civil 6 7 6 8 7 9 8 9 Damon Runyon, A Slight Case of Murder, directed by Lloyd Bacon, (USA: First National Pictures, 1938). “Little of Virginia. DamonCaesar,” Runyon,University A Slight Case of Murder, directed by Lloyd Bacon, (USA: First National Pictures, 1938). Cortés,Caesar,” “Italian-Americans in Film: From Immigrants to Icons,” p. 14. “Little University of Virginia. Mario The Godfather,indirected by Francis Ford Coppola, Cortés,Puzo, “Italian-Americans Film: From Immigrants to Icons,”(USA: p. 14. Paramount Pictures, 1972). Mario Puzo, The Godfather, directed by Francis Ford Coppola, (USA: Paramount Pictures, 1972). 30 31 31 30 31 include English subtitles, forcing viewers instead to rely on cognates and innuendos to piece together the conversation. The language emphasizes Coppola’s decision to Italianize the film. include English subtitles, forcing viewers instead to rely on cognates and innuendos to piece Principles of social science The godfather 10 Principles of social science that had previously existed on the margins of American society and popular culture. Minority together the conversation. The language emphasizes Coppola’s decision to Italianize the film. include English subtitles, forcing viewers instead to rely on cognates and innuendos to piece Later in the scene, Corleone realizes his fluency in Italian is lacking for a conversation of such include English subtitles, forcing viewers instead to rely on cognates and innuendos to piece together the conversation. The language emphasizes Coppola’s decision to Italianize the film. The godfather significance, and thus reverts back to English. This is Coppola’s symbolic affirmation that together the conversation. The language emphasizes Coppola’s decision to Italianize the film. rights.10 The cultural renaissance among minority groups celebrated distinct cultural identities and immigrant communities asserted their cultural dignity and celebrated the manifest Italian-Americans have become too “Americanized,” and thus need to embrace their Italian roots godfather Later in the scene, Corleone realizes his fluency in Italian is lacking for a The conversation of such rights. The cultural renaissance among minority groups celebrated distinct cultural identities that had previously existed on the margins of American society and popular culture. Minority divergence of minority culture from traditional American culture. and immigrant communities asserted their cultural dignity and celebrated the manifest The Godfather is the central example of the film industry’s reaction to this cultural divergence of minority culture from traditional American culture. transformation. It was one of the first films to romanticize Italian-American culture while still The Godfather is the central example of the film industry’s reaction to this cultural sticking to the genre’s mobster paradigm. Coppola, an Italian-American himself, hired a thentransformation. It was one of the first films to romanticize Italian-American culture while still unknown Sicilian actor, Al Pacino, to play the protagonist of the movie, Michael Corleone.11 sticking to the genre’s mobster paradigm. Coppola, an Italian-American himself, hired a thenPacino’s rendering captures the film’s attempt to form a more nuanced Italian-American ethnic unknown Sicilian actor, Al Pacino, to play the protagonist of the movie, Michael Corleone.11 identity. During the movie, set in the 1950s, Corleone flees from New York City to Sicily in Pacino’s rendering captures the film’s attempt to form a more nuanced Italian-American ethnic order to escape imprisonment after shooting police captain Marc McCluskey and drug honcho identity. During the movie, set in the 1950s, Corleone flees from New York City to Sicily in Virgil Sollozzo. While Corleone is in Sicily, Coppola takes the opportunity to explore Sicilian order to escape imprisonment after shooting police captain Marc McCluskey and drug honcho culture with direct references to ethnic foods, dances, and other cultural traditions. Corleone, Virgil Sollozzo. While Corleone is in Sicily, Coppola takes the opportunity to explore Sicilian who seems to appreciate Sicilian culture, meets and marries a young woman there. In this way, culture with direct references to ethnic foods, dances, and other cultural traditions. Corleone, Coppola glorifies rather than demonizes the cultural particulars of Italian-American immigrants. who seems to appreciate Sicilian culture, meets and marries a young woman there. In this way, Coppola also makes the Italian language a focus in the film. In the restaurant scene Coppola glorifies rather than demonizes the cultural particulars of Italian-American immigrants. towards the middle of the movie, Corleone is conversing with Sollozzo, and the majority of the Coppola also makes the Italian language a focus in the film. In the restaurant scene scene is in Italian. In a bit of cinematic genius, Coppola made the conscious decision not to towards the middle of the movie, Corleone is conversing with Sollozzo, and the majority of the scene is in Italian. In a bit of cinematic genius, Coppola made the conscious decision not to 10 11 Wendy Simpson and Arthur Marwick, The Sixties: Cultural Revolution in Britain, France, Italy, and the United States, 1958 - 1974 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998). Puzo, The Godfather. 10 32 Revolution in Britain, France, Italy, and the United Wendy Simpson and Arthur Marwick, The Sixties: Cultural States, 1958 - 1974 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998). 11 Puzo, The Godfather. 32 32 12 TheStates. godfather with more pride. In the film, Corleone is after all, born and raised in the United significance, and thus reverts back to English. This is Coppola’s symbolic affirmation that Later inTo theensure scene,the Corleone realizes hisGodfather, fluency in Coppola Italian is recruited lacking for conversation such popularity of The theaA-list Marlon of Brando Italian-Americans have become too “Americanized,” and thus need to embrace their Italian roots Later in the scene, Corleone realizes his fluency in Italian is lacking for a conversation of such significance, thus reverts back to Brando English.played Thisthe is dynamic Coppola’s“boss” symbolic affirmation that for the part ofand Vito “Don” Corleone. character responsible with more pride. In the film, Corleone is after all, born and raised in the United States.12 significance, and thus reverts back to English. This is Coppola’s symbolic affirmation that Italian-Americans become tooworld “Americanized,” and syndicates. thus need to Brando’s embrace their Italian roots for organizing the have highly complex of mafia crime performance was To ensure the popularity of The Godfather, Coppola recruited the A-list Marlon Brando Italian-Americans have become too “Americanized,” and thus need to embrace their Italian roots 12 with more pride. the film, is after born and raised the United States.in previous significant for hisIn ability toCorleone add a level of all, sophistication and in elegance to what for the part of Vito “Don” Corleone. Brando played the dynamic “boss” character responsible with more pride. In the film, Corleone is after all, born and raised in the United States.12 ensurehad thedepicted popularity of TheasGodfather, recruited theBrando’s A-list Marlon gangsterTofilms bosses villainous Coppola thug antagonists. actingBrando was a for organizing the highly complex world of mafia crime syndicates. Brando’s performance was To ensure the popularity of The Godfather, Coppola recruited the A-list Marlon Brando for the partmasterpiece. of Vito “Don” Brando facilitated played theaudiences dynamic “boss” responsible cinematic AndCorleone. his performance to relatecharacter to his character and significant for his ability to add a level of sophistication and elegance to what in previous for the part of Vito “Don” Corleone. Brando played the dynamic “boss” character responsible 13 for the highly complexItalian-American world of mafia crime syndicates. Brando’s was The talents of performance Coppola, Pacino, feelorganizing for this otherwise “common hoodlum.” gangster films had depicted bosses as villainous thug antagonists. Brando’s acting was a for organizing the highly complex world of mafia crime syndicates. Brando’s performance was significant his ability to that add was a level of sophistication andprevious elegance to what in previous and Brandofor fashioned a film distinctly different from Italian-American mafia cinematic masterpiece. And his performance facilitated audiences to relate to his character and significant for his ability to add a level of sophistication and elegance to what in previous gangster movies. films had depicted bosses as villainous thug antagonists. Brando’s acting was a feel for this otherwise “common Italian-American hoodlum.”13 The talents of Coppola, Pacino, gangster films had depicted bosses as villainous thug antagonists. Brando’s acting was a cinematic masterpiece. And his performance audiences to characters relate to his reflected character and Since The Godfather, films withfacilitated Italian-American the and Brando fashioned a film that was distinctly different from previous Italian-American mafia cinematic masterpiece. And his performance facilitated audiences to relate to his character and 13 talents of Coppola, feel for this otherwise “common Italian-American transformational effects of Coppola’s portrayal. hoodlum.” For instance,The Martin Scorsese’s 1973Pacino, Mean movies. 13 feel for this otherwise “common Italian-American hoodlum.” The talents of Coppola, Pacino, and Brando thatThe wasGodfather distinctly led different from previous mafia Streets is anfashioned example aoffilm how to a cultural reset inItalian-American Hollywood. Scorsese Since The Godfather, films with Italian-American characters reflected the and Brando fashioned a film that was distinctly different from previous Italian-American mafia movies. imitated Coppola’s style by exploring the “broader aspects of the Italian-American experience.” transformational effects of Coppola’s portrayal. For instance, Martin Scorsese’s 1973 Mean movies. Since Streets, The Scorsese Godfather,depicted films thewith reflected the With Mean actorItalian-American Harvey Keitel as characters a young Italian-American Streets is an example of how The Godfather led to a cultural reset in Hollywood. Scorsese Since The Godfather, films with Italian-American characters reflected the transformational effects of Coppola’s portrayal. For instance, Martin Scorsese’s 1973 Mean 12 Puzo, The Godfather.style by exploring the “broader aspects of the Italian-American experience.” imitated Coppola’s 13 transformational effects ofFilm: Coppola’s portrayal.Icons.” For instance, Martin Scorsese’s 1973 Mean Cortés, “Italian-Americans From Immigrants Streets is an example ofin how The Godfathertoled to a cultural reset in Hollywood. Scorsese With Mean Streets, Scorsese depicted the actor Harvey Keitel as a young Italian-American 33 Streets is an example of how The Godfather led to a cultural reset in Hollywood. Scorsese imitated Coppola’s style by exploring the “broader aspects of the Italian-American experience.” 12 Puzo, The Godfather. style by exploring the “broader aspects of the Italian-American experience.” imitated Coppola’s 13 With Mean Streets, Scorsese the actor Harvey Keitel as a young Italian-American Cortés, “Italian-Americans in Film:depicted From Immigrants to Icons.” With Mean Streets, Scorsese depicted the actor 33 Harvey Keitel as a young Italian-American 12 Puzo, The Godfather. Cortés, “Italian-Americans in Film: From Immigrants to Icons.” Puzo, The Godfather. 13 Cortés, “Italian-Americans in Film: From Immigrants to 33Icons.” 13 12 33 33 struggling to support his family while adhering to traditional Italian morals, and eventually becoming successful in the local New York City mafia. Following The Godfather’s release, struggling to support his family while adhering to traditional Italian morals, and eventually Principles of social science The godfather The godfather becoming successful in the local New York City mafia. Following The Godfather’s release, similar films internalmorals, conflicts, with struggling to depicted support Italian-Americans his family while engaged adheringintoromanticized traditional Italian andimbued eventually Principles of social science cultural glorification and OldCity World values. In The Part II (1974), becoming successful in theadmiration local New of York mafia. Following TheGodfather: Godfather’s release, Coppolafilms again captured the renaissance in Italian-American culture on screen by portraying the similar depicted Italian-Americans engaged in romanticized internal conflicts, imbued with Principles of social science younger glorification years of Vito as ofa Old historical earlyGodfather: twentieth-century Italian cultural andCorleone admiration World analysis values. of In The Part II (1974), 14 immigration to the United States and social-economic achievement. Coppola again captured the renaissance in Italian-American culture on screen by portraying the similar films depicted Italian-Americans engaged in romanticized internal conflicts, imbued with both of major and minor as Italian-American films released after The Godfather, the youngerInglorification years Vito Corleone historical of earlyGodfather: twentieth-century Italian cultural and admiration ofa Old World analysis values. In The Part II (1974), 14 gangster/mafia storyline serves more as ina Italian-American vehicle to achievement. exploreculture the Italian cultural aspects of the the immigration to captured the Unitedthe States and social-economic Coppola again renaissance on screen by portraying characters’ families and lives. to greater public perception of Italianboth major and minorThe Italian-American films released after The Godfather, the youngerInyears of Vito Corleone as aGodfather historicalled analysis of early twentieth-century Italian 14 American andserves therefore more appreciation for the itself. gangster/mafia storyline more as a vehicle to achievement. explore theculture Italian cultural Moreover, aspects of the immigrationtraditions, to the United States and social-economic success The Godfather trilogy a cult-like following, extending reach characters’ families The Godfather led films to popular greater public oftheItalianInof both majorand andlives. minorengendered Italian-American released afterperception The Godfather, the of Coppola’s depiction ofserves Italian-American culture,totranscending contemporary American traditions, and therefore appreciation for the Moreover, the gangster/mafia storyline moremore as a vehicle explore theculture Italian itself. culturalstereotypes, aspects of and positively public perceptions. Overall, The served a transition inreach the success of shaping The Godfather trilogy engendered a cult-like extending characters’ families and lives. The Godfather led Godfather to popular greater following, public as perception oftheItaliandepiction of Italian-American film more characters. are stillitself. replete with Italianof Coppola’s depiction of Italian-American culture,Today’s transcending contemporary stereotypes, and American traditions, and therefore appreciation forfilms the culture Moreover, the American built trilogy around mobster themes andGodfather violence, howeveras these filmsthe areinreach now positively shaping public perceptions. Overall, The served a transition the success of characters The Godfather engendered a cult-like popular following, extending WorksCited Cited Works Banks,James JamesA.A.‘The ‘TheSocial SocialStudies, Studies,Ethnic EthnicDiversity, Diversity,and andSocial SocialChange,’ Change,’The TheElementary Elementary Banks, SchoolJournal Journal8787(May (May1987). 1987).http://www.jstor.org/stable/1001430. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1001430. School Cortés,Carlos. Carlos.“Italian-Americans “Italian-AmericansininFilm: Film:From FromImmigrants ImmigrantstotoIcons.” Icons.”MELUS, MELUS,Vol. Vol.14, 14,No. No. Cortés, 3/4,Italian-American Italian-AmericanLiterature Literature(Autumn (Autumn– –Winter, Winter,1987), 1987),pp. pp.107-126. 107-126. 3/4, http://www.jstor.org/stable/467405. http://www.jstor.org/stable/467405. Cullers,Rebecca Rebeccaand andJessica JessicaWolpert. Wolpert.“Little “LittleCaesar.” Caesar.” Cullers, http://xroads.virginia.edu/~ug02/gangsters/littlecaesar.html. http://xroads.virginia.edu/~ug02/gangsters/littlecaesar.html. Grant,Barry BarryKeith. Keith.Schirmer SchirmerEncyclopedia EncyclopediaofofFilm Film(Detroit, (Detroit,Schirmer SchirmerReference, Reference,2005). 2005). Grant, Lotardo,Jenna. Jenna.“Italian “ItalianAmerican AmericanStereotypes Stereotypesininthe theMedia.” Media.” Lotardo, http://uhaweb.hartford.edu/LOTARDO/. http://uhaweb.hartford.edu/LOTARDO/. Puzo,Mario. Mario.The TheGodfather. Godfather.Directed DirectedbybyFrancis FrancisFord FordCoppola Coppola(USA: (USA:Paramount ParamountPictures, Pictures, Puzo, 1972). 1972). Runyon,Damon. Damon.AASlight SlightCase CaseofofMurder. Murder.Directed DirectedbybyLloyd LloydBacon Bacon(USA: (USA:First FirstNational National Runyon, Pictures,1938). 1938). Pictures, Simpson,Wendy Wendyand andArthur ArthurMarwick. Marwick.The TheSixties: Sixties:Cultural CulturalRevolution RevolutionininBritain, Britain,France, France, Simpson, Italy,and andthe theUnited UnitedStates States(New (NewYork: York:Oxford OxfordUniversity UniversityPress, Press,1998). 1998). Italy, forced to present a more accurate account of contemporary Italian-American culture. By depiction of depiction Italian-American filmculturally characters. Today’s films are still replete with Italianof Coppola’s of realistic, Italian-American culture, transcending stereotypes, and understanding Coppola’s not as a form of entertainment, but instead as aavehicle cultural American characters builtfilm around mobster themes andGodfather violence, however filmsofare positively shaping public perceptions. Overall, The served as these transition innow the influence, students of American cinematic history can better thereplete importance of The forced to present a more realistic, culturally accurate account ofdiscern Italian-American culture. By depiction of Italian-American film characters. Today’s films are still with ItalianGodfather characters in shaping America’s understanding Coppola’s notperception as a formof ofItalian-Americans. entertainment, but instead as these a vehicle cultural American builtfilm around mobster themes and violence, however filmsofare now influence, studentsa more of American betterofdiscern the importance of The forced to present realistic,cinematic culturally history accuratecan account Italian-American culture. By 14 Ibid., p. 14.in shaping Godfather America’s understanding Coppola’s film notperception as a formof ofItalian-Americans. entertainment, but instead as a vehicle of cultural 34 influence, students of American cinematic history can better discern the importance of The 14 Ibid., p. 14.in shaping America’s perception of Italian-Americans. Godfather 14 !! 3535 34 Ibid., p. 14. 34 34 35 The Ancien Regime and the Revolutions of France The Ancien Regime and the Revolutions of France Ryan Hellinger Ryan Hellinger Revolutions of france Revolutions of france The Ancien Regime and the Revolutions of France Conventional wisdom tells students of the French Revolution that the fighting in 1789 began as Ryan Hellinger aristocracy treated peasant and urban laborers with contempt. The poor lacked voting privileges, aristocracy treated peasant and urban laborers with contempt. The poor lacked voting privileges, Conventional wisdom tells students of the French Revolution that the fighting in 1789 began as an attempt to oust the monarchy and grant ordinary French men and women political influence legal representation, and an objective and fair legal system. French laws discriminated against legal representation, and an objective and fair legal system. French laws discriminated against an attempt to oust the monarchy and grant ordinary French men and women political influence and economic opportunity. The French aimed for social and political institutions comparable to Conventional tells students of the French that the institutions fighting in 1789 began as and economic wisdom opportunity. The French aimed for Revolution social and political comparable to those achieved in the American Revolution just thirteen years earlier. Unfortunately, the an attempt to oust grant ordinary French men women Unfortunately, political influence those achieved in the themonarchy Americanand Revolution just thirteen yearsand earlier. the Revolution did not bring about transformational political and economic changes for ordinary and economic The French aimed for political social andand political institutions to Revolution didopportunity. not bring about transformational economic changescomparable for ordinary French people. Rather it brought a protracted struggle over the makeup of domestic civil and those the it American thirteen earlier.of Unfortunately, the Frenchachieved people. in Rather brought aRevolution protracted just struggle over years the makeup domestic civil and political institutions. Political power in France oscillated between monarchies, empires and Revolution did not bring about power transformational economic changes empires for ordinary political institutions. Political in France political oscillatedand between monarchies, and republics until liberal political institutions were finally established in the mid-twentieth century. French people. Ratherpolitical it brought a protracted over the makeup of domestic civil and republics until liberal institutions were struggle finally established in the mid-twentieth century. The French Revolution brought significant alterations to France’s political structure, but it was political institutions. in France oscillated between monarchies, empires and The French RevolutionPolitical brought power significant alterations to France’s political structure, but it was not until the twentieth century that France truly accomplished the goals of 1789. In short, the republics untiltwentieth liberal political established the mid-twentieth century. not until the century institutions that Francewere trulyfinally accomplished the in goals of 1789. In short, the revolutionaries of 1789 achieved a pyrrhic victory, and generations would pass before Liberté, The French Revolution France’s political butLiberté, it was revolutionaries of 1789 brought achievedsignificant a pyrrhic alterations victory, andtogenerations would structure, pass before Égalité et Fraternité were realized. not untiletthe twentieth century that France truly accomplished the goals of 1789. In short, the Égalité Fraternité were realized. The French Revolution was caused by a myriad of social, economic and political crises. revolutionaries of 1789 achieved victory, and of generations would pass before Liberté, The French Revolution wasa pyrrhic caused by a myriad social, economic and political crises. During its early stages, the Revolution lacked leadership and clear objective. Under the Ancien lacked leadership and clear objective. Under the Ancien Égalité et were During itsFraternité early stages, therealized. Revolution Regime, the Third Estate endured centuries of exploitation at the hands of the aristocracy. The Revolution was caused of byexploitation a myriad ofatsocial, economic political The crises. Regime,The the French Third Estate endured centuries the hands of the and aristocracy. the lower class. Peasants accused of a crimes were assumed guilty, were not afforded a defense, the lower class. Peasants accused of a crimes were assumed guilty, were not afforded a defense, During its early stages, the Revolution lacked leadership and clear objective. Under the Ancien ______________________________ Regime, the Third Estate endured centuries of exploitation at the hands of the aristocracy. The ______________________________ Ryan Hellinger ‘18, plans to study medicine in university. Ryan Hellinger ‘18, plans to study medicine in university. ______________________________ 36 36 Ryan Hellinger ‘18, plans to study medicine in university. and were forced to pay exorbitant taxes and penalties. The government arbitrarily seized peasant and were forced to pay exorbitant taxes and penalties. The government arbitrarily seized peasant property with regularity and without due process or adjudication.11 property with regularity and without due process or adjudication. Conflicts between the aristocracy and the commoners at the end of the eighteenth century Conflicts between the aristocracy and the commoners at the end of the eighteenth century were aggravated by the mishandling of the domestic economy. King Louis XVI brought France were aggravated by the mishandling of the domestic economy. King Louis XVI brought France to its economic knees through a series of poor financial policies, in particular French engagement to its economic knees through a series of poor financial policies, in particular French engagement in the American Revolution. Louis XVI dispatched monetary and military aid to the Americans. in the American Revolution. Louis XVI dispatched monetary and military aid to the Americans. The decision proved fatal for the French economy since it dramatically increased the national The decision proved fatal for the French economy since it dramatically increased the national debt. Financial commitments to the American cause increased economic and political problems debt. Financial commitments to the American cause increased economic and political problems in France.22 King Louis XVI tried to remedy the economic troubles by raising taxes, demanding in France. King Louis XVI tried to remedy the economic troubles by raising taxes, demanding an increase in harvests, and increasing the price of common goods. Because of the aristocrats’ an increase in harvests, and increasing the price of common goods. Because of the aristocrats’ power and wealth and the King’s fear that they would revolt, the wealthy were excluded from the power and wealth and the King’s fear that they would revolt, the wealthy were excluded from the taxes. Thus only the middle class and poor were taxed. Raising taxes worsened the social and taxes. Thus only the middle class and poor were taxed. Raising taxes worsened the social and political environment, as the poor were burdened with onerous tax obligations which they were political environment, as the poor were burdened with onerous tax obligations which they were incapable of meeting.3 incapable of meeting.3 1 1 N.A., "France Before the Revolution of 1789.” N.A., "France Before the Revolution of 1789.” http://www.civicsandcitizenship.edu.au/verve/_resources/FQ2_France_before_Revolution.pdf. 2http://www.civicsandcitizenship.edu.au/verve/_resources/FQ2_France_before_Revolution.pdf. 2 Joseph T. Logan, “Battle of Yorktown.” http://www.theamericanrevolution.org/battledetail.aspx?battle=29. 3 Joseph T. Logan, “Battle of Yorktown.” http://www.theamericanrevolution.org/battledetail.aspx?battle=29. 3 Laura Boyle, "Louis XVI: Last King of France.” http://www.janeausten.co.uk/louis-xvi-last-king-of-france/. Laura Boyle, "Louis XVI: Last King of France.” http://www.janeausten.co.uk/louis-xvi-last-king-of-france/. 37 37 36 36 37 Revolutions of France Revolutions of France Principles of social science Revolutions of France The King’s policy regarding the harvest proved equally flawed. He unwisely increased the harvest when a great famine plagued the country. This then caused the harvest to diminish.4 With the increase in taxes and food shortages, the average citizen could no longer afford food. King Louis XVI’s careless choices proved him as an unreliable and careless leader and the French grew wary of his decisions as things continued to get worse.5 In 1789 the peasantry and urban poor incited riots across France. This period became known as the Great Fear.6 The Great Fear provoked economic fear rather than political fear, however. Work was difficult to find and food prices, tied to peasant agriculture, soared. The rebellions were sparked when news spread of the King’s attempt to prevent the meeting of the Third Estate. The King yielded to the demands of the Third Estate and recognized the authority of the National Assembly, and for a moment ordinary French men and women were given voice in government.7 By July conditions in Paris had deteriorated as revolutionary sentiment fueled by alcohol and hunger spread through the city. The storming of the Bastille on July 14 unleashed an unprecedented wave of revolutionary violence. The fall of the Bastille was followed closely by the march on Versailles. The King and Queen were forced from their palace 4 N.A., "Causes of the French Revolution." https://classes.lt.unt.edu/Fall_2012/CECS_5110_050/jls0740/ Image%20and%20Text.html. 5 Marian Anderson, "The French Revolution." http://alphahistory.com/frenchrevolution/. 6 N.A., "The Great Fear." http://alphahistory.com/frenchrevolution/great-fear/. 7 Heather Campbell, "Tennis Court Oath," Encyclopedia Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/587409/Tennis-Court-Oath. 38 38 residence and brought back to Paris, where the couple was essentially placed under house arrest, residence and brought back to Paris, where the couple was essentially placed under house arrest, 8 residence andtobrought back to Paris, where the couple arrest, These events markedwas the essentially beginning placed of the under Frenchhouse Revolution held hostage the revolution. held hostage to the revolution.8 These events marked the beginning of the French Revolution 8 These held hostage revolution. and served as to an the emblem of hope for the events country.marked the beginning of the French Revolution and served as an emblem of hope for the country. and served an emblem of hope for the Theas arrest of the royal couple wascountry. a turning point in the Revolution for it marked the end The arrest of the royal couple was a turning point in the Revolution for it marked the end The arrest of the royal was apeople turningarrested, point in imprisoned, the Revolution it marked the end of the King’s resistance. Thecouple common andfor tried the King and of the King’s resistance. The common people arrested, imprisoned, and tried the King and of the King’s resistance. a The common people inarrested, and tried the King and Queen with “committing multitude of crimes order toimprisoned, establish tyranny by destroying its Queen with “committing a multitude of crimes in order to establish tyranny by destroying its 9 Queen “committing a multitude crimes inin order establish tyranny by of destroying its liberty.”with They were found guilty andofexecuted 1793.to The common people France had liberty.”9 They were found guilty and executed in 1793. The common people of France had liberty.”9 They were found guilty and executed in 1793. The common people of France had successfully destroyed the monarchy, at least temporarily. successfully destroyed the monarchy, at least temporarily. successfully destroyed of thethe monarchy, at least temporarily. The execution King was a symbolic victory for the most radical factions of the The execution of the King was a symbolic victory for the most radical factions of the The but execution of fulfill the King a symbolic for theAnd most factions of the revolution, it did not the was objectives of thevictory Revolution. theradical execution did not by revolution, but it did not fulfill the objectives of the Revolution. And the execution did not by revolution, but itthe didrevolutionary not fulfill thechaos. objectives of the1793 Revolution. the execution by any means quell Between and 1794And the so-called Reigndid of not Terror any means quell the revolutionary chaos. Between 1793 and 1794 the so-called Reign of Terror any means quell the revolutionary chaos. Between 1793 and 1794 so-called Reign of perpetuated a culture of fear and violence throughout France. Thethe Jacobins ascended to Terror power perpetuated a culture of fear and violence throughout France. The Jacobins ascended to power perpetuated a culture of Revolution, fear and violence throughout France. The Jacobins ascended power during this stage of the and their leader, Maximilien Robespierre, made wartoagainst during this stage of the Revolution, and their leader, Maximilien Robespierre, made war against during stage ofofthe Revolution, and their leader, Maximilien Robespierre, war against anyonethis suspected counter-revolutionary sympathies. The Jacobins employedmade the guillotine in anyone suspected of counter-revolutionary sympathies. The Jacobins employed the guillotine in anyone suspected offashion, counter-revolutionary employed guillotine in an indiscriminate instilling fear sympathies. in the heartsThe of Jacobins all French citizensthethrough their an indiscriminate fashion, instilling fear in the hearts of all French citizens through their an indiscriminate fashion, instilling fear insquares. the hearts of all citizens their execution of suspected dissidents in public During the French Reign of Terror,through the Jacobins execution of suspected dissidents in public squares. During the Reign of Terror, the Jacobins execution of suspected in public During Reign of Terror, thea Jacobins arrested 300,000 people dissidents and executed 17,000,squares. with many more the dying in prison without trial.10 arrested 300,000 people and executed 17,000, with many more dying in prison without a trial.10 arrested 300,000 people and executed 17,000, with many more dying in prison without a trial.10 8 N.A., "Storming of Bastille." http://www.bl.uk/learning/timeline/item106472.html. "Storming N.A., "The Trial of andBastille." Executionhttp://www.bl.uk/learning/timeline/item106472.html. of King Louis XVI." http://www.historyguide.org/intellect/louis_trial.html. "The Trial and Execution of King Louis XVI." http://www.historyguide.org/intellect/louis_trial.html. N.A.,"Storming "Reign of of Terror, French History." Encyclopedia Britannica. N.A., Bastille." http://www.bl.uk/learning/timeline/item106472.html. 10 9 N.A., "Reign of Terror, French History." Encyclopedia Britannica. N.A., "The Trial and Execution of King Louis XVI." http://www.historyguide.org/intellect/louis_trial.html. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/588360/Reign-of-Terror. 10 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/588360/Reign-of-Terror. N.A., "Reign of Terror, French History." Encyclopedia Britannica. 39 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/588360/Reign-of-Terror. 39 98 9 810 N.A., 39 39 as well as revolutionaries across Europe. In 1804, he crowned himself Emperor, founding the First Empire. Napoleon brought economic stability to France.13 He established the Napoleonic Code, abolished feudal institutions and introduced important liberal reforms.14 Principles of social science REVOLUTIONS OF France The Revolution contributed to years of French national instability, without the successful Principles of social science realization of revolutionary aims. The failure to achieve basic economic and political stability led to continued unrest contributed and class conflict. the mid-1790s fell under thethe conservative The Revolution to yearsBy of French nationalFrance instability, without successful rule of theoffive-member members of the Directory rarely one realization revolutionaryDirectory. aims. TheThe failure to achieve basic economic and agreed politicalwith stability another, instead they focused on the retention personal political power. Throughout the 1790s led to continued unrest and class conflict. Byofthe mid-1790s France fell under the conservative France within its own borders as well as on foreign in Europe and agreed Africa. with Internal rule of fought the five-member Directory. The members of thesoil Directory rarely one struggles,instead the ineffectiveness and the financial burdens withthe the1790s costs another, they focused of onthe theDirectory, retention of personal political power.associated Throughout 11 of foreign warswithin worsened conditions France. France fought its own bordersinas well as on foreign soil in Europe and Africa. Internal Thetheabove listed failures precipitatedandthe of Napoleon Bonaparte.withNapoleon struggles, ineffectiveness of the Directory, therise financial burdens associated the costs 11 recognized the lack of organized political leadership in France and he seized the opportunity to of foreign wars worsened conditions in France. wrestle The control of government. Napoleon was athe close of the group that overthrew the above listed failures precipitated riseaffiliate of Napoleon Bonaparte. Napoleon Directory and it with a three-member Consulate. Bonaparte becametheFirst Consult of recognized the replaced lack of organized political leadership in France and he seized opportunity to France in 1799.ofOnce in power,Napoleon he reorganized army and conquered almost of Western wrestle control government. was a the close affiliate of the group that all overthrew the Europe. marched army from France to Russia, dismantling theFirst vestiges of the Directory Napoleon and replaced it withhisa three-member Consulate. Bonaparte became Consult of 12 Ancien won the and admiration of the French people, France Regime in 1799.along Oncetheinway. power,Napoleon he reorganized therespect army and conquered almost all of Western Europe. Napoleon marched his army from France to Russia, dismantling the vestiges of the Ancien Regime along the way. 12 Napoleon won the respect and admiration of the French people, as well as revolutionaries across Europe. In 1804, he crowned himself Emperor, founding the Still, Napoleon ruled as a military dictator, and his connection to the revolutionary First Empire. Napoleon brought economic stability to France.13 He established the Napoleonic as well as revolutionaries across Europe. In 1804, he crowned himself Emperor, founding the principles of 1789 remains at best ambiguous. His ambitions for continental empire proved his Code, abolished feudal institutions and introduced important liberal reforms.14 First Empire. Napoleon brought economic stability to France.13 He established the Napoleonic demise. Napoleon’s enemies, mainly Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria, united to defeat him REVOLUTIONS OF France Code, abolished feudal institutions 15 and introduced important liberal reforms.14 first at Leipzig then at Waterloo. The Allied Nations met at Vienna in 1815 to quell the REVOLUTIONS France Still, Napoleon ruled as a military dictator, and his connection to the OF revolutionary momentum of the Revolution, restore the monarchy under Louis XVIII, and return France and principles of 1789 remains at best ambiguous. His ambitions for continental empire proved his Napoleon ruledconditions. as a military andofhis the dealt revolutionary much ofStill, Europe to pre-1789 Thedictator, high ideals theconnection Revolutiontowere a serious demise. Napoleon’s enemies, mainly Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria, united to defeat him principles of 1789von remains at best ambiguous. His ambitions for XVIII continental his blow by Klemens Metternich’s principle of legitimacy. Louis ruled empire for nineproved years and first at Leipzig then at Waterloo.15 The Allied Nations met at Vienna in 1815 to quell the demise. Napoleon’s mainly X Britain, Russia, and Austria, united to defeat was succeeded by hisenemies, brother Charles in 1824. The Prussia French never accepted Charles’ rule, him and momentum of the Revolution, restore the monarchy under Louis XVIII, and return France and 15 first Leipzig at Waterloo. Nationshostile met atto Vienna in 1815In to quell the by theat late 1820sthen revolutionary causesThe grewAllied increasingly the monarch. 1830 rebels much of Europe to pre-1789 conditions. The high ideals of the Revolution were dealt a serious momentum of the Revolution, the yet monarchy under Louis XVIII, and returnCharles France was and fortified barricades in Paris andrestore prepared again for revolutionary insurrection. blow by Klemens von Metternich’s principle of legitimacy. Louis XVIII ruled for nine years and much to pre-1789 conditions. The highCharles’ ideals ofcousin the Revolution were a serious forcedoftoEurope resign later that year. Louis Philippe, ascended to thedealt throne on the was succeeded by his brother Charles X in 1824. The French never accepted Charles’ rule, and blow by Klemens Metternich’s of legitimacy. XVIII ruled years and promise of liberalvon reforms. Louis principle Philippe ruled under theLouis title Citizen Kingfor in nine an attempt to by the late 1820s revolutionary causes grew increasingly hostile to the monarch. In 1830 rebels was succeeded by hisconsent brotherof Charles X in 1824. The French never accepted Charles’ rule, and illustrate the masses’ his rule. fortified barricades in Paris and prepared yet again for revolutionary insurrection. Charles was by the late 1820s revolutionary causes grew increasingly hostile to the monarch. In 1830 rebels forced to resign later that year. Louis Philippe, Charles’ cousin ascended to the throne on the fortified barricades in Paris and prepared yet again for revolutionary insurrection. Charles was promise of liberal reforms. Louis Philippe ruled under the title Citizen King in an attempt to forced to resign later that year. Louis Philippe, Charles’ cousin ascended to the throne on the illustrate the masses’ consent of his rule. 13 N.A., "Louisiana Purchase, 1803 Louis - 1801–1829 - Milestones - Officethe of the Historian." promise of liberal reforms. Philippe ruled under title Citizen King in an attempt https://history.state.gov/milestones/1801-1829/louisiana-purchase. 14 N.A., “Napoleon Crowned Emperor.” illustrate the masses’ consent of his rule. 15 N.A., "Napoleon Bonaparte." http://www.history.com/topics/napoleon; Finnemore, “France: Peeps at History. The Reign of Terror and the Rise of Napoleon.” 41 11 N.A., “Napoleon Crowned Emperor.” http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/napoleon-crowned-emperor. John Finnemore, “France: Peeps at History. The Reign of Terror and the Rise of Napoleon.” http://www.mainlesson.com/display.php?author=finnemore&book=france&story=terror. 12 11 40 N.A., “Napoleon Crowned Emperor.” http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/napoleon-crowned-emperor. John Finnemore, “France: Peeps at History. The Reign of Terror and the Rise of Napoleon.” http://www.mainlesson.com/display.php?author=finnemore&book=france&story=terror. 12 40 13 N.A., "Louisiana Purchase, 1803 - 1801–1829 - Milestones - Office of the Historian." https://history.state.gov/milestones/1801-1829/louisiana-purchase. 14 N.A., “Napoleon Crowned Emperor.” 13 15 N.A., "Louisiana Purchase, 1803 - 1801–1829 - Milestones - Office of the Historian." N.A., "Napoleon Bonaparte." http://www.history.com/topics/napoleon; Finnemore, “France: Peeps at History. https://history.state.gov/milestones/1801-1829/louisiana-purchase. The Reign of Terror and the Rise of Napoleon.” 14 N.A., “Napoleon Crowned Emperor.” 41 15 N.A., "Napoleon Bonaparte." http://www.history.com/topics/napoleon; Finnemore, “France: Peeps at History. The Reign of Terror and the Rise of Napoleon.” 41 40 41 to agricultural depression, negatively affecting the lower bourgeoisie. Louis Philippe attempted to the foundations for economic prosperity. Still, Louis Napoleon, like his predecessors, failed to strengthen France’s position in Europe without improving the condition of ordinary Frenchmen. allow the French their desired social freedoms, political liberties, and most importantly, peace. Louis Philippe, however, did not fulfill his promises, and he fell well short of advancing Louis Philippe, however, did not fulfill his promises, and he fell well short of advancing PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL SCIENCE the principles of 1789.16 During his reign, 1830-1848, France passed through an industrial and 16 the principles of 1789. During his reign, 1830-1848, France passed through an industrial and agricultural depression, negatively affecting the lower bourgeoisie. Louis Philippe attempted to agricultural depression,from negatively affecting the lower bourgeoisie. LouisLouis Philippe attempted to This incited the lower class andhis the petit bourgeoisie. Philippe did not Louis hostility Philippe, however, did not fulfill promises, and he fell well short of advancing strengthen France’s position in Europe without improving the condition of ordinary Frenchmen. strengthen France’s position in Europeinwithout improving the rule condition of ordinary drawn Frenchmen. 16 improve social political equality France and underFrance his the country further the principles ofand 1789. During his reign, 1830-1848, passed throughwas an industrial and Prussians ̶ would boost his approval. The strategy backfired, however, when the Prussians drove Revolutions of france their army into Paris and captured the city along with Louis Napoleon in 1870. Despite the from prosperity and political stability. By 1848, again filled the Parisian agricultural depression, negatively affecting the revolution lower bourgeoisie. Louis Philippeair. attempted to defeat to the Prussians and the economic turmoil of the 1860s, Louis Napoleon did help establish During theboost Thirdhis Republic, the backfired, principles of 1789 were finally accomplished. Prussians ̶ would approval.1870-1940, The strategy however, when the Prussians drove the foundations for economic prosperity. Still, Louis Napoleon, like his predecessors, failed to Republican reforms the secularization of the system in the 1905 their army into Parisincluded and captured the city along witheducation Louis Napoleon in 1882, 1870. and Despite the allow the French their desired social freedoms, political liberties, and most importantly, peace. Separation Church and legislation. The of 1905 established the religious neutrality of defeat to theofPrussians andState the economic turmoil the law 1860s, Louis Napoleon did help establish Under Louis position PhilippeinFrance failed to establish stable institutions. nephew of strengthen France’s Europe without improving the liberal condition of ordinaryThe Frenchmen. the state, the freedom of religious exercise, withdraw of public from religious the foundations for economic prosperity. Still,the Louis Napoleon, like hisfunding predecessors, failed to Napoleon Bonaparte, Louisthe Napoleon, succeeded Philippe and Louis introduced the did Second This incited hostility from lower class and theLouis petit bourgeoisie. Philippe not This incited hostility from the lower class and the petit bourgeoisie. Louis Philippe did not 17 PRINCIPLES SOCIAL SCIENCE In OF 1852, Louis equality Napoleon declared emperor of France, ending short-lived Republic.social improve and political in was France and under his rule the country wasthe drawn further improve social and political equality in France and under his rule the country was drawn further republic. Louisand Napoleon political stability from prosperity politicalbrought stability.prosperity By 1848,and revolution again filled to theFrance. Parisian He air. promoted from prosperity and political stability. By 1848, revolution again filled the Parisian air. This incited hostility from therailroads, lower class the petit of bourgeoisie. industry Louis Philippe did not public works, construction andtoand other means Under Louis PhilippeofFrance failed establish stable furthering liberal institutions. and Theagriculture. nephew of Under Louis Philippe France failed to establish stable liberal institutions. The nephew of improve social and political andmetropolis, under his rule the countryFrench was drawn further Louis Napoleon rebuilt muchequality of ParisinasFrance asucceeded modern he encouraged Napoleon Bonaparte, Louis Napoleon, Louis Philippe and introduced investment, the Second Napoleon Bonaparte, Louis Napoleon, succeeded Louis Philippe and introduced the Second 18 from prosperity and political stability. By 1848, revolution again filled the Parisian air. 17 price of bread, and constructed housing projects for workers. Napoleon lowered In 1852, Louis Napoleon was declared emperor of France, endingLouis the short-lived Republic.the Republic.17 In 1852, Louis Napoleon was declared emperor of France, ending the short-lived Under Louis Philippe France failed toifestablish liberal institutions. The nephew of achieved prosperity for France, only forstable a short time. the 1860’s France’s republic. peace Louis and Napoleon brought prosperity and political stability toBy France. He promoted republic. Louis Napoleon brought prosperity and political stability to France. He promoted Napoleon was Bonaparte, Louis Economic Napoleon, succeededofLouis Philippe introduced the Second economy in decline. the of 1860s hadand a industry particularly devastating public works, construction of railroads,stagnation and other means furthering and agriculture. public works, construction of railroads, and other means of furthering industry and agriculture. 17 1852,class. Louis Napoleon was declared emperor of France, ending great the short-lived Republic. impact on theInmiddle Napoleon hopedmetropolis, a war against of France’s rivals ̶ the Louis Napoleon rebuilt muchLouis of Paris as a modern he one encouraged French investment, Louis Napoleon rebuilt much of Paris as a modern metropolis, he encouraged French investment, republic. Louis Napoleon brought prosperity and political stability to France. He promoted the price of bread, and Louis Napoleon lowered constructed housing projects for workers.18 18 16 lowered the price ofBiography bread, and constructed housing projects for workers. Louis Napoleon N.A., "Louis-Philippe, King of France." Encyclopedia public works, construction of -railroads, and other means Britannica. of furthering industry and agriculture. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/349203/Louis-Philippe. achieved peace and prosperity for France, if only for a short time. By the 1860’s France’s 17 Finnemore, “France: at History. Reign ofifTerror of Napoleon.” achieved peace andPeeps prosperity forTheFrance, onlyand fortheaRise short time. By the 1860’s France’s 18 Louis rebuilt much of Paris as a modern metropolis, he encouraged French investment, N.A.,Napoleon "Louis Bonaparte." http://www.biography.com/people/louis-bonaparte-9218602. economy was in decline. Economic stagnation of the 1860s had a particularly devastating economy was in decline. Economic stagnation of the 1860s had a particularly devastating lowered the price of bread, and constructed housing projects for workers.18 Louis Napoleon 42 impact on the middle class. Louis Napoleon hoped a war against one of France’s great rivals ̶ the impact on the middle class. Louis Napoleon hoped a war against one of France’s great rivals ̶ the achieved peace and prosperity for France, if only for a short time. By the 1860’s France’s 19 The Third peace. Republic institutions, and their a ban on religious displayspolitical in public buildings. allow the French desired social freedoms, liberties, and most importantly, PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL SCIENCE PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL SCIENCE 16 N.A., "Louis-Philippe, was in decline. Biography Economic - King of France." Encyclopedia economy stagnation of the Britannica. 1860s had a particularly devastating 16 N.A., "Louis-Philippe, Biography - King of France." Encyclopedia Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/349203/Louis-Philippe. 17 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/349203/Louis-Philippe. Finnemore, “France: Peeps at History. Reign ofhoped Terror and the against Rise of Napoleon.” impact on the middle class. Louis The Napoleon a war one of France’s 17 18 Finnemore, “France: Peeps at History. The Reign of Terror and the Rise of Napoleon.” N.A., "Louis Bonaparte." http://www.biography.com/people/louis-bonaparte-9218602. 18 N.A., "Louis Bonaparte." http://www.biography.com/people/louis-bonaparte-9218602. 42 16 42 Britannica. N.A., "Louis-Philippe, Biography - King of France." Encyclopedia http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/349203/Louis-Philippe. 17 18 Finnemore, “France: Peeps at History. The Reign of Terror and the Rise of Napoleon.” N.A., "Louis Bonaparte." http://www.biography.com/people/louis-bonaparte-9218602. 42 42 great rivals ̶ the Revolutions of france transformed France into aRepublic, modern civil and political society. of 1789 were finally accomplished. During the Third 1870-1940, the principles france In thereforms post-WWII era, republican-liberal gatheredRevolutions pace. Republican included the secularization reforms of the education systemFor in instance, 1882, of andthe theFrench 1905 won the right to directly president.The During France its relations Separation of Church andelect Statethe legislation. 1905 this law period, established the stabilized religious neutrality of During the Third Republic, 1870-1940, principles of 1789 the were finally accomplished. with former including Britain. Today,the France has achieved political, economic and the state, theenemies freedom of religious exercise, the withdraw of public funding from religious Republican reforms included the its secularization offor. the20education system in 1882, and the 1905 buildings.19 The Third Republic social freedoms people fought institutions, andthat a for bancenturies on religious displays in public Separation Churchfought and State The1789 1905for lawLiberté, established the religious neutralityThe of TheofFrance French the legislation. revolution of Égalité et Fraternité. transformed into a modern civil and political society. the state, the freedom religious exercise, the withdraw public monarch, funding from religious revolution achieved one of ofera, their goals—the overthrow the of Bourbon but the In the post-WWII republican-liberal reformsofgathered pace. For instance, the French French 19 The ThirdNapoleon’s Republic institutions, andto afulfill ban on others. religiousFrance displays in public buildings. would suffered through the France Reign of Terror, won thestruggle right to directly the elect the president. During this period, stabilized its relations transformed France into a modern civil and political society. with former enemies including Britain. Today, France has achieved the political, economic and 19 N.A., "France: The Third Republic and the 1905 Law." http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/france-theIn the post-WWII era, republican-liberal reforms gathered pace. For instance, the French third-republic-and-the-1905-law-of-em-laicite-em. social freedoms that for centuries its people fought for.20 20 N.A., "Fourth Republic, French History." http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/215257/Fourth-Republic. won the right to directly elect the president. During this period, France stabilized its relations 43 The French fought the revolution of 1789 for Liberté, Égalité et Fraternité. The with former enemies including Britain. Today, France has achieved the political, economic and revolution achieved one of their goals—the overthrow of the Bourbon monarch, but the French social freedoms that for centuries its people fought for.20 would struggle to fulfill the others. France suffered through the Reign of Terror, Napoleon’s The French fought the revolution of 1789 for Liberté, Égalité et Fraternité. The 19 N.A., "France: The Third the 1905 Law." http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/france-therevolution achieved oneRepublic of theirandgoals—the overthrow of the Bourbon monarch, but the French third-republic-and-the-1905-law-of-em-laicite-em. 20 N.A., "Fourth Republic, French History." http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/215257/Fourth-Republic. would struggle to fulfill the others. France suffered through the Reign of Terror, Napoleon’s 43 19 N.A., "France: The Third Republic and the 1905 Law." http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/france-thethird-republic-and-the-1905-law-of-em-laicite-em. 20 N.A., "Fourth Republic, French History." http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/215257/Fourth-Republic. 43 43 experienced generations of disappointment. The French Revolution of 1789 initiated significant change to France’s social and political environment, it was not until the post-WWII years that Revolutions of reign, subsequent monarchies, another Napoleon emperor, republics and foreign occupations. Principles of social science france Revolutions of france 21 Only after the Fifth Republic, established in 1958, were all the objectives planned in 1789 finally France accomplished the goals of the revolution: peace, prosperity, and liberal-republican 21 reign, subsequent monarchies, republicstheir and political foreign occupations. fulfilled. The French fought another for theirNapoleon freedoms,emperor, yet to achieve reforms they principles. The French Revolution of 1789 therefore, existed as a pyrrhic victory because its Only after thegenerations Fifth Republic, established in 1958, were all the objectives planned in 1789 finally experienced of disappointment. The French Revolution of 1789 initiated significant objectives were not fulfilled until several generations later, and at a tremendous cost. fulfilled. The French for their freedoms, yet to not achieve their political years reforms change to France’s socialfought and political environment, it was until the post-WWII thatthey experienced generations of disappointment. The French Revolution of 1789 initiated significant Works Cited Anderson, Marian. "The French Revolution." http://alphahistory.com/frenchrevolution/. Boyle, Laura. “Louis XVI: Last King of France." http://www.janeausten.co.uk/louis-xvi-lastking-of-france/. Principles of social science Finnemore, John. "France: Peeps at History. The Reign of Terror and the Rise of Napoleon." http://www.mainlesson.com/display.php?author=finnemore&book=france&story=terror. France accomplished the goals of the revolution: peace, prosperity, and liberal-republican Logan, Joseph T. “Battle of Yorktown.” http://www.theamericanrevolution.org/battledetail.aspx?battle=29. change to France’s social and political environment, it was not until the post-WWII years that Principles of social science principles. The French Revolution of 1789 therefore, existed as a pyrrhic victory because its France accomplished the goals of the generations revolution: later, peace, and liberal-republican objectives were not fulfilled until several andprosperity, at a tremendous cost. principles. The French Revolution of 1789 therefore, existed as a pyrrhic victory because its objectives were not fulfilled until several generations later, and at a tremendous cost. N.A. "France Before the Revolution of 1789.” http://www.civicsandcitizenship.edu.au/verve/_resources/FQ2_France_before_Revolution.pdf. N.A. "Causes of the French Revolution." https://classes.lt.unt.edu/Fall_2012/CECS_5110_050/jls0740/ Image%20and%20Text.html. N.A. "The Great Fear." http://alphahistory.com/frenchrevolution/great-fear/. N.A. "The Trial and Execution of King Louis XVI." http://www.historyguide.org/intellect/louis_trial.html. N.A. "Reign of Terror, French History," Encyclopedia Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/588360/Reign-of-Terror. N.A. "Directory," Encyclopedia Britannica. 45 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/165043/Directory. 21 Finnemore, “France: Peeps at History. The Reign of Terror and The Rise of Napoleon.” 44 N.A. “Napoleon Crowned Emperor.” http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/napoleoncrowned-emperor. N.A. "Louisiana Purchase, 1803 - 1801–1829 - Milestones - Office of the Historian." https://history.state.gov/milestones/1801-1829/louisiana-purchase. N.A. "Napoleon Bonaparte." http://www.history.com/topics/napoleon. N.A. "Louis-Philippe, Biography - King of France." Encyclopedia Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/349203/Louis-Philippe. N.A. "Louis Bonaparte." http://www.biography.com/people/louis-bonaparte-9218602. 21 Finnemore, “France: Peeps at History. The Reign of Terror and The Rise of Napoleon.” Principles of social science 44 21 Finnemore, “France: Peeps at History. The Reign of Terror and The Rise of Napoleon.” 44 44 N.A. "France: The Third Republic and the 1905 Law." http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/france-the-third-republic-and-the-1905-law-of-emlaicite-em. N.A. "Fourth Republic, French History," Encyclopedia Britannica. 45 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/215257/Fourth-Republic. N.A. "Fifth Republic," Encyclopedia Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/206499/Fifth-Republic. N.A. "Napoleon Bonaparte." http://www.history.com/topics/napoleon. N.A. "Louis-Philippe, - King of The France." Encyclopedia experienced generations Biography of disappointment. French RevolutionBritannica. of 1789 initiated significant http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/349203/Louis-Philippe. change to France’s social and political environment, it was not until the post-WWII years that N.A. "Louis Bonaparte." http://www.biography.com/people/louis-bonaparte-9218602. Principles of social science Principles of social science The Cuban Embargo Act: N.A. "France: The Third 1905 Law." France accomplished the Republic goals of and thethe revolution: peace, prosperity, and liberal-republican http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/france-the-third-republic-and-the-1905-law-of-emlaicite-em. The French Revolution of 1789 therefore, existed as a pyrrhic victory because its principles. Political Economy After the Cold War N.A. "Fourth French Encyclopedia Britannica. objectives were Republic, not fulfilled until History," several generations later, and at a tremendous cost. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/215257/Fourth-Republic. N.A. "Fifth Republic," Encyclopedia Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/206499/Fifth-Republic. Grace Gilbert On March 20, 2016 President Barak Obama became the first sitting president to visit Cuba since 1928. Obama anticipated the visit would serve as a symbolic gesture in the recently announced policy of rapprochement between the United States and its neighbor, Cuba, just 90 miles away. The principal point of contention between the United States and Cuba is the Cuban Embargo Act of 1960. Congress imposed economic restrictions on Cuba that included curbs on travel between the countries and limitations on commerce for all individuals under United States jurisdiction.1 The Obama administration has proposed to its counterparts in Havana various steps to open trade lines, but the wheels of American and Cuban diplomacy spin slowly. Each President since 1960 has dealt with American-Cuban relations differently, creating inconsistencies throughout the years, but almost all academics support the claim that the Embargo was a failure. 21 46 Finnemore, “France: Peeps at History. The Reign of Terror and The Rise of Napoleon.” 44 There are both vocal supporters and opponents to the embargo in the United States, especially among the Cuban-American population in South Florida. Proponents argue that Cuba has yet to meet America’s pre-set conditions required for lifting the embargo. These include both Cuba’s transition toward more democratic political institutions as well as improvements in human rights. Additionally, proponents argue that if the United States lifted the embargo Grace Gilbert ‘17, plans to study medicine in university. 1 46 N.A., "Cuba Embargo - ProCon.org," ProCon.org Headlines. http:// www.cuba-embargo.procon.org. 47 47 Principles of social science CUBAN embargo without Cuba agreeing to these modifications, it would demonstrate political weakness on the regime. By February, 1963Washington had banned all travel to Cuba. A few months later the part of Washington. Opponents, however, argue that the act should be lifted because the Kennedy administration imposed the Cuban Assets Control Regulations as the comprehensive liberalization of trade would surely promote political and social change in Cuba. Opponents also mandate assessing sanctions that outlawed all financial transactions between Cuba and the believe that trade restrictions against Cuba harm the United States economy. United States. The embargo has been the defining feature of the United States’ relationship with Cuba. In the 1990s the embargo was strengthened with the 1992 Cuban Democracy Act and the The United States and Cuba have experienced an unstable relationship since the Castro regime Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity Act of 1996. These prohibited American businesses took power in 1959. Antagonism between the two nations, however, has not always been the from trading with Cuba and limited circulation of dollars on the island. The extent to which the case. In the late 1800’s relations with Cuba were positive, at least from the American Cuban economy did decline was not a direct result of American action. Rather the fall of the perspective. During this time American consumers purchased the majority of Cuba’s exports, Soviet Union in 1991 and the curtailment of the variations of aid given from the USSR to Cuba much it from Cuba’s established sugar and tobacco industries. 2 As industry boomed and were the final impetus for the resulting economic crises Cubans experienced during the so-called urbanization increased, Cuba also became a desired tourist destination for many Americans. By “special period.”5 the 1950s Havana’s casinos and resorts were popular among American tourists.3 In the 1990s the Clinton administration initiated a moderate attempt to reconcile Cuban- Relations between the United States and Cuba turned for the worse when former dictator American policy. Travel bans were lifted and the United States reestablished an American office Franjulica Bastita fled the island on December 31, 1958. Castro’s 26 of July Movement reached in Havana. Clinton believed that the embargo was a “foolish, pandering failure” that ignored Havana shortly after. Castro’s Marxist-inspired economic reforms severed relations with the periodic immigration crisis and prohibited humanitarian aid deliveries after recurring natural 4 United States. Castro expropriated $1.8 billion in assets from American business interests in disasters that devastated ordinary Cubans.6 In 1995 the Clinton Administration established the 1959. In October, 1960, President Eisenhower initiated the embargo against Cuba. Eisenhower Cuban Migration Agreement, better known as “wet foot, dry foot” policy. It stated that Cuban deployed a partial embargo on Cuban exports. He also closed the United States embassy in Cuba immigrants found at sea would be redirected back to Cuba, but immigrants who reached land and ended all diplomatic ties. Eisenhower initiated the infamous Bay of Pigs invasion operation, would be permitted to remain in the United States. Then in 2001 Hurricane Michelle hit Cuba which involved CIA-trained Cuban exiles attempting to initiate an insurgency against the Castro 2 N.A., "US Embargo Causing Crisis in Cuba," BMJ: British Medical Journal, vol. 307 (1993). N.A., "Cuba Embargo - ProCon.org." 4 Remy Herrera, "US Embargo against Cuba: Urgent Need to Lift It," Economic and Political Weekly, no. 41 (2003), pp. 4310-4312. 3 48 48 5 6 Ibid., pp. 4310-4312. N.A., "Cuba Embargo - ProCon.org," ProCon.org Headlines. 49 49 Vatican representatives, the groups decided that restoration would proceed gradually. Regular tourism would continue to be prohibited by America, but travel restrictions to and from the Vatican representatives, the groups decided that restoration would proceed gradually. Regular CUBAN embargo Principles of social science tourism would continue to be prohibited by America, but travel restrictions to and from the and ravaged the country. For humanitarian reasons, the United States allowed for American food United and Cuba would ease.decided Cuban that spiesrestoration would be would released. AndCUBAN plans were made to VaticanStates representatives, the groups proceed gradually. Regular embargo companies to sell food to the island. America quickly became Cuba’s largest food supplier in reopen the American embassy in Havana. In exchange, the United States to convinced to tourism would continue to be prohibited by America, but travel restrictions and fromHavana the 2008. United Cuba would ease. Cuban spiesHouse wouldbelieves be released. And plans were to release States dozensand of political prisoners. The White that the embargo was made a policy CUBAN embargo The George W. Bush administration was not as reconciliatory as Clinton. Bush opposed reopen the American embassy In fix exchange, theinUnited States but convinced Havana to that worked previously or was in anHavana. attempt to problems those years, they now believe ties with Cuba and in fact attached harsher restrictions to the embargo, such as the restriction of release dozens of political prisoners. The would White be House thattoward the embargo was reforms. a policy commercial exchange between the nations morebelieves conducive democratic United States and Cuba would ease. Cuban spies would be released. And plans were made to that worked was an attempt to fix problems in list those but they of now believe Morepreviously recently, inor2015, Cuba was removed from the of years, state sponsors terrorism. reopen the American embassy in Havana. In exchange, the United States convinced Havana to commercial exchange between the nations would in be amore conducive toward House, democratic On July 1, 2015, President Obama announced speech at the White "Thereforms. United release dozens of political prisoners. The White House believes that the embargo was a policy More recently, in 2015,reestablish Cuba was diplomatic removed from the listwith of state sponsors of of Cuba terrorism. States has agreed to formally relations the Republic and that worked previously or was an attempt to fix problems in those years, but they now believe 12 On Julyembassies 1, 2015, in President Obamacountries." announced in the White House, "Theflag United reopen our respective Asaa speech sign of at normalization, the Cuban was commercial exchange between the nations would be more conducive toward democratic reforms. States has to formally reestablish relations with the for Republic of time Cubasince and raised overagreed the country's Washington, DCdiplomatic embassy on July 20, 2015 the first More recently, in 2015, Cuba was removed from the list of state sponsors of terrorism. reopen embassies in were our respective diplomatic relations severed 54countries." years ago.1213 As a sign of normalization, the Cuban flag was On July 1, 2015, President Obama announced in a speech at the White House, "The United raised over country's Washington, DC embassyand on July 20, 2015 for thehas firstcaptured time since The the history of Cuban-American economic diplomatic relations the States has agreed to formally reestablish diplomatic relations with the Republic of Cuba and diplomaticofrelations were severed 54 years ago.13 seminal Anatomy of a Failed Embargo: US attention historians. Dona Rich Kaplowitz reopen embassies in our respective countries."12 As a sign of normalization, the Cuban flag was Theagainst historyCuba of Cuban-American economic policy. and diplomatic relations hashistorians capturedwho the Like most academic Sanctions does not favor Washington raised over the country's Washington, DC embassy on July 20, 2015 for the first time since attention of historians. Dona Rich Kaplowitz seminalreminds Anatomy of a that Failed US have written on Cuban-American relations, Kaplowitz readers the Embargo: embargo was diplomatic relations were severed 54 years ago.13 Sanctions against does Castro, not favor policy. Like mostincredibly. academic historians who initially placed to Cuba overthrow andWashington in this capacity it has failed She concludes The history of Cuban-American economic and diplomatic relations has captured the have written on Cuban-American relations, Kaplowitz reminds readers that theconsiderations. embargo was that the negative humanitarian consequences have far outweighed the political attention of historians. Dona Rich Kaplowitz seminal Anatomy of a Failed Embargo: US initially placed to overthrow Castro, and in this capacity it has failed incredibly. She concludes 12 Sanctions against Cuba doesonnot favor Like most academic historians who N.A., "Charting a New Course Cuba," TheWashington White House. policy. https://www.whitehouse.gov/issues/foreignpolicy/cuba. that the negative humanitarian consequences have far outweighed the political considerations. 13 N.A.,written "Obama on on U.S. Embassy in Cuba:relations, 'This Is What Change Looks Like'" NBC News. have Cuban-American Kaplowitz reminds readers that the embargo was visitation.7 During the Bush administration, Fidel Castro stepped down from the presidency of Cuba. Raúl Castro replaced Fidel in February, 2008. 8 Since the beginning of President Obama’s political career, he has consistently addressed American relations with Cuba. It came as no surprise then, when in 2011 Obama began lifting travel restrictions.9 The Obama administration was clear in that it wanted to mend ties with Cuba, still Obama maintained that the embargo would remain until clear, positive, and genuine democratic and humanitarian improvements were made on the island. Obama’s Secretary of State, Hillary Clinton believed personally that Cuba did not want to mend their relations with the Unites States, and that the Castro regime was simply politically sabotaging America.10 The most recent attempts to improve the relations between Cuba and the United States occurred in December, 2014 when President Obama announced a full restoration of diplomatic ties with Cuba.11 Through secret communication in Canada between American, Cuban and 7 Stephen Wilkinson, “US Cuba Policy After Bush: Succession or Transition?” International Journal of Cuban Studies, no. 1.1 (2008), pp. 54–65. 8 Ibid., pp. 54–65. 9 Remy Herrera, "US Embargo against Cuba,” pp. 4310-312. 10 Ibid., pp. 4310-4312. 11 N.A., "Cuba Embargo - ProCon.org." 50 50 http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/u-s-cuba-relations/obama-announces-deal-open-cuban-embassy-n385001. placed atoNew overthrow andWhite in this it has failed incredibly. She concludes initially N.A., "Charting Course onCastro, Cuba," The House. https://www.whitehouse.gov/issues/foreign51capacity policy/cuba. N.A., on U.S. Embassy in Cuba: 'This Is Whathave Change Like'" NBC that the"Obama negative humanitarian consequences farLooks outweighed theNews. political considerations. http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/u-s-cuba-relations/obama-announces-deal-open-cuban-embassy-n385001. 12 13 12 51 N.A., "Charting a New Course on Cuba," The White House. https://www.whitehouse.gov/issues/foreignpolicy/cuba. 13 N.A., "Obama on U.S. Embassy in Cuba: 'This Is What Change Looks Like'" NBC News. http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/u-s-cuba-relations/obama-announces-deal-open-cuban-embassy-n385001. 51 51 Each tightening of embargo sanctions has seen the Castro regime grow more oppressive. Kaplowitz compares the Clinton administration, which tightened embargo policies, and the Ford Each tightening of embargo sanctions has seen the Castro regime grow more oppressive. Principles of social science Each tightening of the embargo has seen thetightened Castro regime moreandoppressive. Kaplowitz compares Clintonsanctions administration, which embargogrow policies, the Ford Kaplowitz compares the Clinton administration, which tightened embargo policies, and the Ford and presidencies, which sanctions loosened them. Kaplowitz concludes, a regretful that the EachCarter tightening of embargo has seen the Castro regimein grow moretone, oppressive. Principles of social science only reasoncompares theof United States maintained the embargo was because of policies, the “strong wellKaplowitz the Clinton administration, which tightened embargo and and the Ford Principles social science 14 funded” anti-Castro campaigns in South Florida. and Carter presidencies, which loosened them. Kaplowitz concludes, in a regretful tone, that the Principles of social science Remy Herrera, writing in the Economic and Political Weekly, in argues that the embargo’s and Carter presidencies, which loosened them. Kaplowitz concludes, a regretful tone, that the only reason the United States maintained the embargo was because of the “strong and well- 15 14 Herrera immediate consequence is to in “cause hunger and despair” to ordinary only reason the United States maintained the embargo was because of theCubans. “strong and wellfunded” anti-Castro campaigns South Florida. and Carter the presidencies, which loosened them. Kaplowitz concludes, in a regretful tone, that the 14 highlights negative consequences of Florida. the embargo. Herrera is especially ofembargo’s American funded”Remy anti-Castro campaigns in the South Herrera, writing in Economic and Political Weekly, arguescritical that the only reason the United maintained the embargo was because of the “strong and well16 Increased restrictions almost always result in prohibitions on travel writing toStates island. Remy Herrera, the Economic and Political Weekly, argues that the15embargo’s Herrera immediate consequence istheto in “cause hunger and travel despair” to ordinary Cubans. 14 funded” anti-Castro campaigns in South Florida.citizens. 15 increases inthe criminal charges against American Moreover, professional, academic, and Herrera immediate consequence is to “cause and despair” to especially ordinary Cubans. highlights negative consequences of hunger the embargo. Herrera is critical of American Herrera, writingand in familial the Economic and Political Weekly, interests argues that the embargo’s 16 the in someRemy cases humanitarian visits to Cuba arerestrictions banned, that according to highlights theon negative of embargo. Herrera is especially critical of American Increased travel almost always result in prohibitions travel consequences to the island. 15 Herrera immediate consequence isand to temporal “cause16 hunger and despair” to ordinary Cubans. Herrera regional political concerns. Herrera denounces this as aresult form of Increased travelMoreover, restrictions almost always in prohibitions on travel to the island.American increasessupersede in criminal charges against citizens. professional, academic, and highlights the negative consequences of the embargo. Herreraagainst is especially critical ofconcludes, American economic, and charges political sabotage. “The US embargo Cuba,” increases insocial criminal against American citizens. Moreover, in some cases humanitarian and familial visits to Cuba are banned,professional, interestsHerrera thatacademic, accordingand to 16 Increased travelit restrictions almost always result in prohibitionsto on travel to the for island. “deserves condemned the violation ofconcerns. law and for that its lack of of in some supersede casesbehumanitarian andtemporal familial visits to Cuba arerepresents banned,denounces interests according to Herrera regional and political Herrera thistotal as a form increases in 17 criminal charges against Americaniscitizens. Moreover, academic, and Herrera finds that Washington just as culpable forprofessional, the humanitarian in legitimacy.” Herrera supersede regional and temporal political concerns. Herrera denounces this asconcludes, a crisis form of economic, social and political sabotage. “The US embargo against Cuba,” Herrera in some humanitarian and familialCubans visits to aretobanned, interests thattheaccording to Cuba as cases the Castro Ordinary areCuba forced bear the brunt of social economic, social andregime. politicalfor sabotage. “The US embargo against Cuba,” concludes, “deserves to be condemned the violation of law it represents and forHerrera its total lackand of Herrera supersede and temporal political concerns.The Herrera denounces this as a form of economic effects ofregional the finds embargo, not the Castro lackforof food andits medicine is the “deserves to17 beHerrera condemned for Washington the violation law represents and for total crisis lack of that isofregime. just as itculpable the humanitarian in legitimacy.” economic, social and political of sabotage. “The US embargo against Cuba,” Herrera concludes, 17 most consequence America’s embargo, leading insufficient medical treatment, Herrera finds that Washington isare justforced as culpable forthethebrunt humanitarian crisisand in legitimacy.” Cuba immediate as the Castro regime. Ordinary Cubans to to bear of the social “deserves to cancer be condemned violation of law it represents and by fordestroying its total lack of especially for andembargo, otherfor fatalthe diseases. Herrera argues America, Cuba’s Cuba as the Castro regime. Ordinary are forced tothat bear thefood bruntand of medicine the social economic effects of the not theCubans Castro regime. The lack of is and the 17 Herrera finds that Washington is just as culpable for the humanitarian crisis in legitimacy.” 14 economic effects of the embargo, not the Castro regime. The to lack of food and medicine is the Remy Herrera, "US Embargo against pp. 4310-4311. most immediate consequence of Cuba,’ America’s embargo, leading insufficient medical treatment, 15 Ibid., pp. 4141-4142. Cuba as Castro regime. Ordinary Cubans are forced to bear the brunt of the social and Ibid.,immediate pp. the 4141-4142. most consequence America’s leadingthat to America, insufficient treatment, especially for cancer and other of fatal diseases.embargo, Herrera argues bymedical destroying Cuba’s Ibid., pp. 4310-4311. economic effects of the embargo, not the Castro regime. The lack of food and medicine is the especially for cancer and other fatal diseases. Herrera argues that America, by destroying Cuba’s 14 52 Remy Herrera, "US Embargo against Cuba,’ pp. 4310-4311. 15 most 16 Ibid., immediate pp. 4141-4142. consequence of America’s embargo, leading to insufficient medical treatment, 16 17 Ibid., 4141-4142. Remypp. Herrera, "US Embargo against Cuba,’ pp. 4310-4311. 17 15 Ibid., pp. 4310-4311. 4141-4142. 16 especially for cancer Ibid., pp. 4141-4142. and other fatal diseases. Herrera 17 52 Ibid., pp. 4310-4311. 14 Remy Herrera, "US Embargo against Cuba,’ pp. 4310-4311. 15 52 Ibid., pp. 4141-4142. 16 Ibid., pp. 4141-4142. 17 Ibid., pp. 4310-4311. 14 52 52 economic livelihood, is fighting an undeclared war against Cuba. The embargo, in short, is a crime against humanity and an attack on the basic rights of ordinary Cubans. economic livelihood, is fighting an undeclared war against Cuba. The embargo, in short, is a CUBAN embargo crime against humanity and an attack on the basic rights of ordinary Cubans. economic livelihood, is fighting an undeclared war against Cuba. The embargo, in short, is a David Katz contributes to the academic consensus on the embargo in his "Sanctioned economic livelihood, is fighting an undeclared war against Cuba. The embargo, in short, is a crime against humanity and an attack on the basic rights of ordinary Cubans.CUBAN embargo State: The US Embargo on Cuba." Katz argues that the embargo has failed to accomplish its crime against humanity and an attack on the basic rights of ordinary Cubans. originally stated goal of regime change. Instead, the embargo has given the Castro regime CUBAN embargo David Katz contributes to the academic consensus on the embargo in his "Sanctioned embargo “political ammunition" in its attempt to paint capitalist America as theCUBAN hemispheric tyrant. State: The US Embargo on Cuba." Katz argues that the embargo has failed to accomplish its David contributes to the academic consensus on the embargo his the "Sanctioned Moreover, the Katz embargo has denied significant economic opportunities in tradeinand food and originally stated goal of regime change. Instead, the embargo has given the Castro regime David Katz contributes to the academic consensus on the embargo in his "Sanctioned State: The sectors. US Embargo on the Cuba." Katzhas argues the embargo has failed to accomplish its hospitality Finally, embargo eventhat inhibited the possibility of democratic reform “political attempt to argues paint capitalist America has as the hemispheric tyrant. State: Theammunition" US Embargo in onits Cuba." Katz that the embargo failed to accomplish its originally goal ofhas regime change. embargo given Castro regime The embargo afforded CastroInstead, politicalthe excuses in thehas form of anthe American culprit in Cuba.18 stated Moreover, stated the embargo deniedchange. significant economic opportunities tradethe andCastro the food and originally goal ofhas regime Instead, the embargo has in given regime “political ammunition" in its attempt to paint crises capitalist AmericaAnd as the for the regime’s humanitarian and economic in Cuba. the hemispheric embargo hastyrant. also hospitalityammunition" sectors. Finally, theattempt embargotohas evencapitalist inhibitedAmerica the possibility democratic reform “political in its paint as theofhemispheric tyrant. Moreover, the embargo has denied significant economic opportunities inCubans. trade andThe the embargo, food and engendered an impassioned anti-American sentiment among ordinary Theembargo embargohas hasdenied afforded Castro political excuses in the form of an and American culprit in Cuba.18 the Moreover, significant economic opportunities in trade the food and hospitalitytosectors. Finally, the embargo has even inhibitedCuba the possibility democratic reform according Katz, was established in an effort to convince to open itsofdoors to democracy, for the regime’s and economic crises in Cuba. And theof embargo also hospitality sectors.humanitarian Finally, the embargo has even inhibited the possibility democratichas reform 18 embargo hassmokescreen afforded Castro politicaltoexcuses thepeople form of American culprit in Cuba. but instead The it has provided for Castro distractinthe of an Cuba from the real engendered an impassioned anti-American among in ordinary The embargo, embargo has afforded Castrosentiment political excuses the formCubans. of an American culprit in Cuba.18 The for the regime’s humanitarian and economic crises from in Cuba. AndKatz the speculates embargo has problems of corruption and incompetence emanating Havana. overalso the according to Katz, was established in an effort to convince Cuba to open its doors to democracy, for the regime’s humanitarian and economic crises in Cuba. And the embargo has also engendered impassioned anti-American sentiment Cubans. embargo,a good that a an revision in American policy could bring. among Liftingordinary the embargo wouldThe encourage but instead it has provided smokescreen for Castro to distract the people of Cuba from the real engendered an impassioned anti-American sentiment among ordinary Cubans. The embargo, according to Katz, was established in aninternational effort to convince Cuba to open its exposure doors to democracy, reengagement between Cuba and the community, including to western problems of corruption and incompetence emanating fromCuba Havana. Katz speculates over the according to Katz, was established in an effort to convince to open its doors to democracy, but instead has provided smokescreen for and Castro to distract the people of Cuba fromcertainly the real ideals like itliberalism, entrepreneurialism democracy. Trade would almost goodinstead that a itrevision in American policy for could bring. Lifting the the people embargo encourage but has provided smokescreen Castro to distract of would Cuba from the reala problems of corruption and incompetence emanating from Havana. Katz speculates over the introduce liberal ideas, and with ideas desire for reforms. reengagement between Cuba and the international community, including exposure to western problems of corruption and incompetence emanating from Havana. Katz speculates over the good that a revision in American policy could bring. Lifting the embargo would encourage a ideals likea revision liberalism, entrepreneurialism andbring. democracy. Trade wouldwould almost certainlya good that in American policy could Lifting the embargo encourage reengagement between Cuba and the international community, including exposure to western with ideas for reforms. introduce liberal ideas, and 18 reengagement between Cuba the desire international community, including exposure to western David Katz, "Sanctioned State: Theand US Embargo on Cuba," Harvard International Review, no. 27 (2005). ideals like liberalism, entrepreneurialism and democracy. Trade would almost certainly 53 democracy. Trade would almost certainly ideals like liberalism, entrepreneurialism and introduce liberal ideas, and with ideas desire for reforms. introduce liberal ideas, and with ideas desire for reforms. 18 David Katz, "Sanctioned State: The US Embargo on Cuba," Harvard International Review, no. 27 (2005). 53 argues that America, by destroying Cuba’s 18 David Katz, "Sanctioned State: The US Embargo on Cuba," Harvard International Review, no. 27 (2005). 18 David Katz, "Sanctioned State: The US Embargo on Cuba," 53 Harvard International Review, no. 27 (2005). 53 53 Embargo Act. It has certainly not contributed to the decline of the Castro regime. The embargo has defined relations between these two nations, and has done so in a negative manner. Historians, international affairs correspondents, political scientists and public intellectuals Principles of social science CUBAN embargo more generally write and speak poorly of the short and long term consequences of the Cuban Embargo Act. It has certainly not contributed to the decline of the Castro regime. The embargo The Cuban Embargo Act has been handled inconsistently by each president of the United Historians, international affairs correspondents, political scientists and public intellectuals has defined relations between these two nations, and has done so in a negative manner. States, perhaps adding to its ineffectiveness. In 1960, President Eisenhower created the more generally write and speak poorly of the short and long term consequences of the Cuban Embargo, and in 2014 President Obama announced plans to terminate it. Restoring trade Embargo Act. It has certainly not contributed to the decline of the Castro regime. The embargo Principles of social science relations with Cuba was a significant change in foreign policy, with Cuba being so close to the has defined relations between these two nations, and has done so in a negative manner. U.S. in proximity. President Obama’s efforts to restore trade relations with Cuba is one of the The Cuban Embargo Act has been handled inconsistently by each president of the United most notable policy changes during his presidency, and also one of the most positive things to Principles of social science States, perhaps adding to its ineffectiveness. In 1960, President Eisenhower created the occur between the two countries. Embargo, and in 2014 President Obama announced plans to terminate it. Restoring trade The Cuban Embargo Act has been handled inconsistently by each president of the United relations with Cuba was a significant change in foreign policy, with Cuba being so close to the States, perhaps adding to its ineffectiveness. In 1960, President Eisenhower created the U.S. in proximity. President Obama’s efforts to restore trade relations with Cuba is one of the Embargo, and in 2014 President Obama announced plans to terminate it. Restoring trade most notable policy changes during his presidency, and also one of the most positive things to relations with Cuba was a significant change in foreign policy, with Cuba being so close to the occur between the two countries. U.S. in proximity. President Obama’s efforts to restore trade relations with Cuba is one of the most notable policy changes during his presidency, and also one of the most positive things to occur between the two countries. Works Cited Herrera, Rémy. "Anti-Cuba Embargo, New Curtailment of Freedoms," Economic and Political Weekly, no. 39 (2004). ______. "US Embargo against Cuba: Urgent Need to Lift It," Economic and Political Weekly no. 38 (2003). Katz, David. "Sanctioned State: The US Embargo on Cuba," Harvard International Review, no. 27 (2005). Lowenthal, Abraham. Review of Cuba's Socialist Economy toward the 1990s by Andrew Zimbalist. The International History Review, no. 3 (1999). Wilkinson, Stephen. “US Cuba Policy After Bush: Succession or Transition?” International Journal of Cuban Studies, no. 1.1 (2008). N.A. “Charting a New Course on Cuba,” The White House. https://www.whitehouse.gov/issues/foreign-policy/cuba. N.A. "Cuba Embargo - ProCon.org," ProConorg Headlines. http://www.cuba-embargo.procon.org/. N.A. "Obama on U.S. Embassy in Cuba: 'This Is What Change Looks Like.'" NBC News. http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/u-s-cuba-relations/obama-announces-deal-open-cubanembassy-n385001. N.A. "US Embargo Causing Crisis in Cuba," BMJ: British Medical Journal, vol. 307 (1993). 54 54 54 54 55 55 The Cultural Effects of the Islamic Conquest of Spain The Cultural Effects of the Islamic Conquest of Spain Fiona Hanly-Jorda Fiona Hanly-Jorda Islamic conquest of SPAIN Islamic conquest of SPAIN The Cultural Effects of the Islamic Conquest of Spain The Arab invasion of Spain extended over a period of 700 years. During which Fiona Hanly-Jorda The Arab invasion of Spain extended over a period of 700 years. During which Christians retreated both socially and politically while Muslims advanced and assimilated their Christians retreated both socially and politically while Muslims advanced and assimilated their culture, architecture, and innovations across the Iberian peninsula. The Islamic presence in culture, architecture, andSpain innovations acrossover the Iberian peninsula. Islamic presence in The Arab invasion of extended a period of 700 The years. During which Iberia is the single most important outside historical cultural influence in Spain. During the 700 Iberia is theretreated single most outside historical cultural influence in Spain. During thetheir 700 Christians bothimportant socially and politically while Muslims advanced and assimilated or more years that the Muslims controlled Spain, their culture effectively shaped Spain. The or more architecture, years that theand Muslims controlled their culture effectively shaped Spain. culture, innovations acrossSpain, the Iberian peninsula. The Islamic presenceThe in blends of European, Christian and Islamic conventions provide the foundation for the distinct blends European, Christian andoutside Islamichistorical conventions provide the foundation for the the distinct Iberia isofthe single most important cultural influence in Spain. During 700 culture that remains unique to modern Spain. culture remains unique to modern Spain.Spain, their culture effectively shaped Spain. The or morethat years that the Muslims controlled Muslims first arrived in Southern Iberia in 711 A.D. Much of the region was under first Christian arrived inand Southern in 711 provide A.D. Much of the region wasdistinct under blends Muslims of European, IslamicIberia conventions the foundation for the control of the Visigoth, a so-called Roman barbaric tribe that filled the political vacuum control of the Visigoth, Roman barbaric tribe that filled the political vacuum culture that remains uniqueatoso-called modern Spain. following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire.1 The arrival of the Islamic Berbers from 1 following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. arrival of the Islamic Berbers from Muslims first arrived in Southern Iberia in 711The A.D. Much of the region was under North Africa introduced Islamic culture and faith to Western Europe. The Berber armies The political Berber vacuum armies North culture and faith to Western Europe. controlAfrica of theintroduced Visigoth, Islamic a so-called Roman barbaric tribe that filled the consisted mostly of Islamic soldiers. When the soldiers conquered and then settled in Spanish 1 consisted mostly of of Islamic soldiers.Roman WhenEmpire. the soldiers conquered settled in Spanish following the collapse the Western The arrival ofand thethen Islamic Berbers from Visigothic cities, they encountered large Christian populations hostile toward all Muslims. As a Visigothic cities, they encountered large Christian toward Muslims. As a TheallBerber armies North Africa introduced Islamic culture and faithpopulations to Westernhostile Europe. result, the Christians segregated themselves into distinct boroughs. This exodus left cities like result, the Christians themselves into exodus left in cities like consisted mostly ofsegregated Islamic soldiers. When thedistinct soldiersboroughs. conquered This and then settled Spanish Cordoba and Toledo available to the Muslims, who quickly revitalized cities once prosperous Cordoba and Toledo to the Muslims, quickly revitalized cities prosperous Visigothic cities, they available encountered large Christianwho populations hostile toward allonce Muslims. As a under Roman Imperial rule. 2 under Imperialsegregated rule. 2 result, Roman the Christians themselves into distinct boroughs. This exodus left cities like Cordoba and Toledo available to the Muslims, who quickly revitalized cities once prosperous 2 plans Fiona Roman Hanly-Jorda ‘18,rule. to study medicine in university. under Imperial Fiona Hanly-Jorda ‘18, plans to study medicine in university. While the Spanish-Christian aristocracy and merchant townspeople were resistant to the Spanish-Christian and merchant townspeople were resistant to IslamicWhile rule, Jews and peasants in aristocracy the area quickly reconciled with their new Muslim Islamic peasantsof in the area quicklythereconciled with by their new regarding Muslim rulers. rule, This Jews initialand expression goodwill reflected relative lenience Muslims rulers. This initial expression goodwill reflected the relative by arrived, Muslimstaxes regarding taxes, religious conversion andofsocial conventions. When thelenience Muslims on taxes, conversion and social conventions. When arrived, taxes The on Jewish religious and peasant owned property actually decreased by 20% the and Muslims serfdom was abolished. Jewish and peasant ownedlegislation property actually by for 20%services and serfdom was abolished. Muslims also established setting decreased a base wage performed, and workedThe to Muslims also established settingThe a base wage for nature servicesofperformed, to limit conditions of povertylegislation in the region. progressive Islamic and lawsworked enticed limit conditions of poverty in the region. of Islamic laws enticed waves of Islamic conversions. Over The the progressive next severalnature generations the growing Muslim 3 waves of inIslamic conversions. Over the of next several the growing Muslim population Iberia encouraged the assimilation Muslim andgenerations Spanish traditions. 3 population in the Iberia encouraged the invasion assimilation of the Muslim and Spanish After initial waves of and collapse of thetraditions. Visigothic kingdom the initial waves of invasion the collapse of region’s the Visigothic kingdom under After Roderick, Muslims made significantand contributions to the architecture. Still under Roderick, Muslims made significant contributions the landscape, region’s architecture. today Mosques, gardens, hospitals, palaces, and libraries dotto the especiallyStill in today Mosques, gardens, hospitals,itspalaces, and libraries the landscape, especially in Southern Spain. In Granada, Alhambra, a fortressdot stocked with reflecting pools and Southern Spain. In Granada, its Alhambra, a 4fortress stocked with pools and bucolic gardens, is constructed on Moorish designs. Cordoba, also in the reflecting south, is famous for 4 bucolic gardens, is constructed on Moorish also in the is famous for designed by the renown Islamicdesigns. architect Cordoba, ‘Abd al-Rahman I. south, Located in the city its mosque, 5 in the city designed by thetorenown Islamic architect ‘Abdofal-Rahman Located its mosque, center, the mosque is meant resemble the Great Mosque DamascusI.in Syria. 5 center, Islamic the mosque is meant to resemble Great Mosque of Damascus in Syria. culture also influenced thethe style of Iberia’s dominant language, Castellano. Islamicand culture also influenced the style of Islamic Iberia’s languages. dominant language, Castellano. “Almohada” “alcohol” are derivations from Indeed, most words in the “Almohada” and “alcohol” fromArabic Islamicorigins. languages. Indeed, most words in the Spanish language that begin are withderivations ah- or al- have Phrases such as “hasta la vista” 1 N.A., "Visigoth," Ancient History Encyclopedia. http://www.ancient.eu/visigoth/. 21 BBC, "Religions."Ancient http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/spain_1.shtml. N.A., "Visigoth," History Encyclopedia. http://www.ancient.eu/visigoth/. 2 BBC, "Religions." http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/spain_1.shtml. Fiona Hanly-Jorda ‘18, plans to study medicine56 in university. 1 2 56 N.A., "Visigoth," Ancient History Encyclopedia. http://www.ancient.eu/visigoth/. BBC, "Religions." http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/spain_1.shtml. 56 56 Spanish language beginofwith ah- or al- have Arabic origins. Phrases such as Ahmed Nazeer, "Thethat Conquest Spain." http://historyofislam.com/contents/the-age-of-faith/the-conquest-of-spain/. 34 Colum Hourihane, The Grove Encyclopedia of Medieval Art and Architecture (Oxford, 2012). Ahmed Nazeer, "The Conquest of Spain." 5 N.A. "History of the Mosque, Cathedral of Cordoba.” http://historyofislam.com/contents/the-age-of-faith/the-conquest-of-spain/. 4http://www.mezquitadecordoba.org/en/history-mosque-cordoba.asp. Colum Hourihane, The Grove Encyclopedia of Medieval Art and Architecture (Oxford, 2012). 5 N.A. "History of the Mosque, Cathedral of Cordoba.” 57 http://www.mezquitadecordoba.org/en/history-mosque-cordoba.asp. 3 57 57 “hasta la vista” Islamic conquest of SPAIN Principles of social science Islamic conquest of SPAIN Islamic conquest of SPAIN come from the Arabic word “hatta” which means “until,” and “Ojalá” is derived from the Arabic Spanish agriculture was transformed as the region was introduced to new crops from phrase “Insha’ Allah!,” meaning “If God Wills.” Numerous other phrases and words in the Spanish agriculture was transformed as region introduced to from Spanish agriculture transformed as the theproduction region was wasincreased introduced to new new crops crops other parts of the Islamic was Empire. Agricultural significantly fromfrom the Spanish language demonstrate Arabic influence.6 other parts of the Islamic Agricultural production increased significantly from the other parts of ofnew the irrigation Islamic Empire. Empire. Agricultural production significantly from also the integration technology such as canal digging. increased The manufacturing industry Muslims not only left their mark on architecture and language, they also introduced the integration of technology such as digging. The industry also integration of new new irrigation irrigation suchwork as canal canal The manufacturing manufacturing industry saw improvements, as silk technology and brocade fromdigging. the peninsula became well knownalso in Spanish to many intellectual innovations, namely, alchemy, algebra, chess, the introduction of saw as silk brocade from the became well in saw improvements, improvements, silk and and brocade work work from the peninsula peninsula becameadvances well known known in Mediterranean tradingascenters. Industrially, Muslims in Spain made important in crank Arabic numbers instead of Roman numerals, the number zero, and Aristotelian philosophy.7 Mediterranean trading Industrially, Muslims in Spain made advances in Mediterranean trading centers. centers. made important important advances in crank crank and lever technology. Finally, Industrially, the infamousMuslims success in of Spain the Spanish and Portuguese slave trade The instruments brought from Islamic countries gave way to the popularization of the guitar and lever technology. Finally, infamous success of Spanish and Portuguese trade and lever Finally, the the of infamous success owes of the themuch Spanish Portuguese slave slave trade during thetechnology. period of colonization the Americas to and the innovations in slavery and flamenco. Cooking in Spain was also greatly influenced by the introduction of herbs and during the of of owes to innovations in slavery during the period period of colonization colonization of the the Americas Americas owes much much to the the in Slavery slavery organization and marketing first introduced by the Berbers. William D. innovations Phillips, in his spices from northern Africa and the eastern Mediterranean.8 organization and marketing first introduced by the William D. in organization and Early marketing first Iberia, introduced by that the Berbers. Berbers. William D. Phillips, Phillips, in his his Slavery Slavery in Medieval and Modern argues it was Muslims in Iberia who introduced the Medieval Muslims in Spain also excelled in the field of medicine, and thus introduced to Iberia something of a revolution in the medical sciences. The Spanish Catholic Church had discouraged scientific inquiry into disciplines like astronomy and medicine.9 At the start of the eleventh century, the Cordoban doctor Al Zahrawi published an encyclopedia of surgery that was used as a medical reference for the next 500 years. Al Zahrawi discovered the process of dissolving catgut to stitch wounds along with a second surgery to remove the sutures. Muslim doctors in Spain also discovered the use of shining a light into the eye of patients to observe the pupil. And in dental hygiene, Muslims introduced the toothbrush. 6 Habeeb Salloum, “Arabic Contributions to the Spanish Language." http://www.alhewar.net/Basket/Habeeb_Salloum_Spanish_Language.htm. 7 N.A., "Muslim Spain and European Culture." http://www.sunnah.org/history/moors.htm. 8 N.A., "Arab Influences on Spanish Language and Culture: Don Quijote.” http://www.donquijote.org/culture/spain/society/customs/arab-influence-on- spanish-language-and-culture. 9 Tanya Lewis, "Science and the Catholic Church: A Turbulent History." http://w ww.livescience.com/27790-catholic-church-and-science-history.html. in Medieval and Modern Iberia, that 10 it was Muslims in Iberia who introduced the in Medieval and Early Early Modern Iberia, argues argues that it And was Muslims in Iberia who cities introduced the Spanish to modern slave commercial practices. the number of large in Spain 10 Spanish slave practices. 10 And the number of large cities in Spain Spanish to toasmodern modern slave commercial commercial practices. number of large having cities indoubled Spain increased the population reached 1 million by theAnd end the of the 10th century, increased as population reached 11 million by increased as the the conquest populationbegan reached million by the the end end of of the the 10th 10th century, century, having having doubled doubled since the Islamic in the early 700s. since Islamic conquest in 700s. since the the Islamic extended conquest began began in the the early early 700s. Muslims their influence into the Spanish family and the medieval European Muslims their influence into Spanish family and the European Muslimsof extended extended their influence into the the Spanish family and Marriage the medieval medieval understanding gender and sexuality as well. Eukene Lacarra Lanz’s and European Sexuality understanding of and as well. Lacarra Lanz’s Marriage and Sexuality understanding of gender gender and sexuality sexuality well. Eukene Eukene Lanz’s Marriage Sexuality in Medieval and Early Modern Iberiaas reviews IslamicLacarra medieval literature on and marriage and in Medieval and Early Modern Iberia reviews medieval literature literature on on marriage marriage and and in MedievalDon andJuan EarlyManuel’s Modern Conde Iberia Lucanor reviews Islamic Islamic sexuality. containsmedieval several tales demonstrating Islamic sexuality. Don Don Juan Manuel’s Manuel’s Conde Conde Lucanor Lucanor contains several several tales tales demonstrating demonstrating Islamic 11 sexuality. Islamic views on marriageJuan and sexuality, and the pervasivecontains misogyny that existed in medieval Iberia. views on on marriage marriage and and sexuality, sexuality, and and the the pervasive pervasive misogyny misogyny that that existed existed in in medieval medieval Iberia. Iberia.11 11 views 10 Molly Warsh, review author, "Slavery in Medieval and Early Modern Iberia." http://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth=0&type=summary&url=/journals/journal_of_interdisciplinary_hi 10 Molly Warsh, review author, "Slavery in Medieval and Early Modern Iberia." 10 story/v045/45.3.warsh.html. Molly Warsh, review author, "Slavery in Medieval and Early Modern Iberia." 11 http://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth=0&type=summary&url=/journals/journal_of_interdisciplinary_hi James McCutcheon, review author, "Marriage and Sexuality in Medieval and Early Modern Iberia.” http://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth=0&type=summary&url=/journals/journal_of_interdisciplinary_hi story/v045/45.3.warsh.html. http://www.ehumanista.ucsb.edu/volumes/volume_01/mccutcheon/08192002McC.pdf. author, "Marriage and Sexuality in Medieval and Early Modern Iberia.” James McCutcheon, review author, "Marriage and Sexuality in Medieval and Early Modern Iberia.” http://www.ehumanista.ucsb.edu/volumes/volume_01/mccutcheon/08192002McC.pdf. 59 http://www.ehumanista.ucsb.edu/volumes/volume_01/mccutcheon/08192002McC.pdf. story/v045/45.3.warsh.html. 11 11 James McCutcheon, review 58 59 59 58 59 Principles of social science islamic conquest of spain Many of them follow themes of domestic violence against women, exemplifying the Islamic trade with other regions. Arab merchants brought a nuanced understanding for handling human ideal of subordinate female gender roles. It is no coincidence, Lanz notes, that Spanish culture trafficking. And the prosperity brought to places like Cordoba, Seville and Toledo contributed to today is well known for its bravado, machismo, and in some cases, overt displays of misogyny. the expansion of urbanization. These influences and others were strong enough to fashion a In Jean Dangler’s Making Difference in Medieval and Early Modern Iberia, the broader contributions to the development of Iberia from the seventh to the eighteenth century are highlighted.12 medieval Spain that looked decidedly more Arab than European, even into the modern period after the reconquest. Dangler finds that Iberia during the period of Islamic conquest was simultaneously characterized by discord and cultural agreement, or convivencia. The discord that did exist on the peninsula would have been typical to any social environment with a large multicultural population living in the same region with different religions and cultures. Despite the differences between Islam, Catholicism, and Judaism, most ordinary people who occupied Iberia engendered cultural harmony. This unique social-cultural organization was the central component to fostering Iberia’s cultural phenomena. Dangler notes how Spain, singular in Western European culture, exhibited Arabic cultural traditions deep into the modern world. Dangler argues that Islamic culture was the lynchpin holding together medieval Iberia. The Islamic conquest of Iberia left a lasting impact on Spanish culture. Indeed, it is the most significant of all outside influences in Spanish history. The Islamic conquest illustrates the historical cultural thesis on the cultural consequence that follows when a foreign group of people inhabits land for an extended period of time. Inevitably there is a profound cultural imprint left on that region’s history. Arab law facilitated assimilation of Islamic traditions, especially among the poor. The incorporation of Islamic techniques in agricultural boosted production and 12 J.B. Owens , “Making Difference in Medieval and Early Modern Iberia.” http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/40008598?sid=21105183406141&uid=3739600&uid=70&uid=2&uid=2134 &uid=3739256&uid=4. 60 61 60 61 Islamic conquest of SPAIN Principles of social science Works Cited Ahmed, Nazeer. "The Conquest of Spain." http://historyofislam.com/contents/the-age-of-faith/the-conquest-of-spain/. BBC. "Muslims in Spain." http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4385768.stm#spain. N.A. "History of the Mosque, Cathedral of Cordoba.” http://www.mezquitadecordoba.org/en/history-mosque-cordoba.asp. N.A. "Muslim Spain and European Culture." http://www.sunnah.org/history/moors.htm. N.A. "Visigoth," Ancient History Encyclopedia. http://www.ancient.eu/visigoth/. BBC. "Religions." http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/spain_1.shtml. Berco, Christian, review author. “Marriage and Sexuality in Medieval and Early Modern Iberia.” http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_the_history_of_sexuality/summary/v012/12.4be rco.html. Hourihane, Colum. The Grove Encyclopedia of Medieval Art and Architecture (Oxford, 2012). http://www.gereon.greenheart.es/catala.php?lan=en. Lewis, Tanya. "Science and the Catholic Church: A Turbulent History." http://www.livescience.com/27790-catholic-church-and-science-history.html. Salloum, Habeeb. "Arabic Contributions to the Spanish Language." http://www.alhewar.net/Basket/Habeeb_Salloum_Spanish_Language.htm. McCutcheon, James, review author. “Marriage and Sexuality in Medieval and Early Modern Iberia.” http://www.ehumanista.ucsb.edu/volumes/volume_01/ mccutcheon/08192002McCutcheo n.pdf. Owens, J.B., review author. “Making Difference in Medieval and Early Modern Iberia.” http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/40008598?sid=21105183406141&uid=3739600&uid=70 &uid=2&uid=2134&uid=3739256&uid=4. Warsh, Molly, review author. “Slavery in Medieval and Early Modern Iberia.” http://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth=0&type=summary&url=/journals/journal_of_interdiscipl inary_history/v045/45.3.warsh.html. N.A. "Arab Influences on Spanish Language and Culture: Don Quijote.” http://www.donquijote.org/culture/spain/society/customs/arab-influence-onspanish-language-and-culture. N.A. “Christianity and the Muslim Conquest of Spain." http://lostislamichistory.com/christianity-and-the-muslim-conquest-of-spain/. 62 62 63 63 Commercial Crossroads: istanbul A History of Crossroads: late-Medieval Istanbul Commercial The split between western Latin Catholics and eastern Muslims had become a fairly istanbul Yannick Schmied A History of late-Medieval regular historical experience, interrupted only by brief periods of rapprochement and commercial Istanbul and cultural reconciliation. The mostLatin spectacular of these occurredMuslims during the of the The split between western Catholics and eastern hadperiod become a fairly Yannick Schmied Early modern European explorers like Christopher Columbus and Bartolomeu Dias were encouraged to discover new passages to the east in part because following the Muslim Ottomans Early modern European explorers like Christopher Columbus and Bartolomeu Dias were conquest of Istanbul in 1453 European merchants were increasingly cut off from eastern trade encouraged to discover new passages to the east in part because following the Muslim Ottomans routes.1 European merchants only granted restricted access to Istanbul, and thus constrained in conquest of Istanbul in 1453 European merchants were increasingly cut off from eastern trade their ability to reach eastern markets. For centuries the advance of the Islamic civilization across routes.1 European merchants only granted restricted access to Istanbul, and thus constrained in North Africa, the Middle East and South Asia had threatened Europeans with geographical and their ability to reach eastern markets. For centuries the advance of the Islamic civilization across cultural isolation. European engagement with communities and economies east of Anatolia and North Africa, the Middle East and South Asia had threatened Europeans with geographical and South of the Mediterranean had progressively diminished since the expansion of Islam. The Silk cultural isolation. European engagement with communities and economies east of Anatolia and Road of the Roman era, that intricate web of commercial lines connecting peoples from distant South of the Mediterranean had progressively diminished since the expansion of Islam. The Silk civilizations, was but a distant memory for medieval Europeans hampered by feudal restrictions Road of the Roman era, that intricate web of commercial lines connecting peoples from distant and religious zealotry.2 The Crusades of the late medieval period, as well as the Spanish civilizations, was but a distant memory for medieval Europeans hampered by feudal restrictions Reconquista of the Iberia, set Latin Christians at war with Muslims on both ends of the and religious zealotry.2 The Crusades of the late medieval period, as well as the Spanish Mediterranean, leaving Europe further isolated commercially from markets in the Orient. 3 Reconquista of the Iberia, set Latin Christians at war with Muslims on both ends of the Mediterranean, leaving Europe further isolated commercially from markets in the Orient. 3 Yannich Schmied ‘16, plans to study engineering at Lucerne University of Applied Science and Art. 1 Jerry H. Bentley and‘16, Herbert F. Ziegler, Traditions & Encounters: A Global Perspective on the Past (New York, Yannich Schmied plans to study engineering at Lucerne University of Applied Science and 2011), pp. 490, 615, 616. Art. 2 N.A., “Mongol invasion of Europe,” New World Encyclopedia. http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe 1 3 Jerry H. Bentley and Herbert F. Ziegler, Traditions & Encounters: A Global Perspective on the Past (New York, Joshua Mark, "Silk 2011), pp.J.490, 615, 616.Road," Ancient History Encyclopedia. http://www.ancient.eu/Silk_Road/. 64 2 Mongol conquest experience, of Asia during the 13thonly century. The Mongol conquest of Asia regular historical interrupted by brief periods of rapprochement andinadvertently commercial 4 afforded Istanbul an exciting opportunity to become the occurred center ofduring world the commerce. And the and cultural reconciliation. The most spectacular of these period of the period ofconquest Mongol hegemony in fact the last time in the conquest city’s history that inadvertently served as the Mongol of Asia during therepresents 13th century. The Mongol of Asia capstone Istanbul in commercial bridges between to East and West. TheofMongols provided 4theAnd region afforded an exciting opportunity become the center world commerce. the surrounding Istanbul a sort of apparatus, encouraging political and economic stability. period of Mongol hegemony in federal fact represents the last time in the city’s history that served as the Istanbul, with its impenetrable walls and location, became not only the the region main capstone in commercial bridges between Eaststrategic and West. The Mongols provided transportationIstanbul channelafor also the closest metropolis in proximity to thestability. Mongol surrounding sortrecourses, of federalbutapparatus, encouraging political and economic empire. Other large cities such walls as Kiev Lublin were left became largely innotruin, Istanbul Istanbul, with its impenetrable andandstrategic location, onlybutthe main managed to escape thefor destruction thealso Mongolian hordes and emerge as the pivotal in transportation channel recourses,ofbut the closest metropolis in proximity to the point Mongol inter-continental trade. cities such as Kiev and Lublin were left largely in ruin, but Istanbul empire. Other large In to 1206, Genghis Khan unified of greater Mongolia into aaswarring state point focused managed escape the destruction of the tribes Mongolian hordes and emerge the pivotal in on military conquest. inter-continental trade. Khan would record the most successful pattern of conquest in world history.InBy 1209, northern China fell,the shortly various small principalities in state central Asia 1206, Genghis Khan unified tribesafter of greater Mongolia into a warring focused accepted Mongol rule. Khan After would Ghenghis Khan’s deathsuccessful in 1227, his second Ögödei on military conquest. record the most pattern of son conquest in Khan, world continued the1209, line northern of conquest through the Caucasus and Russian principalities. Raids were history. By China fell, shortly after various small principalities in central Asia successfully performed Poland and Hungary a briefson period of turmoil accepted Mongol rule. against After Ghenghis Khan’s deathasinwell. 1227,After his second Ögödei Khan, (1246-1250), and through his son Qubilai, the grandson and great-grandson continued theMöngke line of Tolui conquest the Caucasus and Russian principalities.of Genghis Raids were 4successfully performed against Poland and Hungary as well. After a brief period of turmoil N.A., “History of Istanbul, Istanbul Valiliği.” http://www.istanbul.english.gov.tr/ 65 (1246-1250), Möngke Tolui and his son Qubilai, the grandson and great-grandson of Genghis N.A., “Mongol invasion of Europe,” New World Encyclopedia. http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe 3 Joshua J. Mark, "Silk Road," Ancient History Encyclopedia. http://www.ancient.eu/Silk_Road/. 4 64 64 N.A., “History of Istanbul, Istanbul Valiliği.” http://www.istanbul.english.gov.tr/ 65 65 Principles of social science istanbul istanbul Khan respectively, ordered Mongol armies across the Middle East and into southern Chinese The Mongols reconciled much of the Mediterranean and South Asia with Christian Song territory. This marked the greatest extent of the Mongol empire, before it was split into Europe The by brining swaths of Islamic territory under a single regime. Mongolswide reconciled much of the Mediterranean and South Asia The withMongolian Christian four principalities, the Golden Horde in eastern Europe, Ilkhante in Persia, Chagatai in central administration did not and Christians. This had effect of Europe by brining widedistinguish swaths of between Islamic Muslims territory under a single regime. ThetheMongolian Asia, and the Khanate of the Great Khan in eastern Asia.5 quelling the centuries-old religiousbetween hostilities that precluded commercial between administration did not distinguish Muslims and Christians. This exchange had the effect of When Marco Polo was accompanied by Mongolian envoys in the late 1200s, he was told Muslims and centuries-old Christians. Early Islamhostilities under thethat Caliphs (632-1258) was militant, and between took an quelling the religious precluded commercial exchange “whilst in our company ye shall travel with perfect security, and need not fear to be molested by increasingly disposition. Medieval Christian doctrinewas wasmilitant, not much Muslims andanti-Christian Christians. Early Islam under the Caliphs (632-1258) anddifferent. took an nobody.”6 The highly autocratic and oppressive regime established by the Mongols created a Indeed, one ofanti-Christian the ten commandments European Christians to “show mercy increasingly disposition.of chivalry Medievalurged Christian doctrine was not much no different. secure environment for merchants and travelers like Polo. Merchant envoys were protected 8 and do not to make war with the In short, both were determined to destroy the Indeed, onehesitate of the ten commandments of infidel.” chivalry urged European Christians to “show no mercy under Mongol law, and all who lived under Mongol authority were forced out of fear to respect 9 other. and do not hesitate to make war with the infidel.”8 In short, both were determined to destroy the Mongol laws. Legislative decrees severely punished crimes against property. For instance, other.9 The Mongols mitigated the conflicts between Christian and Muslims across the Eurasian thieves were flogged for minor offences. The theft of a horse was a capital offence. Horse landmass. raze mitigated of Baudasthe (1258), in modern marked end ofacross the caliphate. At The The Mongols conflicts betweenIraq, Christian andthe Muslims the Eurasian thieves were often split by the sword in public display. Merchants and their businesses were Baudas the The Mongols Caliph.in Without formed by religious intolerance, landmass. raze defeated of Baudasthe(1258), modern the Iraq,barrier marked the end of the caliphate. At afforded a level of security absent in much of the medieval world. Atâ-Malek Juvayni, the the Mongols allowed defeated trade to flow freely through Asia. the population in Islamic-ruled Baudas the Mongols the Caliph. Without the Much barrierofformed by religious intolerance, Persian scholar who wrote extensively of the Khan’s conquest and administration, found territories wasallowed not Muslim, was through a great diverse populace with heterogeneous religious the Mongols trade torather flow itfreely Asia. Much of the population in Islamic-ruled “Wayfarers now ply to and fro without fear or dread or the inconvenience of paying a toll and affiliations. the Caliphate the ruling class was replaced by religious Mongol territories wasWhen not Muslim, rather itwas was destroyed, a great diverse populace with heterogeneous pray for the fortune of the happy King who uprooted their foundations and left no trace of 10 officials loyal When to Khanthe andCaliphate indiscriminate in their commercial religious affiliations. was destroyed, the rulingandclass was associations. replaced by Mongol anyone of them.”7 officials loyal to Khan and indiscriminate in their commercial and religious associations.10 Timothy May, “The Mongol Empire in World History.” http://worldhistoryconnected.press.illinois.edu/5.2/may.html. 6 Marco Polo, The Book of Ser Marco Polo: The Venetian Concerning the Kingdoms and Marvels of the East. ed. Henry Yule, vol. 1 (Cambridge, 2010), chapter 3, prologue. 7 Marjorie Bignham, “Ten Essential Women for a World History Class.” http://worldhistoryconnected.press.illinois.edu/5.2/may.html. 8 5 66 N.A. "Knights Code of Chivalry," Code of Chivalry. http://www.medievalchronicles.com/medieval-knights/codeof-chivalry-knights/. 9 8 Bentley and Ziegler, Traditions & Encounters, p. 540. 10 N.A. "Knights Code of Chivalry," Code of Chivalry. http://www.medievalchronicles.com/medieval-knights/codePolo, The Book of Ser Marco Polo, vol. 1, chapter 6. of-chivalry-knights/. 67 9 Bentley and Ziegler, Traditions & Encounters, p. 540. 10 Polo, The Book of Ser Marco Polo, vol. 1, chapter 6. 66 67 67 were mended, facilitating a more uninhibited commercial flow between civilizations. However, undefeated for 1000 years. Istanbul’s famous impermeable walls protected the city from the the failure of the Mongols to subdue the Mamluks in Egypt left Mediterranean commercial Mongols. The walls consisted of an inner wall 12 meters high and 5 meters thick with 96 Principles of social science Under Mongolian hegemony the and man-made. Istanbul was blessed with natural and constructed defenses that left the city divisions between the Muslim and Christian worlds were mended, facilitating a more uninhibited commercial flow between civilizations. However, traffic exposed to piracy and harassment. The inability of the Mongols to conquer the Mamluks Under Mongolian hegemony theMamluks divisions between Muslim andcommercial Christian worlds the failure of the Mongols to subdue the Egypt leftthe Mediterranean Under Mongolian hegemony the divisionsin between the Muslim and Christian worlds contributed to making Istanbul the most significant point of intersection in East-West trade. were mended, facilitating a more uninhibited commercial flow between civilizations. However, were mended, facilitating a more uninhibited commercial flow between civilizations. However, Principles Istanbul becameof thesocial logicallyscience appropriate route to traverse Eurasia, especially with its strategic the failure of the Mongols to subdue the Mamluks in Egypt left Mediterranean commercial the failure of the Mongols to subdue the11Mamluks in Egypt left Mediterranean commercial location at the mouth of the Black Sea. Moreover, the Mongols laid waste to much of Eastern traffic exposed to piracy and harassment. The inability of the Mongols to conquer the Mamluks Principles of social science Europe. The kingdom of Hungary was largely destroyed, as was Poland.12 And Batu Kahn, the Principles of social science contributed to making Istanbul the most significant point of intersection in East-West trade. grandson of Ghengis and founder of the Golden Horde, sacked Kiev in 1238 and later took traffic piracy and harassment. of the Mongols to conquer Istanbulexposed becameto logically appropriate The routeinability to traverse Eurasia, especially withthe itsMamluks strategic traffic exposed tothe piracy and harassment. The inability of the Mongols to conquer the Mamluks control of Crimea. During much of the medieval period, Muslim hostility in Asia left sections in 11 significant point of intersection in East-West trade. contributed to mouth making Istanbul theSea. most Mongols laid wasteinto East-West much of Eastern location at the the Black contributed to makingofIstanbul the most Moreover, significantthe point of intersection trade. northern-eastern Europe as one of the only passages left to Christians interested in trade with 12 Istanbul became the logically appropriate routedestroyed, to traverse Eurasia, especially strategic Andwith Batuits the Europe. The kingdom of Hungary was largely was Poland. Istanbul became the logically appropriate route to traverseasEurasia, especially with itsKahn, strategic Asia. For an extended time this passage served as the principal trade route between East and 11 the Mongols to much Eastern location atoftheGhengis mouth of thefounder Black Sea. 11 Moreover, grandson and of the Golden Horde, sacked laid Kievwaste in 1238 and of later took Moreover, the Mongols laid waste to much of Eastern location at the mouth of the Black Sea. West. However, the Mongols devastated this region to such an extent that12large freight could not Kahn, the Europe.ofThe kingdom of Hungary largely destroyed, as was hostility Poland. And control Crimea. During much ofwas the medieval period, Muslim AsiaBatu left sections in Batu Kahn, the Europe. The kingdom of Hungary was largely destroyed, as was Poland.12in And be transported through the territory, thus Istanbul became the most significant point for grandson of Ghengis andasfounder of the Horde, sacked Kiev interested in 1238 and later took northern-eastern Europe one of the onlyGolden passages left to Christians in trade with grandson of Ghengis and founder of the Golden Horde, sacked Kiev in 1238 and later took commercial exchange.13 control of Crimea. During much the medieval Muslim hostility in Asia left sections in Asia. For an extended time this of passage served period, as the principal trade route between East and control of Crimea. During much of the medieval period, Muslim hostility in Asia left sections in Istanbul was an integral trade post because it provided an important place for security. northern-eastern as one of the only Christians in trade West. However, Europe the Mongols devastated thispassages region to left suchto extent thatinterested large freight couldwith not northern-eastern Europe as one of the only passages left toanChristians interested in trade with The warring Mongolian frontier and religiously torn territories meant Istanbul was a rare safe Asia. For an extended passage served as thebecame principal between point East and be transported through time the this territory, thus Istanbul thetrade mostroute significant for Asia. For an extended time this passage served as the principal trade route between East and bastion. Istanbul became the center of trade because of its location and defenses, both natural 13 West. However, the Mongols devastated this region to such an extent that large freight could not commercial exchange. West. However, the Mongols devastated this region to such an extent that large freight could not be transported through the territory, Istanbul becamean the most place significant point for Istanbul was an integral trade postthus because it provided important for security. transported through the territory, May, “The Mongol Empire in World History.”thus Istanbul became the most significant point for 11 be 12 13 N.A., “Golden Horde, Mongol Empire,” Encyclopædia Britannica. commercial exchange. 13 frontier and religiously torn territories meant Istanbul was a rare safe The warring Mongolian commercial exchange. http://www.britannica.com/place/Golden-Horde 13 N.A., “Mongol Invasion Europe.”trade post because it provided an important place for security. wasbecame anofintegral bastion.Istanbul Istanbul the center of trade because of its location and defenses, both natural Istanbul was an integral trade post because it provided an important place for security. 68 torn territories meant Istanbul was a rare safe The warring Mongolian frontier and religiously The warring Mongolian frontier and religiously torn territories meant Istanbul was a rare safe 11 May, “TheIstanbul Mongol Empire in World History.” bastion. became the center of trade because of its location and defenses, both natural Istanbul became center of trade because of its location and defenses, both natural N.A., “Golden Horde, Mongolthe Empire,” Encyclopædia Britannica. 12 bastion. http://www.britannica.com/place/Golden-Horde N.A., “Mongol Invasion of Europe.” 11 11 May, “The Mongol Empire in World History.” 12 May, “The Mongol Empire in World History.” Britannica. 12 N.A., “Golden Horde, Mongol Empire,” Encyclopædia68 N.A., “Golden Horde, Mongol Empire,” Encyclopædia Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/place/Golden-Horde http://www.britannica.com/place/Golden-Horde 13 13 N.A., “Mongol Invasion of Europe.” N.A., “Mongol Invasion of Europe.” 13 68 68 68 istanbul undefeated for 1000 years. Istanbul’s famous impermeable walls protected the city from the and man-made. Istanbul was blessed with natural and constructed defenses that left the city Mongols. The walls consisted of an inner wall 12 meters high and 5 meters thick with 96 placed bastions placed every 53 meters. The outer spanned 9 meters high with 96 and man-made. Istanbul was blessed with wall natural and constructed defenses thattowers left the city undefeated for 1000 years. Istanbul’s famous impermeable walls protected the city from the between theforlarger behind them. A moat 18 meters and 5-10 meters undefeated 1000 bastions years. Istanbul’s famous impermeable wallswide protected the city fromdeep the istanbul Mongols. The walls consisted of an inner wall 12 meters high and 5 meters thick with 96 jagged shoreline fitted with strong currents, as well as the a chain that stretched in front of the city’s surrounded the walls city. The fortifications Persians, Mongols. The consisted of an innerwarded wall 12 off meters high and 5 Avars, meters Sacrens, thick withBulgarians, 96 16 central port. was virtually impossible for unwelcomed visitorsofto717, dock.the Russians andItOttomans 1453.The During Arab invasion Arab96armies attacked istanbul bastions placed every 53until meters. outerthe wall spanned 9 meters high with towers placed istanbul Despite the general destruction the Mongolians wrought over much of Eurasia, the city with men, andbehind returnedthem. defeated with 30,000. Historians estimate the giant between the 200,000 larger bastions A moat 18 meters wide and 5-10 that meters deep administratively the Mongol empire implemented important legislation to facilitate 14 bastions placed every 53 The17 outer wall spanned 9 meters high designed with 96 towers placed walls defeated armies times. surrounded thelarge city.besieging Themeters. fortifications warded off the Persians, Avars, Sacrens, Bulgarians, bastions placed every 53 meters. The outer wall spanned 9 meters high with 96 towers placed commerce. suchbastions tool was the introduction licenses called the Tablet of deep between theOne larger behind them. Aof moat 18 requirements, meters wide and 5-10 meters Istanbul not only had 1453. impressive landthe fortifications, butofa717, maritime defense capable of Russians and Ottomans until During Arab invasion the Arab armies attacked between the larger bastions behind them. A moat 18 meters wide and 5-10 meters deep surrounded the city. The fortifications warded off the Persians, Sacrens, Bulgarians, shielding naval attacks. Maritime authorities at Istanbul kept theHistorians seasAvars, safe from pirates and Principles of social science the city with 200,000 men, and returned defeated with 30,000. estimate that the other giant surrounded the city. The fortifications warded off the Persians, Avars, Sacrens, Bulgarians, 15 14Arab Russians and Ottomans until During invasion of 717, thesafely Arab by armies The potential threats, allowing land1453. merchants to the cross between the continents ferry.attacked walls defeated large besieging armies 17 times. Russians and Ottomans until 1453. During the Arabsafe invasion ofof717, the Arab armies attacked Authority. These licenses were intended to promote passage convoys within Mongolianthe city with 200,000 men,had andimpressive returned defeated withnaval 30,000. estimate that the giant Sea of Marmara provided Istanbul with an important advantage. The narrow Dardanelles Istanbul not only land fortifications, butHistorians a maritime defense capable of the city with 200,000Marco men, and defeated with 30,000. Historians estimate giant controlled territory. Poloreturned described the rights that came with the tablet, “And that I canthe assure 14 wallsBosphorus defeated besieging and straits on Maritime eitherarmies sideauthorities of17 thetimes. seaatdisable flanking operations. In narrow straits, the shielding navallarge attacks. 14Istanbul kept the seas safe from pirates and other wallsthat defeated large besieging armies times. you, whithersoever they went they17 would honorably be provided with whatever they stood in 15 this Istanbul not only had impressive land fortifications, but a maritime capable of number of ships deployed does not necessarily determine outcome of safely thedefense conflict. For The potential threats, allowing land 17 merchants to cross betweenthe the continents by ferry. need of,Istanbul or chosenot to command.” The Mongols also introduced medium of exchange only had impressive land fortifications, buta apaper maritime defense capable inof shielding naval attacks. authorities at Istanbul kept the seasnumbers. safe from pirates and other reason, Istanbul was ableMaritime to hold of amphibious attacks of superior Finally, Istanbul Sea of Marmara provided Istanbul with an important naval advantage. The narrow Dardanelles much of their Khan instituted a standard currency legislation. Alland foreign shielding navaldominion. attacks. Maritime authorities at Istanbul kept thethrough seas safe from pirates other 15 The potential threats, allowing land merchants to cross between the continents safely by ferry. had strong naval fortifications. The impenetrable apparatus included a naval wall on top of a and Bosphorus straits on either side of the sea disable flanking operations. In narrow straits, 18 15 the merchants were banned from substituting and the other precious safely metalsby as ferry. currency. The potential threats, allowing land merchantstrading to crossgems between continents Sea of Marmara provided an important navalthe advantage. Thethenarrow Dardanelles number ofother shipsvaluable deployed Istanbul does could notwith necessarily determine outcome of conflict. Forforthis Gems only sold to the Khan administration, in exchange a Sea ofand Marmara providedstones Istanbul with an be important naval advantage. The narrow Dardanelles and Bosphorus straits on either side of the sea disable flanking operations. In narrow straits, the reason, Istanbul was 19 able to hold of amphibious attacks of superior numbers. Finally, Istanbul Theeither introduction ofsea standard throughout standard currency. and Bosphorus straits on side of the disablecurrency flanking facilitated operations. trade In narrow straits,the the number of ships deployed does not necessarily determine the outcome of the conflict. For this 14 had strong naval fortifications. The impenetrable apparatus included a naval wall on top of a Comer Plummer, “Walls of Istanbul.” http://www.historynet.com/ancient-history-walls-of-Istanbul.htm. empire, and enriched Istanbul in consequence. number of ships deployed does not necessarily determine the outcome of the conflict. For this 15 J.J. O’Neil, “How Muslim piracy changed the world.” reason, Istanbul was hold of amphibious of superior numbers. Finally, Istanbul http://gatesofvienna.blogspot.com/2009/11/how-Muslim-piracy-changed-world.html. jagged shoreline fittedable withtostrong currents, as wellattacks as a chain that in front city’s Mongols trading privileges withstretched the Genoese and of itsthe colonies reason,The Istanbul was also ableestablished to hold of special amphibious 69 attacks of superior numbers. Finally, Istanbul strong fortifications. The impenetrable apparatus included naval wall on top of a had central port.naval It1261, was virtually impossible for unwelcomed visitors to dock.a16 in the newly restored Byzantine Empire signed a treaty Genoa helped hadCrimea. strong In naval fortifications. The impenetrable apparatus included awith naval wall that on top of a Despite theingeneral destruction the Mongolians wrought Eurasia, 14 settle trading rights Emperor Michael VIII Palaeologus gave over Genoamuch specialofprivileges Comer Plummer, “WallsCrimea. of Istanbul.” http://www.historynet.com/ancient-history-walls-of-Istanbul.htm. 15 J.J. O’Neil, “How Muslim piracy changed the world.” administratively the Mongol empireCembalo, implemented important legislation designed to facilitate http://gatesofvienna.blogspot.com/2009/11/how-Muslim-piracy-changed-world.html. ts like Kaffa, Cherson, Genovez Kaya, Lusta and Soldia. With to commercial entrep 69 14 such the http://www.historynet.com/ancient-history-walls-of-Istanbul.htm. introduction of the licenses thetoTablet of Comer colonies, Plummer, One Genoa “Walls tool gained of Istanbul.” was exclusive commerce. these rights to Blackrequirements, Sea trade andcalled access the western 14 15 J.J. O’Neil, “How “Walls Muslimofpiracy changed the world.” Comer Plummer, Istanbul.” http://www.historynet.com/ancient-history-walls-of-Istanbul.htm. http://gatesofvienna.blogspot.com/2009/11/how-Muslim-piracy-changed-world.html. J.J. O’Neil, “How Muslim piracy changed the world.” Plummer, “Walls of Istanbul.” 17 69 Polo, The Book of Ser Marco Polo, vol. 1, chapter 8, prologue. 18 Ibid., vol. 1, chapter 29. 69 Authority. These licenses were intended to promote safe passage of convoys within Mongolian19 Ibid., vol. 2, chapter 24. 15 16 Principles of social science http://gatesofvienna.blogspot.com/2009/11/how-Muslim-piracy-changed-world.html. 69 70 controlled territory. Marco Polo described the rights that came with the tablet, “And I can assure administratively the Mongol empire implemented important legislation designed to facilitate jagged shoreline fitted with strong currents, as well as a chain that stretched in front of the city’s commerce. One such tool was the introduction of licenses requirements, called the Tablet of central port. It was virtually impossible for unwelcomed visitors to dock.16 jagged shorelineof fitted with strong currents, as well as a chain that stretched in front of the city’s Principles social science Despite the general destruction the Mongolians wrought over much of Eurasia, jagged shoreline fitted with strong currents, as well as a chain that stretched in front of the city’s central shoreline port. It was virtually impossible for unwelcomed visitors to stretched dock.16 in front of the city’s jagged fitted with strong currents, as well as a chain that administratively Mongol implemented legislation designed facilitate Authority. Thesethe licenses wereempire intended to promote important safe passage of convoys within to Mongoliancentral port. It was virtually impossible for unwelcomed visitors to dock.16 16 the virtually general impossible destructionforthe Mongolians wrought over much of Eurasia, central Despite port. It was unwelcomed visitors to dock. commerce. One suchMarco tool was thedescribed introduction of licenses requirements, called “And the Tablet controlled territory. Polo the rights that came with the tablet, I canof assure Despite the general destruction the Mongolians wrought over much of Eurasia, administratively the Mongol empire implemented important legislation designed to facilitate Despite the general destruction the Mongolians wrought over much of Eurasia, you, that whithersoever they went they would honorably be provided with whatever they stood in Principles of administratively thesocial Mongolscience empire implemented important legislation designed to facilitate commerce. One such tool wasempire the introduction of licenses requirements, the Tablet of administratively the Mongol implemented important legislationcalled designed to facilitate need of, or chose to command.”17 The Mongols also introduced a paper medium of exchange in commerce. One such tool was the introduction of licenses requirements, called the Tablet of Authority. licenses werethe intended to promote safe passage of convoys Mongoliancommerce. These Oneof such tool was introduction of licenses requirements, calledwithin the Tablet of Principles social science much of their dominion. Khan instituted a standard currency through legislation. All foreign Principles of social science controlled territory. Marco Polo described the rights that came with the tablet, “And I can assure Principles social merchants wereof banned fromscience substituting trading gems and other precious metals as currency.18 Authority. These licenses were intended to promote safe passage of convoys within Mongolianyou, that whithersoever they went they would honorably be provided with whatever they stood in Authority. Thesevaluable licensesstones were intended to be promote passage of convoys within MongolianGems and other could only sold tosafe the Khan administration, in exchange for a controlled territory. Marcowere Polo17 describedtothe rights safe that came with tablet,within “And IMongoliancan assure Authority. These licenses intended promote passage of the convoys need of, or chose to19command.” The Mongols also introduced a paper medium of exchange in controlledcurrency. territory. Marco describedofthe rights that came with the tablet, “And I can assure The Polo introduction standard currency facilitated trade throughout the standard you, that whithersoever theyPolo wentdescribed they would provided with whatever in controlled territory. Marco thehonorably rights thatbe came with the tablet, “Andthey I canstood assure much of their dominion. Khan instituted a standard currency through legislation. All foreign you, thatand whithersoever they went they would honorably be provided with whatever they stood in empire, enriched Istanbul in17consequence. need that of, or chose to command.” The would Mongols also introduced a paper ofthey exchange you, whithersoever they went they honorably be provided withmedium whatever stood in merchants were banned from substituting trading gems and other precious metals as currency.18 17 need of,The or chose to command.” The Mongols also introduced a paper medium of exchange in Mongols also established special trading privileges with the Genoese and its colonies much of or their dominion. Khan17instituted a standard currency through All foreign need of, chose to command.” The Mongols also introduced a paper legislation. medium of exchange in Gems and other valuable stones could only be sold to the Khan administration, in exchange for a much of their dominion. Khan instituted a standard currency through legislation. All foreign in Crimea. In 1261, the newly restored Byzantine Empire signed a treaty with Genoa that helped 18 merchants weredominion. banned from substituting gemscurrency and other precious metals as All currency. much of their Khan instituted trading a standard through legislation. foreign standard currency.19 The introduction of standard currency facilitated trade throughout the 18 merchants were banned from substituting tradingVIII gemsPalaeologus and other precious metals as currency. settle trading rights in Crimea. Emperor Michael gave Genoa special privileges Gems and other stones could onlytrading be soldgems to theand Khan administration, in exchange for 18a merchants were valuable banned from substituting other precious metals as currency. empire, and enriched Istanbul in consequence. Gems and otherentrep valuable stones could only be sold to theGenovez Khan administration, in exchange for a Kaffa, Cembalo, Cherson, Kaya, Lusta and Soldia. With to commercial 19 ts like The introduction of be standard currency facilitated tradein throughout thea standard Gems andcurrency. other valuable stones could only sold to the Khan administration, exchange for The Mongols 19 also established special trading privileges with the Genoese and its colonies The introduction of standard currency facilitated trade throughout the standard currency. these colonies, Genoa gained exclusive rights to the Black Sea trade and access to the western 19 Istanbul in consequence. empire, enriched The introduction of standard currency facilitated trade throughout the standardand currency. in Crimea. In 1261, the newly restored Byzantine Empire signed a treaty with Genoa that helped empire, and enriched Istanbul in consequence. 16 Plummer, of Istanbul.” The Mongols also established special trading privileges with the Genoese and its colonies empire, and“Walls enriched Istanbul in consequence. 17 settle rights inMarco Crimea. Emperor Michael VIII Palaeologus gave Genoa special privileges Polo,trading The Book of Ser Polo, vol. 1, chapter prologue. The Mongols also established special8,trading privileges with the Genoese and its colonies 18 vol. chapter in Ibid., Crimea. 1261,29.the restored Byzantine Empire signed a treaty with Genoa thatcolonies helped The1,In Mongols alsonewly established special trading privileges with the Genoese and its 19 commercial entrep ts like Kaffa, Cembalo, Cherson, Genovez Kaya, Lusta and Soldia. With to vol. 2,In chapter in Ibid., Crimea. 1261,24.the newly restored Byzantine Empire signed a treaty with Genoa that helped 70VIII settle tradingInrights Crimea. EmperorByzantine Michael Palaeologus specialthat privileges in Crimea. 1261,inthe newly restored Empire signed a gave treatyGenoa with Genoa helped these colonies, Genoa gained exclusive rights to the Black Sea trade and access to the western settle trading rights in Crimea. Emperor Michael VIII Palaeologus gave Genoa special privileges ts like Kaffa, Cembalo, Cherson, Genovez Kaya, Lusta and Soldia. With to commercial entrep settle trading rights in Crimea. Emperor Michael VIII Palaeologus gave Genoa special privileges Silk Road. The commercially minded Mongols allowed the Genoese to maintain their 16 Plummer, “Walls of Istanbul.” to commercial entrep ts like Kaffa, Cembalo, Cherson, Genovez Kaya, Lusta and Soldia. With 17 these colonies, Genoa exclusive rights to the Black Sea trade access the western tsgained like Kaffa, Cherson, Genovez Kaya,and Lusta andtoSoldia. With to commercial 20 1,Cembalo, Polo, The Book entrep of Ser Marco Polo, vol. chapter 8, prologue. commercial positions in Crimea. 18 Ibid.,colonies, vol. 1, chapter 29. gained exclusive rights to the Black Sea trade and access to the western these Genoa 19 16 these colonies, Genoa the western Ibid., vol. 2, chapter 24. gained exclusive rights to the Black Sea trade and access toistanbul Plummer, “Walls of Istanbul.” 17 16 18 16 17 19 17 18 18 19 19 70 Polo, The Book ofof SerIstanbul.” Marco Polo, vol. 1, chapter 8, prologue. Plummer, “Walls Ibid., vol. 1, chapter 29. Plummer, “Walls Polo, The Book ofof SerIstanbul.” Marco Polo, vol. 1, chapter 8, prologue. Ibid., vol. 2, Polo, of Ser24. Marco Polo, vol. 1, chapter 8, prologue. Ibid., The vol. Book 1, chapter chapter 29. Silk Road. Road. Silk The commercially commercially minded minded Mongols Mongols allowed allowed the the Genoese Genoese to to maintain maintain their their The 20 commercial positions positions in in Crimea. Crimea.20 commercial istanbul istanbul Istanbul’s naval naval fortifications fortifications along along the the Bosphorus Bosphorus guarded guarded entry entry to to the the Black Black Sea Sea and and Istanbul’s 21 thus limited limited Muslim Muslim piracy piracy in in the the region. region.21 Trade throughout throughout the the Black Black Sea Sea region region prospered prospered in in thus Trade consequence. By By allowing allowing the the Genoese, Genoese, and and later later the the Venetians, Venetians, to to maintain maintain their their commercial commercial consequence. interests in in Crimea, Crimea, the the Mongols Mongols unintentionally unintentionally contributed contributed to to the the commercial commercial importance importance of of interests Istanbul. In In Genoese Genoese cities cities within within the the Mongol Mongol empire, empire, violence violence was was not not tolerated, tolerated, neither neither was was Istanbul. 22 disruption to to commerce. commerce.22 Much of of the the region’s region’s trade trade trickled trickled south south through through Istanbul, Istanbul, the the last last disruption Much stop before before the the Mediterranean. Mediterranean. stop Mongol hegemony hegemony over over Eurasia Eurasia left left Istanbul Istanbul in in aa favorable favorable position position commercially. commercially. The The Mongol militant ideology ideology and and warrior warrior disposition disposition of of the the Mongols Mongols created created aa vast vast empire empire that that encompassed encompassed militant much of of Asia Asia and and Eastern Eastern Europe. Europe. The The Mongols Mongols used used an an authoritarian authoritarian style style of of rule rule to to maintain maintain much internal stability stability within within their their vast vast empire. empire. Mongol Mongol economic economic policies policies such such as as the the requirements requirements internal for licenses licenses and and aa regional regional currency currency contributed contributed to to the the prosperity prosperity of of the the region, region, and and the the success success of of for Istanbul as as aa commercial commercial center. center. Istanbul’s Istanbul’s famous famous walls, walls, its its strategic strategic position position connecting connecting the the Istanbul Black and Mediterranean seas, as well as Mongolian efforts to decimate traditional trade routes 20 20 Esther Lederberg, Lederberg, “Continuity “Continuity and Medieval Colonization Colonization of European colonies colonies on on the the Black Black Sea.” Sea.” Esther Medieval European through Russia, Poland and and Hungary, made certainofthat Istanbul would emerge as a commercial http://www.estherlederberg.com/Eugenics%20(Anecdotes)/Genoa%20Black%20Sea.html. http://www.estherlederberg.com/Eugenics%20(Anecdotes)/Genoa%20Black%20Sea.html. 21 21 Plummer, “Walls of Istanbul.” of Istanbul.” metropolis. Mongolian power over Islamic territories also contributed to the 22 Plummer, “Walls 22 Lederberg, “Continuity and Medieval Colonization of European colonies on the Black Sea.” Lederberg, “Continuity and Medieval Colonization of European colonies on the Black Sea.” ascendency of 71 71 Istanbul by quelling religious animosities between western Christians and eastern Muslims. Before the Ottoman conquest of the city in 1453, the rise of the Mongols was the single most important factor in the emergence of Istanbul trade. When the Mongols experienced a reduction Principles of social science Istanbul’s naval fortifications along the70Bosphorus guarded entry to the Black Sea and Ibid., 29. Ibid., vol. vol. 1, 2, chapter chapter 24. Ibid., vol. 2, chapter 24. 70 throughout the Black Sea region prospered in thus limited Muslim piracy in the region.21 Trade in their regional primacy to the Ottomans trade across Eurasia was once again restricted. These consequence. By allowing the Genoese, and later the Venetians, to maintain their commercial restrictions precipitated the European quest for an alternative route to the east, which ultimately 70 contributed to the commercial importance of interests in Crimea, the Mongols unintentionally led to Columbus’ voyage to the New World. 70 Istanbul. In Genoese cities within the Mongol empire, violence was not tolerated, neither was 71 Before the the Ottoman Ottoman conquest conquest of of the the city city in in 1453, 1453, the the rise rise of of the the Mongols Mongols was was the the single single most most Before important factor factor in in the the emergence emergence of of Istanbul Istanbul trade. trade. When When the the Mongols Mongols experienced experienced aa reduction reduction important Silk Road. The commercially minded Mongols allowed the Genoese to maintain their commercial positions in Crimea.20 Principles of social science Principles of social science istanbul in their their regional regional primacy primacy to to the the Ottomans Ottomans trade trade across across Eurasia Eurasia was was once once again again restricted. restricted. These These in Istanbul’s naval fortifications along the Bosphorus guarded entry to the Black Sea and Works Cited restrictions precipitated precipitated the the European European quest quest for for an an alternative alternative route route to to the the east, east, which which ultimately ultimately restrictions thus limited Muslim piracy in the region.21 Trade throughout the Black Sea region prospered in Bentley, Jerry H. and Herbert F. Ziegler. Traditions & Encounters: A Global Perspective on the Past (New York, consequence. By2011). allowing the Genoese, and later the Venetians, to maintain their commercial led to to Columbus’ Columbus’ voyage voyage to to the the New New World. World. led Bignham, Essentialunintentionally Women for a World HistorytoClass.” interests inMarjorie. Crimea, “Ten the Mongols contributed the commercial importance of http://worldhistoryconnected.press.illinois.edu/5.2/may.html. Istanbul. In Genoese cities within the Mongol empire, violence was not tolerated, neither was Lederberg, Esther. “Continuity and Medieval Colonization of European colonies on the Black Sea.” http://www.estherlederberg.com/Eugenics%20 (Anecdotes)/Genoa%20Black%20Sea.html. disruption to commerce.22 Much of the region’s trade trickled south through Istanbul, the last Mark, Joshua "Silk Road," Ancient History Encyclopedia. http://www.ancient.eu/Silk_Road/. stop before theJ. Mediterranean. May, Timothy. Mongol Empire in World History.” Mongol “The hegemony over Eurasia left Istanbul in a favorable position commercially. The http://worldhistoryconnected.press.illinois.edu/5.2/may.html. militant ideology and warrior disposition of the Mongols created a vast empire that encompassed O’Neil, J. J. “How Muslim Piracy Changed the World.” much of Asia and Eastern Europe. The Mongols used an authoritarian style of rule to maintain http://gatesofvienna.blogspot.com/2009/11/how-Muslim-piracy-changedworld.html. internal stability their empire. Mongol economic policiesthe such as the requirements Polo, Marco. Thewithin Book of Servast Marco Polo, The Venetian Concerning Kingdoms and Marvels of the East, vol. 1 and vol. 2, ed. Henry Yule (Cambridge, MA, 2010). for licenses and a regional currency contributed to the prosperity of the region, and the success of Plummer, III, Comer. “Walls of Istanbul.” Istanbul as a commercial center. Istanbul’s famous walls, its strategic position connecting the http://www.historynet.com/ancient-history-walls-of-Istanbul.htm. N.A. “History of Istanbul, Istanbul Valili i.” http://www.istanbul.english.gov.tr/. 72 72 20 Esther Lederberg, “Continuity and Medieval of European colonies on the Black Sea.” N.A. "Knights Code of Chivalry," CodeColonization of Chivalry. http://www.estherlederberg.com/Eugenics%20(Anecdotes)/Genoa%20Black%20Sea.html. http://www.medievalchronicles.com/medieval-knights/code-of-chivalry-knights/. 21 22 Plummer, “Walls of Istanbul.” Lederberg, “Continuity andof Medieval Colonization of European colonies on the Black Sea.” N.A. “Mongol invasion Europe,” New World Encyclopedia. 71 http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe. N.A. “Golden Horde, Mongol Empire,” Encyclopædia Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/place/Golden-Horde. 72 73