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PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
Gulliver’s journal of History, Politics, economics and SOciety
____________________________________________________
Published by the Social Sciences Department at Gulliver Preparatory
Volume 3, Issue I
Spring, 2016
Table of Contents
Introduction to Issue………………………………………………………………………………1
Francisco Di Capua
Domestic and Foreign Censorship of American Films ……………….…………………………..3
Marina Wakil
Gender, Culture and Identity:
Catholic-Syrians in Modern Venezuela…………………………………………………….…......19
Alaz Sengul
Take the Gun, Leave the Cannoli:
The Godfather as a Transitional Italian-American Film…………...….………………………...29
Ryan Hellinger
The Ancien Regime and the Revolutions of France……………………………………………..36
Grace Gilbert
The Cuban Embargo Act:
Political Economy After the Cold War………………….………………….……………………...47
Fiona Hanly-Jorda
The Cultural Effects of the Islamic Conquest of Spain…..………………………………………56
Yannick Schmied
Commercial Crossroads: A History of late-Medieval Istanbul…..………………………………64
Introduction to Issue
The Social Sciences Department aims to instill in Gulliver students respect for advanced
scholarship. In the balance of their time, the authors whose essays appear in this year’s issue
showcase their commitment to research and writing. Equally important, the students exhibited
the devotion necessary to see their scholarly project through to fruition. Francisco Di Capua
sketches a brief history of film censorship in the United States and abroad. Mr. Di Capua’s essay
covers decades of opposition against the cultural nuances of Hollywood executives. Mr. Di
Capua also illustrates how foreign governments opposed the American film industry often for
their own political reasons.
Marina Wakil’s essay deals with Syrian-Catholic refugees in
Venezuela. She explores gender and identity in this distinct cultural enclave. Ms. Wakil’s essay
relies on tradition sources for analysis, but her work also depends on personal interviews with
friends and family. Dr. Mario Cubas, Gulliver Preparatory School Social Sciences Faculty,
encouraged Ms. Wakil to take on the project and he also provided critical advice with research
and writing style. Dr. Cubas should be commemorated for inspiring interest among students in
anthropological studies. Alaz Sengul’s work deals with the depiction of Italian-Americans in
twentieth-century gangster movie genres. Mr. Sengul argues that The Godfather trilogy played
an instrumental role in transforming cultural stereotypes.
Ryan Hellinger’s essay on the French Revolution covers familiar ground, but offers a
novel understanding to political history in modern France. Mr. Hellinger finds that the principles
of 1789 were not realized by ordinary French citizens until the middle of the twentieth century.
Grace Gilbert deals with the pressing topic of the Cuban Embargo. An enormously sensitive
1
Domestic and Foreign Censorship of American Films
Domestic
Domestic and
and Foreign
Foreign Censorship
Censorship of
of American
American Films
Films
Principles of social science
issue in South Florida politics, Ms. Gilbert traces the ebbs and flows of Cuban-American
relations with objectivity and a strong sense of scholarly purpose. Fiona Hanly-Jorda offers
readers an exposition on the influence of Islamic culture in Spanish history. Both Ms. Gilbert
and Ms. Hanly-Jorda completed their essays under the guidance of Mr. Gabriel Medina, Gulliver
Preparatory School Social Sciences Faculty. Finally, Yannick Schmied’s essay discusses the
impact of the Mongolian dynasty on the commercial patterns of medieval Eurasia. Istanbul
experienced a surge in commercial prosperity during the thirteenth century, mainly in
consequence of the political stability brought to the region by Mongolian hegemony.
The student editors, James Britt and Amanda Vera, played a critical role in the production
Francisco Di Capua
Francisco
Francisco Di
Di Capua
Capua
In 1896, Thomas Edison’s The Kiss was one of the first films viewed by a mass
In
Edison’s The
was
one
of
the
viewed by
mass
In 1896,
1896, Thomas
Thomas
The Kiss
Kisslong
wasfilm
onewas
of highlighted
the first
first films
films
by aa actors
mass
American
audience.Edison’s
The fifty-second
by a viewed
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American
audience. The
fifty-second
long
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May
and John
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advocacy
such
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argued
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and moraladvocacy
conventions.
the movie
carnal
undermined important
social
moral
conventions.
As
movie
carnal exhibitions
exhibitions
social and
and
moralregular
conventions.
As the
the
movie
industry
expanded undermined
and motion important
pictures became
a more
part of the
American
industry
expanded
and
pictures
regular
of
American
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and motion
motion
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became aa more
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Middle-class
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the
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for censorship
increased.
of this year’s issue. The editorial responsibilities require a serious commitment, they are time
1
1 Middle-class evangelical reformers worried the
pastime,
calls
censorship
increased.
evangelical
reformersmoral
worried
the
pastime,picture
calls for
for
censorship
increased.
motion
industry
peddled
vice thatMiddle-class
threatened to
destroy society’s
fabric.
consuming, and they demand from both Mr. Britt and Ms. Vera intellectual rigor and attention to
motion
picture
peddled
that
threatened
to
destroy
moral
motion
picture industry
industry
peddledbyvice
vice
that that
threatened
to burglary,
destroy society’s
society’s
moral fabric.
fabric.
The
American
elite, troubled
films
pictured
theft, violence,
and
detail. They have completed their tasks with a sense professional accountability that should not
The
elite,
by
films
pictured burglary,
theft,
violence,
and
The American
American
elite, troubled
troubled
by weary
films that
that
burglary,
theft, in
violence,
and
celebrated
a “criminal
class,” grew
of thepictured
role of motion
pictures
an America
go unrecognized. Talia Pfeffer sacrificed valuable time and energy to complete work on this
celebrated
“criminal
class,” grew
of
celebrated aa divided
“criminal
grew weary
weary
of 2the
the role
role of
of motion
motion pictures
pictures in
in an
an America
America
increasingly
by class,”
social-economic
class.
year’s cover.
2
2
increasingly
divided
social-economic
class.
increasingly
dividedofby
by
social-economic
class.
Censorship
Hollywood
has often
served as a barometer for American morality.
Censorship of
has
served as
for
American
of Hollywood
Hollywood
has often
often
as aa barometer
barometer
for organizations,
American morality.
morality.
Indeed, Censorship
most Americans
are familiar
withserved
attempts
by domestic
both
Editor
Indeed,
most
Americans
are
with
attempts
by
domestic
organizations,
both
Indeed, and
mostpublic,
Americans
are familiar
familiar
with films.
attemptsBut
by less
domestic
organizations,
private
to censor
Hollywood
attention
is paid to both
the
Christopher Calvo
private
public,
censor
films. But
less
attention
is
to
private and
and scope
public,of to
to
censor Hollywood
Hollywood
lesstwentieth
attention
is paid
paid
to the
the
international
censorship.
During thefilms.
first halfBut
of the
century,
domestic
Student Editors
international
scope
of
During
the first
of
twentieth
domestic
international
scope fought
of censorship.
censorship.
During
first half
half
of the
the Domestically,
twentieth century,
century,
domestic
and
foreign groups
Hollywood
on a the
number
of fronts.
censorship
James Britt ‘17
Amanda Vera ‘18
and
and foreign
foreign groups
groups fought
fought Hollywood
Hollywood on
on aa number
number of
of fronts.
fronts. Domestically,
Domestically, censorship
censorship
Francisco
Di
Capua
‘16,
plans
to study international business at Florida International
University.
Francisco
Di
Capua
‘16,
plans
Francisco Di Capua ‘16, plans to
to study
study international
international business
business at
at Florida
Florida International
International
1University.
University.
Lee Grieveson, Policing Cinema: Movies and Censorship in Early Twentieth-Century America (Berkeley,
CA,
2004), p. 13.
1
21 Lee Grieveson, Policing
Ibid.,
p. 17.
Lee Grieveson,
Policing Cinema:
Cinema: Movies
Movies and
and Censorship
Censorship in
in Early
Early Twentieth-Century
Twentieth-Century America
America (Berkeley,
(Berkeley,
CA,
2004),
p.
13.
CA,
2004),
p.
13.
2
2 Ibid., p. 17.
3
Ibid., p. 17.
2
3
3
Principles of social science
FILM Censorshiip
attempts were most often concerned with the social and moral implications of opening up
When nickelodeons were introduced in 1905 the public was granted
certain ethically ambiguous films to a general audience. Politically motivated censorship
unprecedented access to motion pictures.
was popular during the World War I and World War II eras. Censorship of Hollywood
precipitated the rapid expansion of cinema theatres. Theatres established new public
films reached its peak with the McCarthy trials during the early Cold War. As new
spaces for the middle and lower classes to interact, and theatres also afforded women a
political and social views arose throughout the twentieth century, the nature of censorship
new opportunity to participate in leisurely activity outside of the home. In theatres
and regulation of cinema ran parallel with the moral and social conventions of
traditionalists recognized the potential for the movie industry to influence and disrupt
Americans.
time-honored familial and gender roles in more than one way.
The five-cent entry fee for nickelodeons
The opening of
Children and adolescence were almost always the cohort targeted for protection
nickelodeons marked the beginning of a new set of connections between the public and
with censorship. It was feared that young people, being easily influenced, were likely to
private spheres, and initiated new forums for the sexes to interact. Movie theaters were
imitate the bad behavior and poor moral choices exhibited in film.3 Restricting access to
criticized for being hotbeds of license, hubs of sexual immorality.
morally ambiguous films would ensure the youth of today became ethically sound
organizations opposed them almost immediately, describing them as “breeding places of
citizens in the future. Conservative family and religious organizations fretted over the
vice.”5
Conservative
effects that films had on children’s impressionable minds. James Mark Baldwin, an
Shortly after the introduction of nickelodeons, conservative social and political
influential turn-of-the-century psychologists and author described young people as
groups established formal organizations to demand the government intervene and
“veritable copying machines,” with a propensity for imitating on-screen antics.
possibly regulate the kinds of materials shown in public theatres. In 1907, municipal and
Regulators also feared the role Hollywood might play in the spread of juvenile
city censorship boards emerged across the country.
delinquency. Indeed, in a widely reported case study by the Juvenile Court Committee in
Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), demanded government censorship.
Chicago in 1907 and the Juvenile Protective Association of Chicago in 1911 there was
The WCTU called films “addictive,” and accused Hollywood of glorifying war and
established a direct causal link between movies and juvenile delinquency. Cinema was
celebrating crime and corruption. Pennsylvania passed the first statewide censorship law
described as a “school of crime,” a “training school of mischief, mockery, lawbreaking.”4
in 1911. By 1915 the constitutionality of film censorship was raised in Mutual Film
3
4
5
Ibid., p. 17.
Ibid., pp. 13-15.
44
Ibid., p. 18.
5
5
Other organizations, like the
Film Censorship
Principles of Social Science
Principles of Social Science
Corporation v. Industrial Commission of Ohio. The Mutual Film Corporation argued
Corporation v. Industrial Commission of Ohio. The Mutual Film Corporation argued
that movies were a form of expression, and thus protected by the First Amendment. The
that movies were a form of expression, and thus protected by the First Amendment. The
Supreme Court ruled that films were products of an industry, and were thus categorized
Supreme Court ruled that films were products of an industry, and were thus categorized
as a business, not an art.6 Therefore, motion pictures were not protected by the First
as a business, not an art.6 Therefore, motion pictures were not protected by the First
Amendment and subject to government regulation. By 1922 35 states had similar
Amendment and subject to government regulation. By 1922 35 states had similar
censorship laws. State politicians were demanding federal legislation. Soon a
censorship laws. State politicians were demanding federal legislation. Soon a
nationwide call for federal control of the film industry and the prevention of “indecent,”
nationwide call for federal control of the film industry and the prevention of “indecent,”
“obscene,” or “sacrilegious” behavior was heard from state capitals.7
“obscene,” or “sacrilegious” behavior was heard from state capitals.7
Hoping to slow the momentum on government regulation of motion pictures,
Hoping to slow the momentum on government regulation of motion pictures,
Hollywood’s major motion picture studios established the Motion Picture Producers and
Hollywood’s major motion picture studios established the Motion Picture Producers and
Distributors of America (MPPDA) in 1922. The organization was led by William H.
Distributors of America (MPPDA) in 1922. The organization was led by William H.
Hays, a Republican lawyer who had formerly been United States Postmaster General.
Hays, a Republican lawyer who had formerly been United States Postmaster General.
The MPPDA managed to block federal legislation for the time being, but private
The MPPDA managed to block federal legislation for the time being, but private
organizations continued to pressure Hollywood. The WCTU argued that movies were the
organizations continued to pressure Hollywood. The WCTU argued that movies were the
most influential expression of popular culture on America’s youth. Moreover, the
most influential expression of popular culture on America’s youth. Moreover, the
WCTU claimed that the MPPDA was not doing enough to stop Hollywood from
WCTU claimed that the MPPDA was not doing enough to stop Hollywood from
destroying youth morality.8 The WCTU created the Motion Picture Department in 1925
destroying youth morality.8 The WCTU created the Motion Picture Department in 1925
to lobby for more government regulation. Between the 1900s and 1930s a number of
American organizations were established with the explicit purpose of censoring motion
pictures.
Hollywood faced a growing orchestra of criticism domestically, but film
producers were also confronted with foreign attempts at censorship. During the 1910s
the American movie industry began distributing films to a more international audience.
Indeed, foreign markets became an important source of revenue for Hollywood
producers. By the start of World War I, Hollywood’s film exports accounted for nearly
35 % of its gross revenue.9
The growing circulation of Hollywood films in foreign markets contributed to the
emergence of censorship boards in those countries. Mexico became a principal consumer
of Hollywood films. During the late 1910s and 1920s Mexican audiences and Mexican
authorities disapproved of what then was the most popular genre of Hollywood films, the
western. Many Hollywood westerns featured Mexicans as villian. In 1922, Mexico
placed an embargo on all American films. Hays quickly issued the Mexican Resolution,
promising that the MPPDA would “do everything possible to prevent the production of
any new motion picture films which present the Mexican character in derogatory or
objectionable manner.” Then the MPPDA sent a chief industry representative, Bernon T.
Woodle, to negotiate with Mexican authorities about lifting the ban. In 1922, the
6
N.A., “A Brief History of Film Censorship in the United States.”
6http://ncac.org/resource/a-brief-history-of-film-censorship/.
N.A., “A Brief History of Film Censorship in the United States.”
7
N.A., “The Supreme Court and Movie Censorship: The State Censors.”
http://ncac.org/resource/a-brief-history-of-film-censorship/.
7http://moviehistory.us/censoring-americans-movies.html.
N.A., “The Supreme Court and Movie Censorship: The State Censors.”
8
N.A., “A Brief History of Film Censorship in the United States.”
http://moviehistory.us/censoring-americans-movies.html.
8
N.A., “A Brief History of Film Censorship in the United States.”
6
66
9
Francis Couvares, Movie Censorship and American Culture (Amherst, MA, 2006), p. 213.
7
7
saw that nearly every European nation was trying to diminish the degree of American
influence in their domestic cinema industry. According to Lowry, European countries
Film Censorship
Principles of Social Science
saw that nearly every European nation was trying to diminish the degree of American
Principles of Social Science
influencethe
in their
domesticofcinema
industry.
to Lowry,“political
European and
countries
resisted
importation
American
films According
for predominantly
patriotic
saw that nearly every European nation was trying to diminish the degree of American
reasons.” Lowry identified intense feelings of nationalism engendered
during WWI as
Film Censorship
influence in their domestic cinema industry. According to Lowry, European countries
well as economic imperatives spread by the global depression as the main culprits to the
resisted the importation of American films for predominantly “political and patriotic
Film Censorship
increases of prohibitions. Lowry argued that European nations
aimed to establish
reasons.” Lowry identified intense feelings of nationalism engendered during WWI as
domestic
movie
industries
political
purposes, specifically
as
resisted the
importation
of primarily
American for
films
for predominantly
“political to
and“serve
patriotic
well as economic imperatives spread by the global depression as the main culprits to the
14
propaganda
and that
will reflect
the life,
the customs,
and the habits
of its own
people.”
reasons.” Lowry
identified
intense
feelings
of nationalism
engendered
during
WWI as
increases of prohibitions. Lowry argued that European nations aimed to establish
Hollywood
executive
Schenck
announced
a film
well as When
economic
imperatives
spread Joseph
by the global
depression
as the
mainadaptation
culprits to of
theA
domestic movie industries primarily for political purposes, specifically to “serve as
Woman
the German
released nations
a statement
increasesDisputed,
of prohibitions.
Lowryconsul’s
argued office
that European
aimed condemning
to establish
propaganda and that will reflect the life, the customs, and the habits of its own people.”14
Hollywood.
The industries
film featured
a French
submitting
the sexual advances
a
domestic movie
primarily
forheroine
political
purposes,to specifically
to “serveof as
When Hollywood executive Joseph Schenck announced a film adaptation of A
German
officer
order
assure
of herand
fivethe
friends.
The
sent14a
propaganda
and in
that
will to
reflect
thethe
life,freedom
the customs,
habits of
its Germans
own people.”
Woman Disputed, the German consul’s office released a statement condemning
letter directly
then president
of theJoseph
MPPDA
Williamannounced
Hays warning
that
production
When to
Hollywood
executive
Schenck
a film
adaptation
of of
A
Hollywood. The film featured a French heroine submitting to the sexual advances of a
A
WomanDisputed,
Disputed would
undermine
“all… efforts
bring about
peace and condemning
cooperation
Woman
the German
consul’s
office toreleased
a statement
German officer in order to assure the freedom of her five friends. The Germans sent a
on
the field of
filmheroine
presentation”
between
United
States of
anda
Hollywood.
Thefilm
filmproduction
featured aand
French
submitting
to thethe
sexual
advances
letter directly to then president of the MPPDA William Hays warning that production of
Germany.
In collaboration
with Hays,
Schenckofproposed
the Germans
German officer
German officer
in order to assure
the freedom
her five replacing
friends. The
sent a
A Woman Disputed would undermine “all… efforts to bring about peace and cooperation
with
Russian,toensuring
that theoffilm
notWilliam
suggestHays
anything
offensive
to Germany.
letteradirectly
then president
the would
MPPDA
warning
that production
of
on the field of film production and film presentation” between the United States and
Schenck
Hays would
stood to
lose much
lessefforts
by possibly
Bolshevik
cultural
A Womanand
Disputed
undermine
“all…
to bringupsetting
about peace
and cooperation
Germany. In collaboration with Hays, Schenck proposed replacing the German officer
officials.
After
all, Russia
accounted
for presentation”
a small piecebetween
of the American
export
on the field
of film
production
and film
the Unitedfilm
States
and
with a Russian, ensuring that the film would not suggest anything offensive to Germany.
15
market.
at the time,
Bolsheviks
policies
regulating
the
Germany. Moreover,
In collaboration
withthe
Hays,
Schencklacked
proposed
replacing
the German
officer
Schenck and Hays stood to lose much less by possibly upsetting Bolshevik cultural
with a Russian, ensuring that the film would not suggest anything offensive to Germany.
officials. After all, Russia accounted for a small piece of the American film export
14
Ibid., pp. 213-214.
15
Schenck
and Hays stood to lose much less by possibly upsetting Bolshevik cultural
Ibid., pp. 214-215.
market.15 Moreover, at the time, the Bolsheviks lacked policies regulating the
officials. After all, Russia accounted for 9a small piece of the American film export
embargo was lifted, but problems with Mexican censorship authorities persisted. The
embargo
waswith
lifted,
but problems
withofficials
Mexicanprovided
censorship
authorities
persisted.with
Thea
experiences
Mexican
censorship
Hollywood
executives
10
experiences
with Mexican
provided
executives with a
model for negotiating
futurecensorship
agreementsofficials
with other
nations.Hollywood
10
model for
negotiating
future
agreements
otherfornations.
When
Hollywood
first
began its with
strategy
large scale international distribution
Whenthe
Hollywood
first confronted
began its strategy
for and
largequotas
scale from
international
of its films,
industry was
by tariffs
foreign distribution
legislatures
of
its films,tothe
industry
was confronted
by tariffs
and quotas
from foreignBylegislatures
attempting
protect
domestic
film industry
from American
competition.
the 1920s
attempting
to protect domestic
film industry
American
competition.
1920s
European governments
increasingly
called forfrom
nationalist
economic
policiesBy
thatthe
included
European
governments
increasingly
for nationalist
economic
policies that
included
the imposition
of regulations
on the called
importation
of foreign
films. Germany,
followed
by
the imposition
of regulations
on thepassed
importation
of foreign
films.that
Germany,
followedfilm
by
British, French
and Austrians
legislation
to ensure
their domestic
the
British,
French
and Austrians
passed productions.
legislation to11 ensure
domestic
Francethat
andtheir
China
were atfilm
the
markets
were
not inundated
with foreign
11
France and
China
at the
markets
wereofnot
inundatedAmericans
with foreign
productions.
avant-garde
prohibiting
films
for political reasons.
China
waswere
especially
avant-garde
prohibiting Americans
films for political
was especially
sensitive to ofcontemporary
cultural depictions.
China reasons.
prohibitedChina
the importation
of
12
sensitive
contemporary
cultural
depictions.
China
prohibited
the importation
of
Protective
legislation
American tofilms
like Welcome
Danger
and East
is West.
American
like Welcome
Danger
East ismarkets.
West.12
hampered films
Hollywood’s
penetration
intoandforeign
Protective
Diplomatic legislation
pressure,
hampered
into foreign
Diplomatic
pressure,
increasinglyHollywood’s
in the tense penetration
political environment
that markets.
followed WWI,
levied politically
increasingly
in against
the tense
politicalfilms
environment
that national
followedborders.
WWI, levied politically
motivated bans
American
across several
motivated
against
across
several national
borders.
In bans
the face
of American
increasing films
foreign
diplomatic
pressures
against Hollywood, the
the an
face
of increasing
foreign
pressures
against in
Hollywood,
He
MPPDAInsent
envoy
led by Edward
G. diplomatic
Lowry to study
the situation
Europe.13 the
MPPDA sent an envoy led by Edward G. Lowry to study the situation in Europe.13 He
10
11
Ibid., p. 213.
12 Ibid.,
pp.
213-214.
10 Ibid., pp, 213-214,
Ibid., p. 213.
13
11 Ibid., p. 214.
225.
Ibid., pp. 213-214.
12
Ibid., pp, 213-214, 225.
13
Ibid., p. 214.
8
8
8
15
market.
Moreover, at the time, the Bolsheviks lacked policies regulating the
14
15
14
15
Ibid., pp. 213-214.
Ibid., pp. 214-215.
Ibid., pp. 213-214.
Ibid., pp. 214-215.
9
9
(PCA) was established, requiring all film companies to obtain a certificate of approval
The economic and social climate of the Great Depression years did not facilitate
proper enforcement of the code. However, in 1934 the Production Code Administration
Film CENSORSHIP
(PCA) was established, requiring all film companies to obtain a certificate
of approval
Principles of social science
importation of American films.
American film producers were in essence free to
construct Russian personalities and exploit Russian stereotypes without fear of serious
repercussion.
To mitigate domestic and international censorship, in 1930 the MPPDA organized
the Studio Relations Committee (SRC) and established a list of materials most
susceptible to censorship. Industry leaders were expected to avoid these subjects. Hays
called the list “the formula,” but it became known as the “Don’ts and Be Carefuls” list.16
Hays warned against sex and crime in films, while cultural stereotypes were included in
the less foreboding “Be Careful” list.
Still, a more codified set of guidelines was
required. The same year a second, broader list was adopted by the MPPDA ̶ the so-called
Motion Picture Production Code ̶ also known as the ‘Hays code,’ condemned movies that
“lower the moral standards” of the audience, calling for a reduction of films that
highlighted “crime, wrongdoing, evil, or sin.”17 The Hays code mandated restrictions on
both the explicit showing and the mere suggestion of sex, crime, vulgarities, obscenities,
nationalist and religious feelings.18
16
Ibid., p. 216.
N.A., “A Brief History of Film Censorship in the United States.”
18
Association of Motion Pictures Producers, Inc., “The Motion Picture Production Code,” (1930).
http://asu.edu/courses/fms200s/total-readings/MotionPictureProductionCode.pdf, pp. 593-596.
17
10
The economic and social climate of the Great Depression years did not facilitate
before releasing a movie. Later that year, Joseph I. Breen was appointed
head of the
Film CENSORSHIP
proper enforcement of the code. However, in 1934 the Production Code Administration
PCA. Under Breen, the PCA established a partnership with the Catholic Legion of
(PCA) was established, requiring all film companies to obtain a certificate of approval
Decency and enforcement of the Production Code became more rigid.19
before releasing a movie. Later that year, Joseph I. Breen was appointed head of the
The PCA pursued stringent regulations on the presentation of cultural stereotypes.
PCA. Under Breen, the PCA established a partnership with the Catholic Legion of
Film CENSORSHIP
New movies inspired by Al Capone that featured Italian-American gangsters led to
Decency and enforcement of the Production Code became more rigid.19
tensions between the Italian and American governments, as well as protests from ItalianThe PCA pursued stringent regulations on the presentation of cultural stereotypes.
American
community
groupsLater
and that
statements
of disapproval
fromappointed
the Italianhead
embassy.
before releasing
a movie.
year, Joseph
I. Breen was
of the
New movies inspired by Al Capone that featured Italian-American gangsters led to
Shortly
after the
Production
Code
was established,
the MPPDA
effort to
PCA. Under
Breen,
the PCA
established
a partnership
with theinitiated
CatholicanLegion
of
tensions between the Italian and American governments, as well as protests from Italianobscure
origins of
ofthe
allProduction
movie characters,
not solely
those19of villains.20 For
Decencythe
andethnic
enforcement
Code became
more rigid.
American community groups and statements of disapproval from the Italian embassy.
instance,The
in 1931
Joy,
head ofregulations
the Studio Relations
Community
that
PCA Jason
pursued
stringent
on the presentation
of (SRC),
culturaladvised
stereotypes.
Shortly after the Production Code was established, the MPPDA initiated an effort to
the
You Desire
Me and Italian-American
So This Is Africa
should led
make
Newexcitable
movies characters
inspired byinAlAsCapone
that featured
gangsters
to
obscure the ethnic origins of all movie characters, not solely those of villains.20 For
ambiguous
their Italian
heritage.
In 1932, governments,
Joy’s successor
theasSRC,
James
Wingate,
tensions between
the Italian
and American
as at
well
protests
from
Italianinstance, in 1931 Jason Joy, head of the Studio Relations Community (SRC), advised that
advised
thatcommunity
in the popular
film
Betters, of
thedisapproval
‘Pepi’ character
was Italian
likely embassy.
to spark
American
groups
andOur
statements
from the
the excitable characters in As You Desire Me and So This Is Africa should make
protests
from the
Latin
AmericanCode
countries,
advising that
“it wouldinitiated
be wisean toeffort
avoid
Shortly after
Production
was established,
the MPPDA
to
ambiguous their Italian heritage. In 1932, Joy’s successor at the SRC, James Wingate,
difficulties….by
omitting
the dialogue
labelthose
him of
as villains.
anything20more
For
obscure the ethnic
originsany
ofreferences
all movie incharacters,
notthat
solely
advised that in the popular film Our Betters, the ‘Pepi’ character was likely to spark
19
instance,
in 1931
Jason
Joy,Censorship
head of the
Studio
N.A., “A Brief
History
of Film
in the
UnitedRelations
States.” Community (SRC), advised that
protests
American
countries,
that “it would be wise to avoid
20
Couvares,from
Movie Latin
Censorship
and American
Culture,advising
p. 218.
the excitable characters in As You Desire Me and So This Is Africa should make
difficulties….by omitting any references in11the dialogue that label him as anything more
ambiguous their Italian heritage. In 1932, Joy’s successor at the SRC, James Wingate,
19
N.A., “A Brief History of Film Censorship in the United States.”
advised
that
in Censorship
the popular
Our Culture,
Betters,p. 218.
the ‘Pepi’ character was likely to spark
Couvares,
Movie
andfilm
American
20
protests from Latin American countries, 11
advising that “it would be wise to avoid
difficulties….by omitting any references in the dialogue that label him as anything more
10
19
20
11
N.A., “A Brief History of Film Censorship in the United
States.”
Couvares, Movie Censorship and American Culture, p. 218.
11
to be modified to avoid possible foreign censorship. Hollywood villain characters were
practically limited to American stereotypes, so as not to offend minorities or foreign
definite than a ‘foreigner.’”21 Troubles concerning the ethnic backgrounds of characters
When asked whether the popularity of war-themed films into the industry would alter the
Code’s policy, Breen replied that the war “does not parallel or conflict with our function.
Code’s policy, Breen replied that the war “does not parallel or conflict with our function.
Film censorship
Film censorship
reached
such levels that even fictitious characters like Dracula and Frankenstein needed
Principles of social science
to be modified to avoid possible foreign censorship. Hollywood villain characters were
definite than a ‘foreigner.’”21 Troubles concerning the ethnic backgrounds of characters
censorshiplimited
boards.toIndeed,
the stereotypes,
“ethnic heterogeneity”
American
audiences
encouraged
practically
American
so as not toinoffend
minorities
or foreign
reached such levels that even fictitious characters like Dracula and Frankenstein needed
the growth of homogeneity in the film’s characters. In 1934, Clive M. Koon wrote: “the
to be modified to avoid possible foreign censorship. Hollywood villain characters were
Principles
social
science
foreign villain of
̶ even
the naturalized
villain ̶ is disappearing from the motion picture.”22
practically limited to American stereotypes, so as not to offend minorities or foreign
Throughout the 1930s the American film industry was under constant pressure
censorship boards. Indeed, the “ethnic heterogeneity” in American audiences encouraged
from foreign censorship authorities. The British were especially sensitive to Hollywood
Principles of social science
the growth of homogeneity in the film’s characters. In 1934, Clive M. Koon wrote: “the
depictions of British colonial rule. Hollywood was expected to comply with British
foreign villain ̶ even the naturalized villain ̶ is disappearing from the motion picture.”22
notions of white supremacy and present a favorable view of imperialism. In 1935, Spain
censorship boards. Indeed, the “ethnic heterogeneity” in American audiences encouraged
Throughout the 1930s the American film industry was under constant pressure
and San Salvador became the first countries to ban films that contained offensive
the growth of homogeneity in the film’s characters. In 1934, Clive M. Koon wrote: “the
from foreign censorship authorities. The British were especially sensitive to Hollywood
illustrations of Hispanics or Hispano-Americans (Nicaragua, Peru, Chile, and Costa Rica
foreign villain ̶ even the naturalized villain ̶ is disappearing from the motion picture.”22
depictions of British colonial rule. Hollywood was expected to comply with British
later joined). And Mexico grew irate with depictions of exotic Mexican women, and the
Throughout the 1930s the American film industry was under constant pressure
notions of white supremacy and present a favorable view of imperialism. In 1935, Spain
constant appearance of donkeys and haciendas in Mexican-themed films. Hollywood
from foreign censorship authorities. The British were especially sensitive to Hollywood
and San Salvador became the first countries to ban films that contained offensive
found itself in need of more exotic elements in its films without capturing harmful
depictions of British colonial rule. Hollywood was expected to comply with British
illustrations 23
of Hispanics or Hispano-Americans (Nicaragua, Peru, Chile, and Costa Rica
stereotypes.
notions of white supremacy and present a favorable view of imperialism. In 1935, Spain
later joined). And Mexico grew irate with depictions of exotic Mexican women, and the
The start of WW II added to censorship issues faced by the film industry. Films
and San Salvador became the first countries to ban films that contained offensive
constant appearance of donkeys and haciendas in Mexican-themed films. Hollywood
were increasingly thought of as opportunities for hostile governments to advance warillustrations of Hispanics or Hispano-Americans (Nicaragua, Peru, Chile, and Costa Rica
found itself in need of more exotic elements in its films without capturing harmful
joined).
And
Mexico
grew
irate with depictions of exotic Mexican women, and the
later
21
Ibid., p. 218.
23
stereotypes.
22
Ibid., p. 218.
23
constant
of donkeys and haciendas in Mexican-themed films. Hollywood
Ibid., pp.appearance
224-228.
The start of WW II added to censorship issues faced by the film industry. Films
12 in its films without capturing harmful
found itself in need of more exotic elements
were increasingly thought of as opportunities for hostile governments to advance warstereotypes.23
resisted. Breen ruled the PCA with an iron fist.
time
propaganda.
Initially,
Hollywood
21
Ibid., p.The
218.start of WW II added to censorship issues faced by the film industry. Films
22
Ibid., asked
p. 218. whether the popularity of war-themed films into the industry would alter the
When
23
Ibid., pp. 224-228.
were increasingly thought of as opportunities for hostile governments to advance warCode’s policy, Breen replied that the war “does
12 not parallel or conflict with our function.
21
Ibid., p. 218.
Ibid., p. 218.
23
Ibid., pp. 224-228.
22
12
Film censorship
12
24
In June
Today
there are more
filmsHollywood
of that kind.
That isBreen
the only
difference.”
time
propaganda.
Initially,
resisted.
ruled
the
PCA
with
iron1942,
fist.
1942,
Today there are more films of that kind. That is the only difference.”24 InanJune
Washington
established
Office of
Information
“tasked
withwould
coordinating
When
asked whether
the the
popularity
ofWar
war-themed
films(OWI)
into the
industry
alter the
Washington
established
the
Office of
War
Information
(OWI)
“tasked
with coordinating
25
wartimepolicy,
propaganda
across civilian
The OWI organized a special department
25 not parallel or conflict with our function.
Code’s
Breen replied
that the media.”
war “does
wartime propaganda
across civilian
media.”
The OWI organized a special department
to deal with the film industry. Shortly after the OWI was founded, it published the
to deal with the film industry. Shortly after the OWI was founded, it published the
Film
Government Information Manual for the Motion Picture Industry.
Thecensorship
publication not
Government Information Manual for the Motion Picture Industry. The publication not
only suggested measures that would certainly have obstructed cinematic creativity, but it
only suggested measures that would certainly have obstructed cinematic creativity, but it
Today there are more films of that kind. That is the only difference.”24 In June 1942,
also accused Hollywood of hindering the war effort and being unpatriotic.
also accused Hollywood of hindering the war effort and being unpatriotic.
Washington established the Office of War Information (OWI) “tasked with coordinating
But as the grim realities of WW II became more known to the general public,
But as the grim realities of WW II became more known to the general public,
wartime propaganda across civilian media.”25 The OWI organized a special department
audiences demanded that the big screen put on full exhibition the horrors of a war-torn
audiences demanded that the big screen put on full exhibition the horrors of a war-torn
to deal with the film industry. Shortly after the OWI was founded, it published the
world. Film historian Sheri Chinen Biesen argues that “as life on the home front became
world. Film historian Sheri Chinen Biesen argues that “as life on the home front became
Government Information Manual for the Motion Picture
Industry. The publication not
Indeed, WWII helped pave the
increasingly hard-boiled, so too did American film.”26
26
increasingly hard-boiled, so too did American film.” Indeed, WWII helped pave the
only suggested measures that would certainly have obstructed cinematic creativity, but it
way for the noir film genre, illustrating that censorship and state-sponsored expressions
way for the noir film genre, illustrating that censorship and state-sponsored expressions
also accused Hollywood of hindering the war effort and being unpatriotic.
of patriotism in films perhaps were not as harmful to cinematic creativity as
of patriotism in films perhaps were not as harmful to cinematic creativity as
But as the grim realities of WW II became more known to the general public,
conventionally thought.
conventionally thought.
audiences demanded that the big screen put on full exhibition the horrors of a war-torn
By war’s end in 1945, Will Hays had resigned as head of the MPPDA. Hays was
24
Thomas Doherty, Hollywood's Censor: Joseph I. Breen and the Production Code Administration (New
24
world.
Film
historian
Sheri Censor:
ChinenJoseph
Biesen
argues
life onCode
the home
front became
Thomas
Doherty,
I. Breen
andthat
the “as
Production
Administration
(New
York,
2009),
155.Hollywood's
replaced
byp.Eric
Johnston, former head of the United States Chamber of Commerce.
25
York, 2009), p. 155.
25
26
Ibid., p. 155.
Ibid.,
p. 155. hard-boiled,
Sheri Chinen
Biesen, Blackout:
WarAmerican
II and the Origins
of Film
Noir (Baltimore,
2005, p.
5). the
Indeed,
WWII helped
pave
increasingly
so World
too did
film.”26
26
Johnston
renamed
organization
theIIMotion
Pictureof Association
of America
(MPAA).
Sheri Chinen
Biesen,the
Blackout:
World War
and the Origins
Film Noir (Baltimore,
2005, p.
5).
13
way for the noir film genre, illustrating that13censorship and state-sponsored expressions
The same year, the House Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC) became a
of patriotism in films perhaps were not as harmful to cinematic creativity as
permanent committee. In 1947, HUAC began its notorious investigation on Hollywood.
conventionally thought.
The investigations stretched well beyond the film industry, and they were mostly
24
Thomas Doherty, Hollywood's Censor: Joseph I. Breen and the Production Code Administration (New
York, 2009), p. 155.
25
Principles
of social science
Ibid., p. 155.
26
Sheri Chinen Biesen, Blackout: World War II and the Origins of Film Noir (Baltimore, 2005, p. 5).
13
13
connected to the Red Scare of the early Cold War years.27
The HUAC hearings
transformed the focus of censorship from sex and crime to more sophisticated questions
permanent committee. In 1947, HUAC began its notorious investigation on Hollywood.
Hollywood actors, directors and staff to Washington. Those who complied with HUAC’s
The investigations stretched well beyond the film industry, and they were mostly
The investigations stretched well beyond the film industry, and they were mostly
By war’s end in 1945, Will Hays had resigned as head of the MPPDA. Hays was
were labeled “friendly” witnesses, and those who didn’t were labeled “unfriendly”
were labeled “friendly” witnesses, and those who didn’t were labeled “unfriendly”
replaced by Eric Johnston, former head of the United States Chamber of Commerce.
Principles of social science
Principles of social science
not want the industry to get involved in contemporary politics if it threatened revenues
Film censorship
The early Cold War brought important changes to the movie industry. Film was
The early Cold War brought important changes to the movie industry. Film was
Film censorship
and profits.
Hollywood Ten were permitted to read their own statements. On principle the witnesses
The HUAC hearings targeted Hollywood leftists, primarily writers, creating an
Eleven
the nineteen
“unfriendly”
testified.
witnesses.
refused to3030affirm
or ofdeny
their affiliation
to thewitnesses
Communist
Party,One
evenof iftheit eleven,
meant
witnesses. Eleven of the nineteen “unfriendly” witnesses testified. One of the eleven,
atmosphere of suspicion and paranoia in the industry. HUAC subpoenaed dozens of
professional
suicide.
Allcountry
of the Hollywood
Ten served
month jail
and the
all
Bertolt
Brecht,
left the
after testifying.
The6-12
remaining
ten sentences,
were labeled
Bertolt Brecht, left the country after testifying. The remaining ten were labeled the
Hollywood actors,
directors and staff to Washington. Those who complied with HUAC’s
were blacklisted.
Hollywood
Ten. 32
Hollywood Ten.
were labeled “friendly” witnesses, and those who didn’t were labeled “unfriendly”
The HUAC
hearings
left Hollywood
under
response the film
Senator
Joseph
McCarthy,
Chairman
ofdeep
the suspicion.
PermanentInSubcommittee
on
Senator Joseph McCarthy, Chairman of the Permanent Subcommittee on
Principles of social science
considered
a “potent ideological medium,” with the capacity for tremendous social and
considered a “potent ideological medium,” with the capacity for tremendous social and
industry launched
a major public
relationsprosecutor,
program to
Hollywood’s
image.
Investigations
and HUAC’s
most famous
wasimprove
deliberately
confrontational.
Investigations and HUAC’s most famous prosecutor, was deliberately confrontational.
political change. John Howard Lawson, the intellectual head of a group of Hollywood
political change. John Howard Lawson, the intellectual head of a group of Hollywood
connected to the Red Scare of the early Cold War years.27 The HUAC hearings
leftists that came to be known as the Hollywood Ten, stated that “film is ideology” and
leftists that came to be known as the Hollywood Ten, stated that “film is ideology” and
transformed the focus of censorship from sex and crime to more sophisticated questions
crucial in the global “battle of ideas.” Future President and then actor Ronald Reagan
crucial in the global “battle of ideas.” Future President and then actor Ronald Reagan
of ideological infiltration.28
called Hollywood a “grand world-wide propaganda base,” and warned that whoever
called Hollywood a “grand world-wide propaganda base,” and warned that whoever
The early Cold War brought important changes to the movie industry. Film was
While
controlled the movie industry had a “weekly audience of 500,000,000 souls.”29
controlled the movie industry had a “weekly audience of 500,000,000 souls.”29 While
considered a “potent ideological medium,” with the capacity for tremendous social and
studio executives focused on the profitability of films, conservatives saw cinema as a
studio executives focused on the profitability of films, conservatives saw cinema as a
political change. John Howard Lawson, the intellectual head of a group of Hollywood
source of dramatic social and political change. Producers did think movies could be
source of dramatic social and political change. Producers did think movies could be
leftists that came to be known as the Hollywood Ten, stated that “film is ideology” and
influential from time to time, and each held a political opinion of their own, but they did
influential from time to time, and each held a political opinion of their own, but they did
crucial in the global “battle of ideas.” Future President and then actor Ronald Reagan
not want the industry to get involved in contemporary politics if it threatened revenues
called Hollywood a “grand world-wide propaganda base,” and warned that whoever
and profits.
27
Censorship
and American
Culture, p.audience
237.
27 Couvares, Movie
industry
had a “weekly
of 500,000,000 souls.”29 While
controlled
the movie
28 Couvares, Movie Censorship and American Culture, p. 237.
237.HUAC hearings targeted Hollywood leftists, primarily writers, creating an
The
28 Ibid., p.
29 Ibid., p. 237.
29 Ibid., p. 238.
Ibid., executives
p. 238.
studio
focused on the profitability of films, conservatives saw cinema as a
atmosphere of suspicion and paranoia in the
14 industry. HUAC subpoenaed dozens of
14
source of dramatic social and political change. Producers did think movies could be
Hollywood actors, directors and staff to Washington. Those who complied with HUAC’s
influential from time to time, and each held a political opinion of their own, but they did
were labeled “friendly” witnesses, and those who didn’t were labeled “unfriendly”
Organized
by theTen
newly-formed
Motion inquisitorial
Picture Industry
Council
(MPIC),
the MPIC was
The
Hollywood
argued HUAC’s
methods
were
unconstitutional,
and
The Hollywood Ten argued HUAC’s inquisitorial methods were unconstitutional, and
Johnston renamed the organization the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA).
27
The same year,
House
on Un-American
Activities
(HUAC)
connected
to thetheRed
ScareCommittee
of the early
Cold War years.
The
HUACbecame
hearingsa
connected to the Red Scare of the early Cold War years.27 The HUAC hearings
permanent committee.
In censorship
1947, HUAC
began
its notorious
investigation
on Hollywood.
transformed
the focus of
from
sex and
crime to more
sophisticated
questions
transformed the focus of censorship from sex and crime to more sophisticated questions
28
The
investigations
stretched
well beyond the film industry, and they were mostly
of
ideological
infiltration.
of ideological infiltration.28
27
Couvares, Movie Censorship and American Culture, p. 237.
Ibid., p. 237.
29
Ibid., p. 238.
Film censorship
28
witnesses testified. One of the eleven,
witnesses.30 Eleven of the nineteen “unfriendly”
14
14
Bertolt Brecht, left the country after testifying. The remaining ten were labeled the
Film censorship
they defended
themselves by citing the First Amendment.3131 Congressman J. Parnell
30
Congressman
J. Parnell
they
defended
themselves
citing the
First Amendment.
Eleven
of theby
nineteen
“unfriendly”
witnesses testified.
One of the
eleven,
witnesses.
Principles
of social
science
Thomas, the committee’s chair, had no sympathy for the Hollywood Ten. After six days
Thomas,
the committee’s
chair, hadafter
no sympathy
the Hollywood
Ten.were
After
six days
Bertolt Brecht,
left the country
testifying.forThe
remaining ten
labeled
the
established in 1948 by staunch anti-communists Reagan and Walter Wagner, along with a
of hyperbolic political theatrics the first of the Hollywood Ten, John Howard Lawson a
ofHollywood
hyperbolicTen.
political theatrics the first of the Hollywood Ten, John Howard Lawson a
group of conservative producers. The MPIC aimed to damage the reputation of the
Broadway playwright who was also a self-proclaimed Marxist, was called to testify. “I
Broadway
playwright
whoMcCarthy,
was also a Chairman
self-proclaimed
Marxist,
was called
to testify. “I
Senator
Joseph
of the
Permanent
Subcommittee
on
Hollywood Ten as well as convince Americans that the industry was free of communists.
am not on trial here,” Lawson declared, “this committee is on trial here before the
am
not on trialand
here,”
Lawson
declared,
committee
on trial here
before the
Investigations
HUAC’s
most
famous “this
prosecutor,
was is
deliberately
confrontational.
The MPIC campaigns destroyed careers, especially of known left-wingers.33 But the
American people.” Witnesses were brought to testify against the Hollywood Ten,
American
people.”
were brought
to testify
against
Hollywood Ten,
The Hollywood
Ten Witnesses
argued HUAC’s
inquisitorial
methods
werethe
unconstitutional,
and
Hollywood Ten were the first of many to become outcasts. HUAC revisited the film
outlining the group’s associations with the Communist 31Party. Only two of the
outlining
the group’s
associations
the Communist
Only twoJ. of
the
Congressman
Parnell
they defended
themselves
by citingwith
the First
Amendment.Party.
industry again during the early fifties and pursued more severe methods of censorship
Hollywood Ten were permitted to read their own statements. On principle the witnesses
Thomas,
and
blacklisting.
the
committee’s
34 chair,
had no sympathy for the Hollywood Ten. After six days
30 Ibid.,
p.
238.
30refused to affirm or deny their affiliation to the Communist Party, even if it meant
31Ibid., p. 238.
hyperbolic
p. 239. political theatrics the first of the Hollywood Ten, John Howard Lawson a
31ofIbid.,
Ibid., p.The
239. witch hunts associated with the HUAC hearings mark the apex of censorship
professional suicide. All of the Hollywood 15
Ten served 6-12 month jail sentences, and all
Broadway playwright who was also a self-proclaimed
Marxist, was called to testify. “I
industry that lasted for15
more than half a century. However, in 1952,
tradition in the film
32
were blacklisted.
am not on trial here,” Lawson declared, “this committee is on trial here before the
the so-called “Miracle Decision” radically altered the role of regulators in Hollywood. In
The HUAC hearings left Hollywood under deep suspicion. In response the film
American people.” Witnesses were brought to testify against the Hollywood Ten,
Burstyn v. Wilson, the Supreme Court struck down a ban on Roberto Rosselini’s film,
industry launched a major public relations program to improve Hollywood’s image.
outlining the group’s associations with the Communist Party. Only two of the
The Miracle, which the New York Board of Regents had found “sacrilegious.” The
Organized by the newly-formed Motion Picture Industry Council (MPIC), the MPIC was
Supreme Court held that movies are “a significant medium for the communication of
30
Ibid., p. 238. of social science
Principles
31
Ibid., p. 239.
Ibid., p. 239.
33
15
Ibid., p. 240.
established
in 1948 by staunch anti-communists Reagan
34
N.A., “A Brief History of Film Censorship in the United States.”
32
15
and Walter Wagner, along with a
group of conservative producers. The MPIC
16 aimed to damage the reputation of the
Hollywood Ten as well as convince Americans that the industry was free of communists.
industry
industry launched
launched aa major
major public
public relations
relations program
program to
to improve
improve Hollywood’s
Hollywood’s image.
image.
Arm, including a scene containing the use drugs, but the MPAA did not. Also, Elia
Arm, including a scene containing the use drugs, but the MPAA did not. Also, Elia
Organized
Organized by
by the
the newly-formed
newly-formed Motion
Motion Picture
Picture Industry
Industry Council
Council (MPIC),
(MPIC), the
the MPIC
MPIC was
was
Kazan’s film Baby Doll was approved by the MPAA, but its erotic content drew the
Kazan’s film Baby Doll was approved by the MPAA, but its erotic content drew the
ideas,” legitimate expression of art, and are therefore entitled to the protections of the
ideas,” legitimate expression of art, and are therefore entitled to the protections of the
Film censorship
Film censorship
First Amendment.35
35
First Amendment.
Legion’sThe
ire.“Miracle
In 1956,
the film
industry
the restrictive
Production
Code
Decision”
hastened
the amended
deconstruction
of regulatory
organizations.
Legion’s
In 1956,
the film
industry
the restrictive
Production
Code
Theire.“Miracle
Decision”
hastened
the amended
deconstruction
of regulatory
organizations.
introduced
in 1930.
on drugLegion
use, prostitution,
abortion
By 1956 the
MPAAProhibitions
and the Catholic
of Decencymiscegenation
held a publicand
clash
over
introduced
in 1930.
on drugLegion
use, prostitution,
abortion
By 1956 the
MPAAProhibitions
and the Catholic
of Decencymiscegenation
held a publicand
clash
over
were
loosened. of
During
the next
decade
censorship
was
reduced
significantly,
anda the
interpretations
normative
values
in
films.
"The
Legion
approved
Man
with
Golden
were
loosened. ofDuring
the next
decade
censorship
reduced
significantly,
and
interpretations
normative
values
in films.
"The was
Legion
approved
Man with
a the
Golden
courts
consistently
ruled that
the Firstthe
Amendment
protected
nearly all
content
displayed
Arm,
including
a
scene
containing
use
drugs,
but
the
MPAA
did
not.
Also,
Elia
courts
consistently
ruled containing
that the First
nearly all
displayed
Arm, including
a scene
theAmendment
use drugs, protected
but the MPAA
didcontent
not. Also,
Elia
on
screen.film
ByBaby
1961,
most
appellate
and
federal
courts
refused
to content
issue censorship
writs
Kazan’s
Doll
was
approved
by
the
MPAA,
but
its
erotic
drew
the
on
screen.
1961,
most
federal
courts
to content
issue censorship
Kazan’s
filmByBaby
Doll
wasappellate
approvedand
by the
MPAA,
butrefused
its erotic
drew the writs
on films. In 1966, Jack Valenti, a former assistant to President Lyndon B. Johnson,
on films. In 1966, Jack Valenti, a former assistant to PresidentFilm
Lyndon
B. Johnson,
censorship
Hollywood Ten were permitted to read their own statements. On principle the witnesses
ideas,”
legitimate expression of art, and are therefore entitled to the protections of the
Principles of social science
Principles of social science
refused to affirm or deny their affiliation to the Communist Party, even if it meant
First Amendment.35
established
1948
staunch
anti-communists Reagan
and
Wagner,
along
with
established in
insuicide.
1948 by
byAll
staunch
Reagan6-12
and Walter
Walter
Wagner,
alongand
withallaa
professional
of theanti-communists
Hollywood Ten served
month jail
sentences,
The “Miracle Decision” hastened the deconstruction of regulatory organizations.
group
of
producers.
32
groupblacklisted.
of conservative
conservative
producers. The
The MPIC
MPIC aimed
aimed to
to damage
damage the
the reputation
reputation of
of the
the
were
By 1956 the MPAA and the Catholic Legion of Decency held a public clash over
Hollywood
Ten as
as
Americans
that
was
of
Hollywood
as well
well
as convince
convince
Americans
that the
the industry
industry
was free
freeresponse
of communists.
communists.
The Ten
HUAC
hearings
left Hollywood
under
deep
suspicion.
In
the film
interpretations of normative values in films. "The Legion approved Man with33a Golden
33 But the
The
campaigns
destroyed
careers, especially
of known left-wingers.
the
The MPIC
MPIC
campaigns
destroyed
especially
left-wingers.
industry
launched
a major
publiccareers,
relations
programoftoknown
improve
Hollywood’s But
image.
Arm, including a scene containing the use drugs, but the MPAA did not. Also, Elia
Hollywood
Ten
were the
many
to
outcasts.
HUAC revisited
the
film
Hollywoodby
Ten
the first
first of
of
manyPicture
to become
become
outcasts.
revisited
the was
film
Organized
the were
newly-formed
Motion
Industry
CouncilHUAC
(MPIC),
the MPIC
Kazan’s film Baby Doll was approved by the MPAA, but its erotic content drew the
industry
industry again
again during
during the
the early
early fifties
fifties and
and pursued
pursued more
more severe
severe methods
methods of
of censorship
censorship
Principles of social science
34
and
and blacklisting.
blacklisting.34
Film censorship
established
in 1948hunts
by staunch anti-communists
Reagan and Walter
Wagner,ofalong
with a
The
The witch
witch hunts associated
associated with
with the
the HUAC
HUAC hearings
hearings mark
mark the
the apex
apex of censorship
censorship
Legion’s ire. In 1956, the film industry amended the restrictive Production Code
group of inconservative
producers.lasted
The MPIC
aimedhalf
to damage theHowever,
reputation of
the
tradition
tradition in the
the film
film industry
industry that
that lasted for
for more
more than
than half aa century.
century. However, in
in 1952,
1952,
introduced in 1930. Prohibitions on drug use, prostitution, miscegenation and abortion
Hollywood
Ten as wellDecision”
as convince Americans
that therole
industry
was free ofHollywood.
communists.
the
the so-called
so-called “Miracle
“Miracle Decision” radically
radically altered
altered the
the role of
of regulators
regulators in
in Hollywood. In
In
were loosened. During the next decade censorship was reduced significantly, and the
33
But the
The MPIC
campaigns Supreme
destroyed careers,
especially aofban
knownRoberto
left-wingers.
Burstyn
Burstyn v.
v. Wilson,
Wilson, the
the Supreme Court
Court struck
struck down
down a ban on
on Roberto Rosselini’s
Rosselini’s film,
film,
courts consistently ruled that the First Amendment protected nearly all content displayed
Hollywood
Ten werethe
the first York
of many to become
outcasts.found
HUAC revisited the film
The
The Miracle,
Miracle, which
which the New
New York Board
Board of
of Regents
Regents had
had found “sacrilegious.”
“sacrilegious.” The
The
on screen. By 1961, most appellate and federal courts refused to issue censorship writs
industry again
duringthat
the early fifties
and pursued more
severe methods
of censorship
Supreme
Supreme Court
Court held
held that movies
movies are
are “a
“a significant
significant medium
medium for
for the
the communication
communication of
of
on films. In 1966,
Jack
Valenti,
a
former
assistant
to
President
Lyndon
B.
Johnson,
and blacklisting.34
ideas,” legitimate expression of art, and are therefore entitled to the protections of the
32
239. of the MPAA. Valenti helped establish the SMA category (“Suggested for
32 Ibid., p.head
became
33 Ibid., p. 239.
240.witch hunts
The
associated with the HUAC hearings mark the apex of censorship
33 Ibid., p.
35
Ibid.,
p.
240.
34
First
Amendment.
“A Brief History of Film Censorship in the United States.”
34 N.A.,
N.A., “A
Brief History of
Filmfor
Censorship
in the United States.”
Mature
Audiences”)
label
films inappropriate
for younger audiences. Finally, in
tradition in the film industry that lasted for 16
more than half a century. However, in 1952,
The “Miracle Decision” hastened the
16deconstruction of regulatory organizations.
1968, after objections to the Production Code and ambiguity from court decisions the
the so-called “Miracle Decision” radically altered the role of regulators in Hollywood. In
By 1956 the MPAA and the Catholic Legion of Decency held a public clash over
MPAA instituted a nationwide rating system based on the viewer’s age, or the
Burstyn v. Wilson, the Supreme Court struck down a ban on Roberto Rosselini’s film,
interpretations of normative values in films. "The Legion
approved Man with a Golden
36
With
modifications,
the scale
Classification
Ratings
Administration
(CARA).
The Miracle, and
which
the New
York Board
of Regents
hadsome
found
“sacrilegious.”
The
Arm, including a scene containing the use drugs, but the MPAA did not. Also, Elia
is
still usedCourt
today.held that movies are “a significant medium for the communication of
Supreme
Kazan’s film Baby Doll was approved by the MPAA, but its erotic content drew the
32
Ibid., p. 239.
Film censorship
Ibid., p. 240.
34
N.A., “A Brief History of Film Censorship in the United States.”
35
N.A., “A Brief History of Censorship in the United States.”
36
N.A., “Theire.
Supreme
Movie
Censorship:
The
State Censors.”
Legion’s
In Court
1956,andthe
film
industry16
amended
the restrictive Production Code
33
16
17
introduced in 1930. Prohibitions on drug use, prostitution, miscegenation and abortion
Film censorship
became head of the MPAA. Valenti helped establish the SMA category (“Suggested for
became head of the MPAA. Valenti helped establish the SMA category (“Suggested for
Legion’s ire. In 1956, the film industry amended the restrictive Production Code
Mature
Audiences”)
label the
for filmsindustry
inappropriate
for the
younger
audiences.
Finally,
in
Legion’s
ire. In 1956,
amended
restrictive
Production
Code
Mature Audiences”)
label for film
films inappropriate
for younger
audiences.
Finally,
in
introduced in 1930. Prohibitions on drug use, prostitution, miscegenation and abortion
1968,
after objections
to the Production
ambiguity
from court decisions
the
introduced
1930. Prohibitions
on drugCode
use, and
prostitution,
miscegenation
and abortion
1968, after in
objections
to the Production
Code
and ambiguity
from court decisions
the
were loosened. During the next decade censorship was reduced significantly, and the
MPAA
instituted
a nationwide
ratingcensorship
system based
on thesignificantly,
viewer’s age,
or the
were
loosened.
During
the next decade
was reduced
and the
MPAA
instituted
a nationwide
rating system based
on the viewer’s age,
or the
courts consistently ruled that the First Amendment 36protected nearly all content displayed
With some
modifications,
the scale
Classification
and Ratings
Administration
(CARA). 36
courts
consistently
ruled that
the First Amendment
nearly
all content displayed
With some
modifications,
the scale
Classification
and Ratings
Administration
(CARA). protected
on screen. By 1961, most appellate and federal courts refused to issue censorship writs
is
used today.
onstill
screen.
By 1961, most appellate and federal courts refused to issue censorship writs
is
still
used today.
on films. In 1966, Jack Valenti, a former assistant to President Lyndon B. Johnson,
on films. In 1966, Jack Valenti, a former assistant to President Lyndon B. Johnson,
Since the establishment of CARA, restrictions on expressions have fallen
became head of the MPAA. Valenti helped establish the SMA category (“Suggested for
became head of the MPAA. Valenti helped establish the SMA category (“Suggested for
dramatically. The rating system is designed to protect the young from more mature
35
Mature Audiences”) label for films inappropriate for younger audiences. Finally, in
35 N.A., “A Brief History of Censorship in the United States.”
N.A., “AAudiences”)
Brief
History
of
Censorship
in
the UnitedThe
States.” Censors.”
Mature
label
for
younger
audiences.
Finally,
in
36
Supreme
Court
and Movie
Censorship:
content
while
not limiting
whatfilms
can inappropriate
be shownState
on for
screen.
Strict
censorship
has been
36 N.A., “The
N.A., “The Supreme Court and Movie Censorship: The State Censors.”
1968, after objections to the Production Code and ambiguity from court decisions the
17 and ambiguity from court decisions the
1968, afterand
objections
to the isProduction
overcome,
today anyone
allowed toCode
produce
virtually any film of almost any kind,
17
MPAA instituted a nationwide rating system based on the viewer’s age, or the
MPAA instituted
a nationwide
rating system based on the viewer’s age, or the
regardless
of its genre,
opinion, or message.
With some modifications, the scale
Classification and Ratings Administration (CARA).36
Classification and Ratings Administration (CARA).36 With some modifications, the scale
is still used today.
Principles of social science
is still used today.
Works Cited
35
N.A., “A Brief History of Censorship in the United States.”
35
36
Association
of History
Motion
Pictures
“TheCensors.”
Motion Picture Production Code,”
N.A., “A
Brief
of Censorship
inCensorship:
the United Inc.
States.”
“The
Supreme
Court
and MovieProducers,
The
State
36
(1930).
http://asu.edu/courses/fms200s/total-readings/MotionPictureProductionCode.pdf.
N.A., “The
Supreme Court and Movie Censorship: The State Censors.”
17
Biesen, Sheri Chinen. Blackout: World War17II and the Origins of Film Noir (Baltimore,
2005).
overcome,
overcome, and
and today
today anyone
anyone is
is allowed
allowed to
to produce
produce virtually
virtually any
any film
film of
of almost
almost any
any kind,
kind,
regardless
regardless of
of its
its genre,
genre, opinion,
opinion, or
or message.
message.
Gender, Culture and Identity:
Principles of social science
Principles of social science
Works
Works Cited
Cited
Catholic-Syrians in Modern Venezuela
Association
Association of
of Motion
Motion Pictures
Pictures Producers,
Producers, Inc.
Inc. “The
“The Motion
Motion Picture
Picture Production
Production Code,”
Code,”
(1930).
http://asu.edu/courses/fms200s/total-readings/MotionPictureProductionCode.pdf.
(1930). http://asu.edu/courses/fms200s/total-readings/MotionPictureProductionCode.pdf.
Marina Wakil
Biesen,
Biesen, Sheri
Sheri Chinen.
Chinen. Blackout:
Blackout: World
World War
War II
II and
and the
the Origins
Origins of
of Film
Film Noir
Noir (Baltimore,
(Baltimore,
2005).
2005).
Couvares,
Couvares, Francis
Francis G.
G. Movie
Movie Censorship
Censorship and
and American
American Culture
Culture (Amherst,
(Amherst, MA,
MA, 2006).
2006).
Doherty,
Doherty, Thomas.
Thomas. Hollywood's
Hollywood's Censor:
Censor: Joseph
Joseph I.
I. Breen
Breen and
and the
the Production
Production Code
Code
Administration
(New
York,
2009).
Administration (New York, 2009).
Grieveson,
Grieveson, Lee.
Lee. Policing
Policing Cinema:
Cinema: Movies
Movies and
and Censorship
Censorship in
in Early-Twentieth-Century
Early-Twentieth-Century
America
(Berkeley,
2004).
America (Berkeley, 2004).
N.A.
N.A. “A
“A Brief
Brief History
History of
of Film
Film Censorship
Censorship in
in the
the United
United States.”
States.”
http://ncac.org/resource/a-brief-history-of-film-censorship/.
http://ncac.org/resource/a-brief-history-of-film-censorship/.
N.A.
N.A. “The
“The Supreme
Supreme Court
Court and
and Movie
Movie Censorship:
Censorship: The
The State
State Censors.”
Censors.”
http://moviehistory.us/censoring-americans-movies.html.
http://moviehistory.us/censoring-americans-movies.html.
The history of Syrian migration includes the post-colonial emigration of Christians and other
non-Muslims in the twentieth century, and most recently the exodus of more than four million
people fleeing the violence and instability created by the civil conflict between the government
of Bashar al-Assad and the various opposition factions, including the so-called Islamic State.
While the long-term consequences of this mass migration remains largely speculative, Syrian
migration to other countries in the Middle East and in Europe has fomented fears in host
countries of the economic and cultural impact of receiving so many migrants. Additionally, the
rise of Islamic extremism and the threat of global terrorism have led to the emergence of an
essential view of Arabs among Westerners that leaves little room for rational consideration of the
complex diversity of their identities. The fear and anxiety produced by the migrant crisis have
led to misconceptions and negative stereotypes of what are a diverse and complex group of
people. Some of the most pervasive are those concerning gender ideologies, and especially a
monolithic and oversimplified critique of Arab patriarchy that fails to grasp the complexity of
gender relations among Arabs, as well as the nuances of agency afforded to Arab women,
18
18
____________________________
Marina Wakil ‘16, plans to study anthropology and film studies at Barnard College of Columbia
University.
19
18
19
Principles of social science
Principles of social science
Gender, Culture and identity
The most important defining criteria that a person must meet in order to identify as Arab
especially in transnational or diasporic communities. This essay explores the complex nuances
especially in transnational or diasporic communities. This essay explores the complex nuances
of Arab gender ideologies, in the context of family life in Catholic-Syrian diasporic communities
of Arab gender ideologies, in the context of family life in Catholic-Syrian diasporic communities
are the Arabic language, membership in a patrilineal descent group, and adherence to a code of
in Venezuela, by way of ethnographic analysis.
in Venezuela, by way of ethnographic analysis.
conduct meant to maintain the honor of one’s lineage and provide members with guides for
During the 1950s, Arab Christians, mostly from Syria and Lebanon, migrated to Latin
During the 1950s, Arab Christians, mostly from Syria and Lebanon, migrated to Latin
proper Catholic-Arab behavior. Although many of the younger generations have lost the guttural
America.11 Although Mexico, Brazil, Colombia, and Argentina were also destinations, significant
America. Although Mexico, Brazil, Colombia, and Argentina were also destinations, significant
strength required to speak Arabic, it is still the preferred language amongst older people,
numbers settled in Venezuela.22 Immigrants often maintained strong familial bonds because
numbers settled in Venezuela. Immigrants often maintained strong familial bonds because
especially when speaking amongst themselves.
whole families would migrate together, meaning that the traditional family structures remained
whole families would migrate together, meaning that the traditional family structures remained
importance of the last name pervades, but communication takes place mostly in Spanish.5
intact, and in many cases, were reinforced by the shared experiences of being uprooted and
intact, and in many cases, were reinforced by the shared experiences of being uprooted and
Beyond meeting these criteria, someone identifying as Syrian in Venezuela comes with an
forced to adapt to life in a new and foreign land. Family and ethnic connections became vital,
forced to adapt to life in a new and foreign land. Family and ethnic connections became vital,
additional moral code combining Arab, Catholic, and Latin American traditions.
By the second or third generation, the
and many Syrians created their own places for gathering, establishing cultural points of
and many Syrians created their own places for gathering, establishing cultural points of
Kinship is strictly defined and adhered to in Arab society, making patrileaniality one of
references through their diets, their social spaces, and many of the important traditions that
references through their diets, their social spaces, and many of the important traditions that
the most important aspects of Arab culture. As a result, family names are an essential part of
identify them as both Syrian and Arab.33
identify them as both Syrian and Arab.
someone’s identity and place in Syrian society. Men must give their surname to their children,
As newcomers they settled throughout Venezuela, to places such as Caracas, Puerto La
As newcomers they settled throughout Venezuela, to places such as Caracas, Puerto La
and the name must be perpetuated, which is a sign of power and prestige for the family.6 In
Cruz, and Bolivar, where the biggest Arabic populations still live today. As of the early 2000s,
Cruz, and Bolivar, where the biggest Arabic populations still live today. As of the early 2000s,
order to ensure that the family lineage is continued for generations to come, Syrian families favor
there were approximately 400,000 Syrians living in Venezuela.
there were approximately 400,000 Syrians living in Venezuela.
Many of the Syrians and
Many of the Syrians and
having boys over girls. However, both genders are welcomed to the family and have their roles
Lebanese men and women who migrated to Venezuela were Christians, predominantly Roman
Lebanese men and women who migrated to Venezuela were Christians, predominantly Roman
to play. The importance of names extends also to first names, since there are traditions in place
Catholics.
Catholics.
Venezuela is a predominantly Catholic country, making it easier for Syrian
Venezuela is a predominantly Catholic country, making it easier for Syrian
that suggest, and sometimes require, men to name their sons after their fathers. Often this results
immigrants to adapt since they already shared many of the same fundamental beliefs and values.44
immigrants to adapt since they already shared many of the same fundamental beliefs and values.
in men referring to each other as Abu proceeded by the name of the man’s son, and in turn, the
name of man’s father (Abu means ‘the father of’ in Arabic). The tradition showcases the pride
1
Kaldone Nweihad, “La Emigración de Sirios, Libaneses y Palestinos a Venezuela, Ecuador y Colombia: Balance
1
KaldonedeNweihad,
“La Emigración
de Sirios,
Palestinos
a Venezuela,
y Colombia:
Balance
Cultural
une Relación
Sostenida Durante
110Libaneses
Años,” ElyMundo
Arabe
y América Ecuador
Latina, Raymundo
Kabchi,
ed.
Cultural
de une p.
Relación
(Madrid,1997),
242. Sostenida Durante 110 Años,” El Mundo Arabe y América Latina, Raymundo Kabchi, ed.
2(Madrid,1997), p. 242.
Ibid., p. 242.
2
3 Ibid., p. 242.
Jaqueline Sakkal, Personal Interview (2015).
3
4 Jaqueline Sakkal, Personal Interview (2015).
Tony Frangie Mawad, ‘Miss Venezuela Es Árabe – Y Eso No La Hace Menos Venezolana Qué Tú’,
4
Tony Frangie Mawad,
‘Miss Venezuela Es Árabe – Y Eso No La Hace Menos Venezolana Qué Tú’,
CARAQUISTÁN.
http://www.tonyfrangie.com/blogespanol/2015/10/9/jwxko0hiht8dkbpsgbv2b6dxx14pl3.Ibid.
CARAQUISTÁN. http://www.tonyfrangie.com/blogespanol/2015/10/9/jwxko0hiht8dkbpsgbv2b6dxx14pl3.Ibid.
that men feel when their wives give birth to a male heir, because it represents family
5
Ahmed Mattar, Guía Social de la Colonia de Habla Arabe en Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Perú, Venezuela y las
Islas Holandesas de Curazao y Aruba (Barranquilla, 1945).
6
Lila Abu-Lughod and Janet L. Abu-Lughod, Veiled Sentiments: Honour and Poetry in a Bedouin Society
(Berkeley, CA, 1987), p. 53.
20
20
21
20
21
Principles of social science
Gender, Culture and identity
Gender, Culture and identity
continuity in the only way possible with patrilineal descent. Sons may also include Ibn (‘son of’)
before the names of their fathers.7 This reinforces the prestige that comes with being part of a
certain patrilineage and the importance for the family’s continuity. There are no equivalent set
of terms for women, showing the primacy of male lineages and masculine roles over those of
women, a fact that has a profound impact on the lives of both men and women in Arab societies,
including those who have migrated to Venezuela.
Family names are important in that they also show links between different families that
have been united through the marriage of two individuals. Marriages serve as a way to speak on
behalf of both families that are part of the ceremony and the union, especially when the marriage
crystalizes a union between families of relatively high status. It is not uncommon to see
marriages between men who are at least 7 to 15 years older than their brides. Women usually
marry between the ages of 18 to 25.8 The traditional rationale is women in this age cohort are
still naïve but have a lot of energy, which means it is the perfect time for her to move out of her
parent’s home and start a family. Men, on the other hand, are expected to be established and
capable of providing for the financial well-being of the family. The husband is seen as an
exemplary man if his family lives in luxury and is able to provide generously, without having to
worry about expenses.9
Pressure is put on men to be independent because of the economic responsibility placed
Pressure is put on men to be independent because of the economic responsibility placed
on their shoulders.10 In contrast, a woman should not work, but instead, should stay home and
on their shoulders.10 In contrast, a woman should not work, but instead, should stay home and
take care of the children in order to ensure that they are brought up with the proper set of values
take care of the children in order to ensure that they are brought up with the proper set of values
and in accordance with the requisite moral code. This can sometimes be limiting because the
and in accordance with the requisite moral code. This can sometimes be limiting because the
woman takes on all of the responsibility of the home, even if her relative inexperience requires
woman takes on all of the responsibility of the home, even if her relative inexperience requires
her to rely on advice from other, older female relatives. Men are considered more independent,
her to rely on advice from other, older female relatives. Men are considered more independent,
relying more on their own judgement and experience than the advice of others, while women are
relying more on their own judgement and experience than the advice of others, while women are
meant to depend on men. In practice the wife’s role is traditionally meant to compliment that of
meant to depend on men. In practice the wife’s role is traditionally meant to compliment that of
her husband more than be completely subordinate and dependent on him.11
her husband more than be completely subordinate and dependent on him.11
A great deal of importance is also placed on a woman’s virginity, once again tying back
A great deal of importance is also placed on a woman’s virginity, once again tying back
to the significance of the patrilineal descent group and the importance this places on an
to the significance of the patrilineal descent group and the importance this places on an
individual’s paternity. Women who are not virgins are seen as immoral and impure because they
individual’s paternity. Women who are not virgins are seen as immoral and impure because they
have belonged to another man. Once this has occurred the paternity of her children can never be
have belonged to another man. Once this has occurred the paternity of her children can never be
truly relied upon. The moral code also equates virginity with pureness, naïveté, and the ideals of
truly relied upon. The moral code also equates virginity with pureness, naïveté, and the ideals of
modesty for women. Arab culture holds that women should not feel pleasure during sex. Instead
modesty for women. Arab culture holds that women should not feel pleasure during sex. Instead
the physical act should be seen purely as a mean of procreation and furthering the patrilineal
the physical act should be seen purely as a mean of procreation and furthering the patrilineal
group. Men, on the other hand, are expected to have sexual experience by the time they marry,
group. Men, on the other hand, are expected to have sexual experience by the time they marry,
which is another reason why the age gap is significant. Men have a free pass to experience other
which is another reason why the age gap is significant. Men have a free pass to experience other
aspects of life before they get marriage, and having sex is a sign of masculinity, strength, and
aspects of life before they get marriage, and having sex is a sign of masculinity, strength, and
7
10
8
11
10
Wakil, Personal Interview.
Abu-Lughod
andInterview.
Abu-Lughod, Veiled Sentiments, p. 118.
Wakil, Personal
11
Abu-Lughod and Abu-Lughod, Veiled Sentiments, p. 118.
Naman Wakil, Personal Interview (2015).
Sakkal, Personal Interview.
9
Wakil, Personal Interview.
22
23
23
22
23
Gender, Culture and identity
Principles of social science
Gender, Culture and identity
power that reflects positively on men. This double standard ensures that the gender roles are
rigidly maintained and that the relationship between married couples continues to be one of
dependence and subordination on the part of the women.
Additionally, Arab immigrants generally do not marry someone that they consider shaab,
meaning a person who is not of Arab descent. This is mainly because outsiders are not seen as
having the same values, nor understanding of the moral codes that are expected of Arabs. The
general expectation is that they will not understand nor adapt to the standards that are expected
from men and women who are Arab.
This lack of understanding would have negative
consequences when rearing children meant to identify as Arab and to perpetuate the values and
behaviors required of Arabs. This is especially critical for Syrians who migrate to non-Arab
countries, as is the case with Syrians in Venezuela. Syrian-Venezuelan parents often pressure
their Venezuelan-born children to end or avoid entering romantic relationships with non-Arabs
out of a concern that this will lead to a diluting of the family’s Arab identity.12
Arab families in Venezuela have decreased in size in the last few generations. The first
generation to arrive bore 3 to 7 children. Now, it has become less common to have more than 3
or 4. For Arabs, because of the emphasis on patrilineal descent, having a male child is critical.13
The more sons the family has, the more chances they have of furthering their lineage and passing
on the last name.
12
13
Gender in the context of Arab culture is a defining factor in the role that an individual
Gender in the context of Arab culture is a defining factor in the role that an individual
plays in a society, although many of the social structures governing gender roles are also shared
plays in a society, although many of the social structures governing gender roles are also shared
by latin mainstream cultures like the one in Venezuela. This includes, but is not limited to,
by latin mainstream cultures like the one in Venezuela. This includes, but is not limited to,
expectations of dress, family etiquette and relations with outsiders.14 Because of these gender
expectations of dress, family etiquette and relations with outsiders.14 Because of these gender
ideologies, Arab culture can continue to grow and thrive by reproducing the core values that
ideologies, Arab culture can continue to grow and thrive by reproducing the core values that
define one as Arab and Syrian in a foreign land like Venezuela.
define one as Arab and Syrian in a foreign land like Venezuela.
One common Western critique of Arab gender ideologies is the limitations that are placed
One common Western critique of Arab gender ideologies is the limitations that are placed
on women’s liberties. Women are expected to cook, clean, and take care of the many children
on women’s liberties. Women are expected to cook, clean, and take care of the many children
they birth. The requirements of maintaining the integrity of patrilineal family descent places
they birth. The requirements of maintaining the integrity of patrilineal family descent places
limitations on women’s movements and creates double standards between what is required and
limitations on women’s movements and creates double standards between what is required and
expected of men and women. However, despite these limitations on their liberties, Syrianexpected of men and women. However, despite these limitations on their liberties, SyrianVenezuelan woman still enjoy spaces to freely express sentiments and behaviors otherwise
Venezuelan woman still enjoy spaces to freely express sentiments and behaviors otherwise
deemed in poor tasted or dishonorable in more public environments. One such space is known
deemed in poor tasted or dishonorable in more public environments. One such space is known
among Syrians as the shirke (reunion).
among Syrians as the shirke (reunion).
The shirke is a monthly or bi-monthly social gathering attended only by women. It takes
The shirke is a monthly or bi-monthly social gathering attended only by women. It takes
place in the home of one of the regular attendees. Each woman is expected to bring a casserole
place in the home of one of the regular attendees. Each woman is expected to bring a casserole
or dessert, which means that everyone contributes so the preparation of food for up to fifteen
or dessert, which means that everyone contributes so the preparation of food for up to fifteen
guests is not left to the host. The women sit down and converse over food and coffee. These
guests is not left to the host. The women sit down and converse over food and coffee. These
reunions can last five hours or more. It provides an opportunity to gossip about the lives of
reunions can last five hours or more. It provides an opportunity to gossip about the lives of
people in the community, whether they attend the shirke or not. Usually, the women hold the
people in the community, whether they attend the shirke or not. Usually, the women hold the
14
Sakkal, Personal Interview.
Sakkal, Personal Interview.
14
Abu-Lughod and Abu-Lughod, Veiled Sentiments, pp.109-110.
Abu-Lughod and Abu-Lughod, Veiled Sentiments, pp.109-110.
24
25
25
24
25
Gender,
Culture
and
Gender, Culture and identity
Principles of social science
Identity
people they are talking about to high standards of morality. Topics of conversation can include
Events like the shirke allow for women to at once express their individual sentiments, and yet
upcoming weddings, births, or scandalous behavior, even among relatives and acquaitances
maintain appropriate boundaries in their relationships. In the hours spent with their friends, they
living in Syria. It is a moment for the women to engage in a kind of support group, but also
are not merely mothers or wives, but also individuals with unique desires and sentiments that can
share critical information, as well as provide women with a forum to express criticisms of what
be expressed without reference to the assumed expectations of their gender.
many see as the inequities of being a woman in an Arab-influenced community. Sometimes
The place of women in Syrian-Venezuelan society is quite complex, and most women
women simply reflect upon the suffering that they endure under the pressures of social
live negotiating between the expectations of patriarchy and the possibilities for agency afforded
expectations or problems with their marriages, and they are comforted by others who at the very
to them in the context of culturally appropriate social spaces.15 Such spaces mean that Arab
least commiserate on the shared experiences of being a Syrian woman in Venezuela. Women
women are not completely silent as one might expect in a patriarchal system. Rather they
and men in Arab society are highly scrutinized for their actions, especially when there is a reason
express themselves through prescribed means to maintain their honor and that of their families
to believe that they are falling out of line, and the shirke serves as an appropriate venue for
while also working to earn respect and authority.16 The hierarchical system is not absolute. It is
reflecting upon and responding to that scrutiny.
very flexible, which can work to the advantage of some and to great disadvantage for others. By
After they are done drinking coffee, they “read” their coffee cups. The liquid that
doing so, they articulate some of the many ways that Syrians in Venezuela adapt to new social
remains on the cup serves to create figures in the mug that are believed to have important
conditions while maintaining strong attachments to the traditions that they share with other
messages. The cup is flipped upside down and at an angle with the plate that they are given.
Syrians around the world, and thus provide a model for understanding the outcome of more
After a couple of minutes, they each flip their cups back and a designated reader, who is believed
recent migrations out of Syria.
to be the best one at reading the cups, does her job. At times, when there are younger women
present who have just married or are expecting children, they also use a cross or crucifix to
predict the sex, as well as the gender of the babies and the number of children the person is going
to have. The reading of the coffee cups helps to diffuse anxiety that they might otherwise
experience under the scrutiny of other women by incorporating a supernatural or fate-driven
element to events in their lives, and sharing the mutual interpretation of those events.
15
16
Sakkal, Personal Interview.
Abu-Lughod and Abu-Lughod, Veiled Sentiments, p. 109.
27
26
26
27
Principles of social science
Leave the Gun, Take the Cannoli:
Principles of social science
The Godfather as a Transitional Italian-American Film
Works Cited
Works Cited
Abu-Lughod, Lila and Janet L. Abu-Lughod. Veiled Sentiments: Honour and Poetry in a
Bedouin Society
(Berkeley,
CA,L.1987).
Abu-Lughod,
Lila
and Janet
Abu-Lughod. Veiled Sentiments: Honour and Poetry in a
Bedouin Society (Berkeley, CA, 1987).
Klich, Ignacio & Lesser, Jeffrey, ed. Arab and Jewish Immigrants in Latin America: Images and
Realities
(London,
1998).Jeffrey, ed. Arab and Jewish Immigrants in Latin America: Images and
Klich,
Ignacio
& Lesser,
Realities (London, 1998).
Mattar, Ahmed. Guía Social de la Colonia de Habla Arabe en Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador,
Perú, Venezuela
las Islas
Holandesas
de Curazao
y Aruba
(Barranquilla,
Mattar,
Ahmed. y Guía
Social
de la Colonia
de Habla
Arabe
en Bolivia,1945.)
Colombia, Ecuador,
Perú, Venezuela y las Islas Holandesas de Curazao y Aruba (Barranquilla, 1945.)
Mawad, Tony Frangie. “Miss Venezuela Es Árabe – Y Eso No La Hace Menos Venezolana Qué
Tú,” CARAQUISTÁN.
Mawad,
Tony Frangie. “Miss Venezuela Es Árabe – Y Eso No La Hace Menos Venezolana Qué
http://www.tonyfrangie.com/blogespanol/2015/10/9/jwxko0hiht8dkbpsgbv2b6dxx14pl3.
Tú,”
CARAQUISTÁN.
http://www.tonyfrangie.com/blogespanol/2015/10/9/jwxko0hiht8dkbpsgbv2b6dxx14pl3.
Nweihad, Kaldone. “La Emigración de Sirios, Libaneses y Palestinos a Venezuela, Ecuador y
Colombia:Kaldone.
Balance Cultural
de une Relación
110 Años,”
El Mundo
Arabe yy
Nweihad,
“La Emigración
de Sirios,Sostenida
LibanesesDurante
y Palestinos
a Venezuela,
Ecuador
América Latina,
Raymundo
ed. (Madrid,
1997). Durante 110 Años,” El Mundo Arabe y
Colombia:
Balance
Cultural Kabchi,
de une Relación
Sostenida
América Latina, Raymundo Kabchi, ed. (Madrid, 1997).
Sakkal, Jaqueline. Personal Interview. October 13, 2015.
Sakkal, Jaqueline. Personal Interview. October 13, 2015.
Salloum, Habeeb. “Arabs Making Their Mark in Latin America: Generations of Immigrants in
Colombia,Habeeb.
Venezuela
andMaking
Mexico.”
2000.
September,
2015. Generations of Immigrants in
Salloum,
“Arabs
Their
Mark
in Latin America:
http://www.aljadid.com/content/arabs-making-their-mark-latin-america-generations-immigrantsColombia,
Venezuela and Mexico.” 2000. September, 2015.
colombia-venezuela-and-mexico.
http://www.aljadid.com/content/arabs-making-their-mark-latin-america-generations-immigrantscolombia-venezuela-and-mexico.
Wakil, Naman. Personal Interview. September 24, 2015.
Wakil, Naman. Personal Interview. September 24, 2015.
Alaz Sengul
Since its release in 1972, The Godfather has reached cult status among gangster movie
aficionados. Despite its popular appeal, to wide stretches of American audiences, young and old,
sophisticated and non, the film also manages to capture subtle shifts in the American film
industry.
The Godfather relays important transitional themes in Hollywood’s evolutionary
depiction of Italian-American culture. The Godfather represents a significant transition in how
the American movie industry and popular culture have interpreted Italian-Americans. Before its
release, Italian-Americans were portrayed as stereotypical mobsters seeking nefarious paths to
fortune. Following The Godfather, however, Italian-Americans were portrayed as more dynamic
characters, overcoming early twentieth-century stereotypes.
Italian-Americans have been a staple in American films since the introduction of motion
picture cinemas in 1903.1 By the 1950s, movies that featured mobster culture almost always
highlighted Italian-American on-screen characters as gangster prototypes. But in the 1960s and
1970s, a domestic ethnic revival took place. Hollywood film producers, keen on capitalizing on
domestic cultural shifts, considered “the commercial possibilities of ethnicity,” so filmmakers
began to “examine their own ethnic identities via movies.”2
28
28
Alaz Sengul ‘17, plans to study economics and music in university.
1
2
28
Barry Keith Grant, Schirmer Encyclopedia of Film (Detroit: Schirmer Reference, 2005).
Carlos E Cortés, “Italian-Americans in Film: From Immigrants to Icons,” in MELUS (Oxford University Press,
1987), p. 14. http://www.jstor.org/stable/467405.
29
29
Principles of social science
The godfather
The godfather
The ethnic revival in Hollywood was centered on the growing social concerns and
appreciations for the culture and experiences of immigrant and minority groups. During the
1960s and 1970s, ethnic groups and their roles in society were portrayed as accurately as
possible in order to supersede previous false stereotypes, a movement that resonated outside of
the classroom and into Hollywood as well. This change contributed to Francis Ford Coppola’s
revolutionary film presentations of Italian-American gangster culture into a typecast that
incorporated both paradigms. The Godfather thus served as the turning point in Hollywood’s
depiction of Italian-Americans.
Before The Godfather, “Italian-American film hoodlums” were depicted as abject failures
in the American Dream matrix of immigrant success. Italian-American characters in film usually
“turned to illegal avenues in their quest for pride, power, and prosperity.” 3 Edward G.
Robinson’s performance in Little Caesar (1930) as Rico Bandello solidified the on-screen
reputation of Italian-Americans as immigrant thugs.4 The box-office success of Little Caesar
further implanted the Italian-American immigrant-gangster perception in American popular
culture. In the film, Bandello’s “pursuit of the American dream as well as his failure to obtain it,
made him as endearing to the populace as the doomed Gatsby.”5 In the popular 1938 film A
3
James A Banks, “The Social Studies, Ethnic Diversity, and Social Change,” The Elementary School Journal (May,
1987).
4
Jenna Lotardo, “Italian American Stereotypes in the Media,” University of Hartford.
http://uhaweb.hartford.edu/LOTARDO/.
5
“Little Caesar,” University of Virginia. http://xroads.virginia.edu/~ug02/gangsters/littlecaesar.html.
Slight Case of Murder, the “bumbling bootlegger Remy Marco” plays the lead Italian-American
Slight Case of Murder, the “bumbling bootlegger Remy Marco” plays the lead Italian-American
character whose laughable but tragic lowly gangster tales of failures furthered the stereotypes
character whose laughable but tragic lowly gangster tales of failures furthered the stereotypes
most white Americans had of their Italian neighbors.6
most white Americans had of their Italian neighbors.6
The Italian-American gangster typecast came to reflect a broader cultural disposition
The Italian-American gangster typecast came to reflect a broader cultural disposition
inherent to all immigrants from Europe. Directors neglected the more homey, conservative
inherent to all immigrants from Europe. Directors neglected the more homey, conservative
tradition of Italian-American families and even portrayed female Italian-Americans as mobster
tradition of Italian-American families and even portrayed female Italian-Americans as mobster
accomplices. Ma Magdalena of Little Caesar reiterated the screen pattern of Italian-American
accomplices. Ma Magdalena of Little Caesar reiterated the screen pattern of Italian-American
criminality in both genders. 7 These stereotypes continued during World War II. Indeed,
criminality in both genders. 7 These stereotypes continued during World War II. Indeed,
American participation in World War II against Italian fascism in Europe solidified this
American participation in World War II against Italian fascism in Europe solidified this
perception. The domestic climate of hostility towards the Axis during World War II further
perception. The domestic climate of hostility towards the Axis during World War II further
vilified all Italian’s as violent gangsters. World War II turned cinema into propaganda,
vilified all Italian’s as violent gangsters. World War II turned cinema into propaganda,
exemplified with the 1946 film Lady of the Lake. The film’s violent overtones and associations
exemplified with the 1946 film Lady of the Lake. The film’s violent overtones and associations
between criminality and Italian culture continued decades after war’s end with minor films like
between criminality and Italian culture continued decades after war’s end with minor films like
Knock On Any Door (1949), The Young Savages (1961), and The Incident (1967).8
Knock On Any Door (1949), The Young Savages (1961), and The Incident (1967).8
It was not until the release of The Godfather that Hollywood began to modify its
It was not until the release of The Godfather that Hollywood began to modify its
portrayals of Italian-Americans. 9 These revisions were, in part, reflective of the wider
portrayals of Italian-Americans. 9 These revisions were, in part, reflective of the wider
transformations American society underwent in its perceptions of minority groups. The social
transformations American society underwent in its perceptions of minority groups. The social
protest movements of the 1960s and 1970s advocated for social justice and minority civil
protest movements of the 1960s and 1970s advocated for social justice and minority civil
6
7
6
8
7
9
8
9
Damon Runyon, A Slight Case of Murder, directed by Lloyd Bacon, (USA: First National Pictures, 1938).
“Little
of Virginia.
DamonCaesar,”
Runyon,University
A Slight Case
of Murder, directed by Lloyd Bacon, (USA: First National Pictures, 1938).
Cortés,Caesar,”
“Italian-Americans
in Film:
From Immigrants to Icons,” p. 14.
“Little
University of
Virginia.
Mario
The Godfather,indirected
by Francis
Ford Coppola,
Cortés,Puzo,
“Italian-Americans
Film: From
Immigrants
to Icons,”(USA:
p. 14. Paramount Pictures, 1972).
Mario Puzo, The Godfather, directed by Francis Ford Coppola, (USA: Paramount Pictures, 1972).
30
31
31
30
31
include English subtitles, forcing viewers instead to rely on cognates and innuendos to piece
together the conversation. The language emphasizes Coppola’s decision to Italianize the film.
include English subtitles, forcing viewers instead to rely on cognates and innuendos to piece
Principles of social science
The godfather
10
Principles
of social science
that had previously existed on the margins of American society and popular culture. Minority
together the conversation. The language emphasizes Coppola’s decision to Italianize the film.
include English subtitles, forcing viewers instead to rely on cognates and innuendos to piece
Later in the scene, Corleone realizes his fluency in Italian is lacking for a conversation of such
include English subtitles, forcing viewers instead to rely on cognates and innuendos to piece
together the conversation. The language emphasizes Coppola’s decision to Italianize
the film.
The godfather
significance, and thus reverts back to English. This is Coppola’s symbolic affirmation that
together the conversation. The language emphasizes Coppola’s decision to Italianize the film.
rights.10 The cultural renaissance among minority groups celebrated distinct cultural identities
and immigrant communities asserted their cultural dignity and celebrated the manifest
Italian-Americans have become too “Americanized,” and thus need to embrace their
Italian roots
godfather
Later in the scene, Corleone realizes his fluency in Italian is lacking for a The
conversation
of such
rights.
The cultural renaissance among minority groups celebrated distinct cultural identities
that had previously existed on the margins of American society and popular culture. Minority
divergence of minority culture from traditional American culture.
and immigrant communities asserted their cultural dignity and celebrated the manifest
The Godfather is the central example of the film industry’s reaction to this cultural
divergence of minority culture from traditional American culture.
transformation. It was one of the first films to romanticize Italian-American culture while still
The Godfather is the central example of the film industry’s reaction to this cultural
sticking to the genre’s mobster paradigm. Coppola, an Italian-American himself, hired a thentransformation. It was one of the first films to romanticize Italian-American culture while still
unknown Sicilian actor, Al Pacino, to play the protagonist of the movie, Michael Corleone.11
sticking to the genre’s mobster paradigm. Coppola, an Italian-American himself, hired a thenPacino’s rendering captures the film’s attempt to form a more nuanced Italian-American ethnic
unknown Sicilian actor, Al Pacino, to play the protagonist of the movie, Michael Corleone.11
identity. During the movie, set in the 1950s, Corleone flees from New York City to Sicily in
Pacino’s rendering captures the film’s attempt to form a more nuanced Italian-American ethnic
order to escape imprisonment after shooting police captain Marc McCluskey and drug honcho
identity. During the movie, set in the 1950s, Corleone flees from New York City to Sicily in
Virgil Sollozzo. While Corleone is in Sicily, Coppola takes the opportunity to explore Sicilian
order to escape imprisonment after shooting police captain Marc McCluskey and drug honcho
culture with direct references to ethnic foods, dances, and other cultural traditions. Corleone,
Virgil Sollozzo. While Corleone is in Sicily, Coppola takes the opportunity to explore Sicilian
who seems to appreciate Sicilian culture, meets and marries a young woman there. In this way,
culture with direct references to ethnic foods, dances, and other cultural traditions. Corleone,
Coppola glorifies rather than demonizes the cultural particulars of Italian-American immigrants.
who seems to appreciate Sicilian culture, meets and marries a young woman there. In this way,
Coppola also makes the Italian language a focus in the film. In the restaurant scene
Coppola glorifies rather than demonizes the cultural particulars of Italian-American immigrants.
towards the middle of the movie, Corleone is conversing with Sollozzo, and the majority of the
Coppola also makes the Italian language a focus in the film. In the restaurant scene
scene is in Italian. In a bit of cinematic genius, Coppola made the conscious decision not to
towards the middle of the movie, Corleone is conversing with Sollozzo, and the majority of the
scene is in Italian. In a bit of cinematic genius, Coppola made the conscious decision not to
10
11
Wendy Simpson and Arthur Marwick, The Sixties: Cultural Revolution in Britain, France, Italy, and the United
States, 1958 - 1974 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998).
Puzo, The Godfather.
10
32 Revolution in Britain, France, Italy, and the United
Wendy Simpson and Arthur Marwick, The Sixties: Cultural
States, 1958 - 1974 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998).
11
Puzo, The Godfather.
32
32
12
TheStates.
godfather
with more pride. In the film, Corleone is after all, born and raised in the United
significance, and thus reverts back to English. This is Coppola’s symbolic affirmation that
Later inTo
theensure
scene,the
Corleone
realizes
hisGodfather,
fluency in Coppola
Italian is recruited
lacking for
conversation
such
popularity
of The
theaA-list
Marlon of
Brando
Italian-Americans have become too “Americanized,” and thus need to embrace their Italian roots
Later in the scene, Corleone realizes his fluency in Italian is lacking for a conversation of such
significance,
thus
reverts
back to Brando
English.played
Thisthe
is dynamic
Coppola’s“boss”
symbolic
affirmation
that
for the part ofand
Vito
“Don”
Corleone.
character
responsible
with more pride. In the film, Corleone is after all, born and raised in the United States.12
significance, and thus reverts back to English. This is Coppola’s symbolic affirmation that
Italian-Americans
become
tooworld
“Americanized,”
and syndicates.
thus need to Brando’s
embrace their
Italian roots
for organizing the have
highly
complex
of mafia crime
performance
was
To ensure the popularity of The Godfather, Coppola recruited the A-list Marlon Brando
Italian-Americans have become too “Americanized,” and thus need to embrace their Italian
roots
12
with
more pride.
the film,
is after
born and raised
the United
States.in previous
significant
for hisIn ability
toCorleone
add a level
of all,
sophistication
and in
elegance
to what
for the part of Vito “Don” Corleone. Brando played the dynamic “boss” character responsible
with more pride. In the film, Corleone is after all, born and raised in the United States.12
ensurehad
thedepicted
popularity
of TheasGodfather,
recruited theBrando’s
A-list Marlon
gangsterTofilms
bosses
villainous Coppola
thug antagonists.
actingBrando
was a
for organizing the highly complex world of mafia crime syndicates. Brando’s performance was
To ensure the popularity of The Godfather, Coppola recruited the A-list Marlon Brando
for
the partmasterpiece.
of Vito “Don”
Brando facilitated
played theaudiences
dynamic “boss”
responsible
cinematic
AndCorleone.
his performance
to relatecharacter
to his character
and
significant for his ability to add a level of sophistication and elegance to what in previous
for the part of Vito “Don” Corleone. Brando played the dynamic
“boss”
character
responsible
13
for
the highly
complexItalian-American
world of mafia crime
syndicates.
Brando’s
was
The talents
of performance
Coppola, Pacino,
feelorganizing
for this otherwise
“common
hoodlum.”
gangster films had depicted bosses as villainous thug antagonists. Brando’s acting was a
for organizing the highly complex world of mafia crime syndicates. Brando’s performance was
significant
his ability
to that
add was
a level
of sophistication
andprevious
elegance
to what in previous
and Brandofor
fashioned
a film
distinctly
different from
Italian-American
mafia
cinematic masterpiece. And his performance facilitated audiences to relate to his character and
significant for his ability to add a level of sophistication and elegance to what in previous
gangster
movies. films had depicted bosses as villainous thug antagonists. Brando’s acting was a
feel for this otherwise “common Italian-American hoodlum.”13 The talents of Coppola, Pacino,
gangster films had depicted bosses as villainous thug antagonists. Brando’s acting was a
cinematic
masterpiece.
And his performance
audiences to characters
relate to his reflected
character and
Since
The Godfather,
films withfacilitated
Italian-American
the
and Brando fashioned a film that was distinctly different from previous Italian-American mafia
cinematic masterpiece. And his performance facilitated audiences
to relate to his character and
13
talents
of Coppola,
feel
for this otherwise
“common
Italian-American
transformational
effects
of Coppola’s
portrayal. hoodlum.”
For instance,The
Martin
Scorsese’s
1973Pacino,
Mean
movies.
13
feel for this otherwise “common Italian-American hoodlum.” The talents of Coppola, Pacino,
and
Brando
thatThe
wasGodfather
distinctly led
different
from previous
mafia
Streets
is anfashioned
example aoffilm
how
to a cultural
reset inItalian-American
Hollywood. Scorsese
Since The Godfather, films with Italian-American characters reflected the
and Brando fashioned a film that was distinctly different from previous Italian-American mafia
movies.
imitated Coppola’s style by exploring the “broader aspects of the Italian-American experience.”
transformational effects of Coppola’s portrayal. For instance, Martin Scorsese’s 1973 Mean
movies.
Since Streets,
The Scorsese
Godfather,depicted
films thewith
reflected the
With Mean
actorItalian-American
Harvey Keitel as characters
a young Italian-American
Streets is an example of how The Godfather led to a cultural reset in Hollywood. Scorsese
Since The Godfather, films with Italian-American characters reflected the
transformational effects of Coppola’s portrayal. For instance, Martin Scorsese’s 1973 Mean
12
Puzo, The
Godfather.style by exploring the “broader aspects of the Italian-American experience.”
imitated
Coppola’s
13
transformational
effects ofFilm:
Coppola’s
portrayal.Icons.”
For instance, Martin Scorsese’s 1973 Mean
Cortés, “Italian-Americans
From Immigrants
Streets
is an example ofin how
The Godfathertoled
to a cultural reset in Hollywood. Scorsese
With Mean Streets, Scorsese depicted the actor
Harvey
Keitel as a young Italian-American
33
Streets is an example of how The Godfather led to a cultural reset in Hollywood. Scorsese
imitated Coppola’s style by exploring the “broader aspects of the Italian-American experience.”
12
Puzo, The
Godfather. style by exploring the “broader aspects of the Italian-American experience.”
imitated
Coppola’s
13
With
Mean
Streets, Scorsese
the actor
Harvey Keitel as a young Italian-American
Cortés,
“Italian-Americans
in Film:depicted
From Immigrants
to Icons.”
With Mean Streets, Scorsese depicted the actor
33 Harvey Keitel as a young Italian-American
12
Puzo, The Godfather.
Cortés, “Italian-Americans in Film: From Immigrants to Icons.”
Puzo, The Godfather.
13
Cortés, “Italian-Americans in Film: From Immigrants to
33Icons.”
13
12
33
33
struggling to support his family while adhering to traditional Italian morals, and eventually
becoming successful in the local New York City mafia. Following The Godfather’s release,
struggling
to support
his family
while adhering to traditional Italian morals, and eventually
Principles
of social
science
The
godfather
The
godfather
becoming successful in the local New York City mafia. Following The Godfather’s release,
similar films
internalmorals,
conflicts,
with
struggling
to depicted
support Italian-Americans
his family while engaged
adheringintoromanticized
traditional Italian
andimbued
eventually
Principles of social science
cultural glorification
and
OldCity
World
values.
In The
Part
II (1974),
becoming
successful in
theadmiration
local New of
York
mafia.
Following
TheGodfather:
Godfather’s
release,
Coppolafilms
again
captured
the renaissance in
Italian-American
culture
on screen
by portraying
the
similar
depicted
Italian-Americans
engaged
in romanticized
internal
conflicts,
imbued with
Principles of social science
younger glorification
years of Vito
as ofa Old
historical
earlyGodfather:
twentieth-century
Italian
cultural
andCorleone
admiration
World analysis
values. of
In The
Part II (1974),
14
immigration
to
the United
States
and social-economic
achievement.
Coppola
again
captured
the
renaissance
in
Italian-American
culture
on screen
by portraying
the
similar
films
depicted
Italian-Americans
engaged
in romanticized
internal
conflicts,
imbued with
both of
major
and
minor as
Italian-American
films released
after
The Godfather,
the
youngerInglorification
years
Vito
Corleone
historical
of
earlyGodfather:
twentieth-century
Italian
cultural
and
admiration
ofa Old
World analysis
values.
In The
Part II (1974),
14
gangster/mafia
storyline
serves
more
as ina Italian-American
vehicle to achievement.
exploreculture
the Italian
cultural
aspects of the
the
immigration
to captured
the
Unitedthe
States
and social-economic
Coppola
again
renaissance
on screen
by portraying
characters’
families
and
lives.
to greater
public
perception
of Italianboth
major
and
minorThe
Italian-American
films
released
after
The Godfather,
the
youngerInyears
of
Vito
Corleone
as
aGodfather
historicalled
analysis
of early
twentieth-century
Italian
14
American
andserves
therefore
more
appreciation
for the
itself.
gangster/mafia
storyline
more
as a vehicle
to achievement.
explore
theculture
Italian
cultural Moreover,
aspects of the
immigrationtraditions,
to the
United
States
and social-economic
success
The
Godfather
trilogy
a cult-like
following,
extending
reach
characters’
families
The
Godfather
led films
to popular
greater
public
oftheItalianInof both
majorand
andlives.
minorengendered
Italian-American
released
afterperception
The
Godfather,
the
of
Coppola’s
depiction
ofserves
Italian-American
culture,totranscending
contemporary
American
traditions,
and
therefore
appreciation
for the
Moreover,
the
gangster/mafia
storyline
moremore
as a vehicle
explore
theculture
Italian itself.
culturalstereotypes,
aspects of and
positively
public
perceptions.
Overall,
The
served
a transition
inreach
the
success of shaping
The
Godfather
trilogy
engendered
a cult-like
extending
characters’
families
and lives.
The Godfather
led Godfather
to popular
greater following,
public as
perception
oftheItaliandepiction
of
Italian-American
film more
characters.
are stillitself.
replete
with Italianof
Coppola’s
depiction
of Italian-American
culture,Today’s
transcending
contemporary
stereotypes,
and
American
traditions,
and
therefore
appreciation
forfilms
the culture
Moreover,
the
American
built trilogy
around
mobster
themes
andGodfather
violence,
howeveras these
filmsthe
areinreach
now
positively
shaping
public
perceptions.
Overall,
The
served
a transition
the
success of characters
The Godfather
engendered
a cult-like
popular following,
extending
WorksCited
Cited
Works
Banks,James
JamesA.A.‘The
‘TheSocial
SocialStudies,
Studies,Ethnic
EthnicDiversity,
Diversity,and
andSocial
SocialChange,’
Change,’The
TheElementary
Elementary
Banks,
SchoolJournal
Journal8787(May
(May1987).
1987).http://www.jstor.org/stable/1001430.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1001430.
School
Cortés,Carlos.
Carlos.“Italian-Americans
“Italian-AmericansininFilm:
Film:From
FromImmigrants
ImmigrantstotoIcons.”
Icons.”MELUS,
MELUS,Vol.
Vol.14,
14,No.
No.
Cortés,
3/4,Italian-American
Italian-AmericanLiterature
Literature(Autumn
(Autumn– –Winter,
Winter,1987),
1987),pp.
pp.107-126.
107-126.
3/4,
http://www.jstor.org/stable/467405.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/467405.
Cullers,Rebecca
Rebeccaand
andJessica
JessicaWolpert.
Wolpert.“Little
“LittleCaesar.”
Caesar.”
Cullers,
http://xroads.virginia.edu/~ug02/gangsters/littlecaesar.html.
http://xroads.virginia.edu/~ug02/gangsters/littlecaesar.html.
Grant,Barry
BarryKeith.
Keith.Schirmer
SchirmerEncyclopedia
EncyclopediaofofFilm
Film(Detroit,
(Detroit,Schirmer
SchirmerReference,
Reference,2005).
2005).
Grant,
Lotardo,Jenna.
Jenna.“Italian
“ItalianAmerican
AmericanStereotypes
Stereotypesininthe
theMedia.”
Media.”
Lotardo,
http://uhaweb.hartford.edu/LOTARDO/.
http://uhaweb.hartford.edu/LOTARDO/.
Puzo,Mario.
Mario.The
TheGodfather.
Godfather.Directed
DirectedbybyFrancis
FrancisFord
FordCoppola
Coppola(USA:
(USA:Paramount
ParamountPictures,
Pictures,
Puzo,
1972).
1972).
Runyon,Damon.
Damon.AASlight
SlightCase
CaseofofMurder.
Murder.Directed
DirectedbybyLloyd
LloydBacon
Bacon(USA:
(USA:First
FirstNational
National
Runyon,
Pictures,1938).
1938).
Pictures,
Simpson,Wendy
Wendyand
andArthur
ArthurMarwick.
Marwick.The
TheSixties:
Sixties:Cultural
CulturalRevolution
RevolutionininBritain,
Britain,France,
France,
Simpson,
Italy,and
andthe
theUnited
UnitedStates
States(New
(NewYork:
York:Oxford
OxfordUniversity
UniversityPress,
Press,1998).
1998).
Italy,
forced
to present
a more
accurate
account
of contemporary
Italian-American
culture.
By
depiction
of depiction
Italian-American
filmculturally
characters.
Today’s
films
are
still replete
with
Italianof
Coppola’s
of realistic,
Italian-American
culture,
transcending
stereotypes,
and
understanding
Coppola’s
not as
a form
of entertainment,
but instead
as
aavehicle
cultural
American
characters
builtfilm
around
mobster
themes
andGodfather
violence,
however
filmsofare
positively
shaping
public
perceptions.
Overall,
The
served
as these
transition
innow
the
influence,
students
of American
cinematic
history
can
better
thereplete
importance
of The
forced
to present
a more
realistic,
culturally
accurate
account
ofdiscern
Italian-American
culture.
By
depiction
of
Italian-American
film
characters.
Today’s
films
are
still
with
ItalianGodfather characters
in shaping
America’s
understanding
Coppola’s
notperception
as
a formof
ofItalian-Americans.
entertainment,
but instead
as these
a vehicle
cultural
American
builtfilm
around
mobster
themes
and violence,
however
filmsofare
now
influence,
studentsa more
of American
betterofdiscern
the importance
of The
forced
to present
realistic,cinematic
culturally history
accuratecan
account
Italian-American
culture.
By
14
Ibid., p. 14.in shaping
Godfather
America’s
understanding
Coppola’s
film notperception
as a formof
ofItalian-Americans.
entertainment, but instead as a vehicle of cultural
34
influence, students of American cinematic history can better discern the importance of The
14
Ibid., p. 14.in shaping America’s perception of Italian-Americans.
Godfather
14
!!
3535
34
Ibid., p. 14.
34
34
35
The Ancien Regime and the Revolutions of France The Ancien Regime and the Revolutions of France Ryan Hellinger Ryan Hellinger Revolutions of france
Revolutions of france
The Ancien Regime and the Revolutions of France Conventional
wisdom
tells students of the French Revolution that the fighting in 1789 began as
Ryan Hellinger
aristocracy treated peasant and urban laborers with contempt. The poor lacked voting privileges,
aristocracy treated peasant and urban laborers with contempt. The poor lacked voting privileges,
Conventional wisdom tells students of the French Revolution that the fighting in 1789 began as
an attempt to oust the monarchy and grant ordinary French men and women political influence
legal representation, and an objective and fair legal system. French laws discriminated against
legal representation, and an objective and fair legal system. French laws discriminated against
an attempt to oust the monarchy and grant ordinary French men and women political influence
and
economic opportunity. The French aimed for social and political institutions comparable to
Conventional
tells students
of the
French
that the institutions
fighting in 1789
began as
and
economic wisdom
opportunity.
The French
aimed
for Revolution
social and political
comparable
to
those achieved in the American Revolution just thirteen years earlier. Unfortunately, the
an attempt
to oust
grant ordinary
French men
women Unfortunately,
political influence
those
achieved
in the
themonarchy
Americanand
Revolution
just thirteen
yearsand
earlier.
the
Revolution did not bring about transformational political and economic changes for ordinary
and
economic
The French
aimed for political
social andand
political
institutions
to
Revolution
didopportunity.
not bring about
transformational
economic
changescomparable
for ordinary
French people. Rather it brought a protracted struggle over the makeup of domestic civil and
those
the it
American
thirteen
earlier.of Unfortunately,
the
Frenchachieved
people. in
Rather
brought aRevolution
protracted just
struggle
over years
the makeup
domestic civil and
political institutions. Political power in France oscillated between monarchies, empires and
Revolution
did not bring
about power
transformational
economic
changes empires
for ordinary
political
institutions.
Political
in France political
oscillatedand
between
monarchies,
and
republics until liberal political institutions were finally established in the mid-twentieth century.
French
people.
Ratherpolitical
it brought
a protracted
over the makeup
of domestic civil
and
republics
until liberal
institutions
were struggle
finally established
in the mid-twentieth
century.
The French Revolution brought significant alterations to France’s political structure, but it was
political
institutions.
in France
oscillated
between
monarchies,
empires
and
The
French
RevolutionPolitical
brought power
significant
alterations
to France’s
political
structure,
but it was
not until the twentieth century that France truly accomplished the goals of 1789. In short, the
republics
untiltwentieth
liberal political
established
the mid-twentieth
century.
not until the
century institutions
that Francewere
trulyfinally
accomplished
the in
goals
of 1789. In short,
the
revolutionaries of 1789 achieved a pyrrhic victory, and generations would pass before Liberté,
The
French Revolution
France’s political
butLiberté,
it was
revolutionaries
of 1789 brought
achievedsignificant
a pyrrhic alterations
victory, andtogenerations
would structure,
pass before
Égalité et Fraternité were realized. not
untiletthe
twentieth
century
that France truly accomplished the goals of 1789. In short, the
Égalité
Fraternité
were
realized.
The French Revolution was caused by a myriad of social, economic and political crises.
revolutionaries
of 1789
achieved
victory,
and of
generations
would pass
before Liberté,
The French
Revolution
wasa pyrrhic
caused by
a myriad
social, economic
and political
crises.
During its early stages, the Revolution lacked leadership and clear objective. Under the Ancien
lacked leadership and clear objective. Under the Ancien
Égalité et
were
During
itsFraternité
early stages,
therealized.
Revolution
Regime, the Third Estate endured centuries of exploitation at the hands of the aristocracy. The
Revolution
was
caused of
byexploitation
a myriad ofatsocial,
economic
political The
crises.
Regime,The
the French
Third Estate
endured
centuries
the hands
of the and
aristocracy.
the lower class. Peasants accused of a crimes were assumed guilty, were not afforded a defense,
the lower class. Peasants accused of a crimes were assumed guilty, were not afforded a defense,
During its early stages, the Revolution lacked leadership and clear objective. Under the Ancien
______________________________
Regime,
the Third Estate endured centuries of exploitation at the hands of the aristocracy. The
______________________________
Ryan Hellinger ‘18, plans to study medicine in university. Ryan Hellinger ‘18, plans to study medicine in university. ______________________________
36
36
Ryan Hellinger ‘18, plans to study medicine in university.
and were forced to pay exorbitant taxes and penalties. The government arbitrarily seized peasant
and were forced to pay exorbitant taxes and penalties. The government arbitrarily seized peasant
property with regularity and without due process or adjudication.11
property with regularity and without due process or adjudication.
Conflicts between the aristocracy and the commoners at the end of the eighteenth century
Conflicts between the aristocracy and the commoners at the end of the eighteenth century
were aggravated by the mishandling of the domestic economy. King Louis XVI brought France
were aggravated by the mishandling of the domestic economy. King Louis XVI brought France
to its economic knees through a series of poor financial policies, in particular French engagement
to its economic knees through a series of poor financial policies, in particular French engagement
in the American Revolution. Louis XVI dispatched monetary and military aid to the Americans.
in the American Revolution. Louis XVI dispatched monetary and military aid to the Americans.
The decision proved fatal for the French economy since it dramatically increased the national
The decision proved fatal for the French economy since it dramatically increased the national
debt. Financial commitments to the American cause increased economic and political problems
debt. Financial commitments to the American cause increased economic and political problems
in France.22 King Louis XVI tried to remedy the economic troubles by raising taxes, demanding
in France. King Louis XVI tried to remedy the economic troubles by raising taxes, demanding
an increase in harvests, and increasing the price of common goods. Because of the aristocrats’
an increase in harvests, and increasing the price of common goods. Because of the aristocrats’
power and wealth and the King’s fear that they would revolt, the wealthy were excluded from the
power and wealth and the King’s fear that they would revolt, the wealthy were excluded from the
taxes. Thus only the middle class and poor were taxed. Raising taxes worsened the social and
taxes. Thus only the middle class and poor were taxed. Raising taxes worsened the social and
political environment, as the poor were burdened with onerous tax obligations which they were
political environment, as the poor were burdened with onerous tax obligations which they were
incapable of meeting.3
incapable of meeting.3
1
1
N.A., "France Before the Revolution of 1789.”
N.A., "France Before the Revolution of 1789.”
http://www.civicsandcitizenship.edu.au/verve/_resources/FQ2_France_before_Revolution.pdf.
2http://www.civicsandcitizenship.edu.au/verve/_resources/FQ2_France_before_Revolution.pdf.
2 Joseph T. Logan, “Battle of Yorktown.” http://www.theamericanrevolution.org/battledetail.aspx?battle=29.
3 Joseph T. Logan, “Battle of Yorktown.” http://www.theamericanrevolution.org/battledetail.aspx?battle=29.
3 Laura Boyle, "Louis XVI: Last King of France.” http://www.janeausten.co.uk/louis-xvi-last-king-of-france/.
Laura Boyle, "Louis XVI: Last King of France.” http://www.janeausten.co.uk/louis-xvi-last-king-of-france/.
37
37
36
36
37
Revolutions of France
Revolutions of France
Principles of social science
Revolutions of France
The King’s policy regarding the harvest proved equally flawed. He unwisely increased
the harvest when a great famine plagued the country. This then caused the harvest to diminish.4
With the increase in taxes and food shortages, the average citizen could no longer afford food.
King Louis XVI’s careless choices proved him as an unreliable and careless leader and the
French grew wary of his decisions as things continued to get worse.5 In 1789 the peasantry and urban poor incited riots across France. This period became
known as the Great Fear.6
The Great Fear provoked economic fear rather than political fear,
however. Work was difficult to find and food prices, tied to peasant agriculture, soared. The
rebellions were sparked when news spread of the King’s attempt to prevent the meeting of the
Third Estate. The King yielded to the demands of the Third Estate and recognized the authority
of the National Assembly, and for a moment ordinary French men and women were given voice
in government.7 By July conditions in Paris had deteriorated as revolutionary sentiment fueled
by alcohol and hunger spread through the city. The storming of the Bastille on July 14 unleashed
an unprecedented wave of revolutionary violence. The fall of the Bastille was followed closely
by the march on Versailles. The King and Queen were forced from their palace
4
N.A., "Causes of the French Revolution." https://classes.lt.unt.edu/Fall_2012/CECS_5110_050/jls0740/
Image%20and%20Text.html.
5
Marian Anderson, "The French Revolution." http://alphahistory.com/frenchrevolution/.
6
N.A., "The Great Fear." http://alphahistory.com/frenchrevolution/great-fear/.
7
Heather Campbell, "Tennis Court Oath," Encyclopedia Britannica.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/587409/Tennis-Court-Oath.
38
38
residence and brought back to Paris, where the couple was essentially placed under house arrest,
residence and brought back to Paris, where the couple was essentially placed under house arrest,
8
residence
andtobrought
back to Paris,
where
the couple
arrest,
These
events
markedwas
the essentially
beginning placed
of the under
Frenchhouse
Revolution
held hostage
the revolution.
held hostage to the revolution.8 These events marked the beginning of the French Revolution
8
These
held
hostage
revolution.
and served
as to
an the
emblem
of hope for
the events
country.marked the beginning of the French Revolution
and served as an emblem of hope for the country.
and served
an emblem
of hope
for the
Theas
arrest
of the royal
couple
wascountry.
a turning point in the Revolution for it marked the end
The arrest of the royal couple was a turning point in the Revolution for it marked the end
The arrest
of the royal
was apeople
turningarrested,
point in imprisoned,
the Revolution
it marked
the end
of the King’s
resistance.
Thecouple
common
andfor
tried
the King
and
of the King’s resistance. The common people arrested, imprisoned, and tried the King and
of
the King’s
resistance. a The
common
people inarrested,
and tried
the King and
Queen
with “committing
multitude
of crimes
order toimprisoned,
establish tyranny
by destroying
its
Queen with “committing a multitude of crimes in order to establish tyranny by destroying its
9
Queen
“committing
a multitude
crimes inin order
establish
tyranny
by of
destroying
its
liberty.”with
They
were found
guilty andofexecuted
1793.to The
common
people
France had
liberty.”9 They were found guilty and executed in 1793. The common people of France had
liberty.”9 They
were found
guilty and
executed
in 1793. The common people of France had
successfully
destroyed
the monarchy,
at least
temporarily.
successfully destroyed the monarchy, at least temporarily.
successfully
destroyed of
thethe
monarchy,
at least
temporarily.
The execution
King was
a symbolic
victory for the most radical factions of the
The execution of the King was a symbolic victory for the most radical factions of the
The but
execution
of fulfill
the King
a symbolic
for theAnd
most
factions
of the
revolution,
it did not
the was
objectives
of thevictory
Revolution.
theradical
execution
did not
by
revolution, but it did not fulfill the objectives of the Revolution. And the execution did not by
revolution,
but itthe
didrevolutionary
not fulfill thechaos.
objectives
of the1793
Revolution.
the execution
by
any means quell
Between
and 1794And
the so-called
Reigndid
of not
Terror
any means quell the revolutionary chaos. Between 1793 and 1794 the so-called Reign of Terror
any
means quell
the revolutionary
chaos. Between
1793
and 1794
so-called
Reign of
perpetuated
a culture
of fear and violence
throughout
France.
Thethe
Jacobins
ascended
to Terror
power
perpetuated a culture of fear and violence throughout France. The Jacobins ascended to power
perpetuated
a culture
of Revolution,
fear and violence
throughout
France. The
Jacobins ascended
power
during this stage
of the
and their
leader, Maximilien
Robespierre,
made wartoagainst
during this stage of the Revolution, and their leader, Maximilien Robespierre, made war against
during
stage ofofthe
Revolution, and their
leader, Maximilien
Robespierre,
war against
anyonethis
suspected
counter-revolutionary
sympathies.
The Jacobins
employedmade
the guillotine
in
anyone suspected of counter-revolutionary sympathies. The Jacobins employed the guillotine in
anyone
suspected offashion,
counter-revolutionary
employed
guillotine
in
an indiscriminate
instilling fear sympathies.
in the heartsThe
of Jacobins
all French
citizensthethrough
their
an indiscriminate fashion, instilling fear in the hearts of all French citizens through their
an indiscriminate
fashion,
instilling
fear insquares.
the hearts
of all
citizens
their
execution
of suspected
dissidents
in public
During
the French
Reign of
Terror,through
the Jacobins
execution of suspected dissidents in public squares. During the Reign of Terror, the Jacobins
execution
of suspected
in public
During
Reign
of Terror,
thea Jacobins
arrested 300,000
people dissidents
and executed
17,000,squares.
with many
more the
dying
in prison
without
trial.10
arrested 300,000 people and executed 17,000, with many more dying in prison without a trial.10
arrested 300,000 people and executed 17,000, with many more dying in prison without a trial.10
8
N.A., "Storming of Bastille." http://www.bl.uk/learning/timeline/item106472.html.
"Storming
N.A., "The
Trial of
andBastille."
Executionhttp://www.bl.uk/learning/timeline/item106472.html.
of King Louis XVI." http://www.historyguide.org/intellect/louis_trial.html.
"The
Trial
and
Execution
of
King Louis
XVI." http://www.historyguide.org/intellect/louis_trial.html.
N.A.,"Storming
"Reign
of of
Terror,
French
History."
Encyclopedia
Britannica.
N.A.,
Bastille."
http://www.bl.uk/learning/timeline/item106472.html.
10
9 N.A., "Reign of Terror, French History." Encyclopedia Britannica.
N.A., "The Trial and Execution of King Louis XVI." http://www.historyguide.org/intellect/louis_trial.html.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/588360/Reign-of-Terror.
10
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/588360/Reign-of-Terror.
N.A., "Reign of Terror, French History." Encyclopedia Britannica.
39
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/588360/Reign-of-Terror.
39
98
9
810
N.A.,
39
39
as well as revolutionaries across Europe. In 1804, he crowned himself Emperor, founding the
First Empire. Napoleon brought economic stability to France.13 He established the Napoleonic
Code, abolished feudal institutions and introduced important liberal reforms.14
Principles of social science
REVOLUTIONS OF France
The Revolution contributed to years of French national instability, without the successful
Principles of social science
realization of revolutionary aims. The failure to achieve basic economic and political stability
led to continued
unrest contributed
and class conflict.
the mid-1790s
fell under
thethe
conservative
The Revolution
to yearsBy
of French
nationalFrance
instability,
without
successful
rule of theoffive-member
members
of the
Directory
rarely
one
realization
revolutionaryDirectory.
aims. TheThe
failure
to achieve
basic
economic
and agreed
politicalwith
stability
another,
instead they
focused
on the
retention
personal
political
power.
Throughout
the 1790s
led
to continued
unrest
and class
conflict.
Byofthe
mid-1790s
France
fell under
the conservative
France
within its own
borders as
well
as on foreign
in Europe
and agreed
Africa. with
Internal
rule
of fought
the five-member
Directory.
The
members
of thesoil
Directory
rarely
one
struggles,instead
the ineffectiveness
and
the financial
burdens
withthe
the1790s
costs
another,
they focused of
onthe
theDirectory,
retention of
personal
political
power.associated
Throughout
11
of
foreign
warswithin
worsened
conditions
France.
France
fought
its own
bordersinas
well as on foreign soil in Europe and Africa. Internal
Thetheabove
listed failures
precipitatedandthe
of Napoleon
Bonaparte.withNapoleon
struggles,
ineffectiveness
of the Directory,
therise
financial
burdens associated
the costs
11
recognized
the lack
of organized
political
leadership
in France and he seized the opportunity to
of foreign wars
worsened
conditions
in France.
wrestle The
control
of government.
Napoleon
was athe
close
of the group
that overthrew
the
above
listed failures
precipitated
riseaffiliate
of Napoleon
Bonaparte.
Napoleon
Directory and
it with a three-member
Consulate.
Bonaparte
becametheFirst
Consult of
recognized
the replaced
lack of organized
political leadership
in France
and he seized
opportunity
to
France in
1799.ofOnce
in power,Napoleon
he reorganized
army
and conquered
almost
of Western
wrestle
control
government.
was a the
close
affiliate
of the group
that all
overthrew
the
Europe.
marched
army from France
to Russia,
dismantling
theFirst
vestiges
of the
Directory Napoleon
and replaced
it withhisa three-member
Consulate.
Bonaparte
became
Consult
of
12
Ancien
won the
and admiration
of the French
people,
France Regime
in 1799.along
Oncetheinway.
power,Napoleon
he reorganized
therespect
army and
conquered almost
all of Western
Europe. Napoleon marched his army from France to Russia, dismantling the vestiges of the
Ancien Regime along the way.
12
Napoleon won the respect and admiration of the French people,
as well as revolutionaries across Europe. In 1804, he crowned himself Emperor, founding the
Still, Napoleon ruled as a military dictator, and his connection to the revolutionary
First Empire. Napoleon brought economic stability to France.13 He established the Napoleonic
as well as revolutionaries across Europe. In 1804, he crowned himself Emperor, founding the
principles of 1789 remains at best ambiguous. His ambitions for continental
empire proved his
Code, abolished feudal institutions and introduced important liberal
reforms.14
First Empire. Napoleon brought economic stability to France.13 He established the Napoleonic
demise. Napoleon’s enemies, mainly Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria, united to defeat him
REVOLUTIONS
OF France
Code, abolished feudal institutions 15
and introduced important liberal
reforms.14
first at Leipzig then at Waterloo.
The Allied Nations met at Vienna in 1815 to quell the
REVOLUTIONS
France
Still, Napoleon ruled as a military dictator, and his connection
to the OF
revolutionary
momentum of the Revolution, restore the monarchy under Louis XVIII, and return France and
principles of 1789 remains at best ambiguous. His ambitions for continental empire proved his
Napoleon
ruledconditions.
as a military
andofhis
the dealt
revolutionary
much ofStill,
Europe
to pre-1789
Thedictator,
high ideals
theconnection
Revolutiontowere
a serious
demise. Napoleon’s enemies, mainly Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria, united to defeat him
principles
of 1789von
remains
at best ambiguous.
His ambitions
for XVIII
continental
his
blow by Klemens
Metternich’s
principle of legitimacy.
Louis
ruled empire
for nineproved
years and
first at Leipzig then at Waterloo.15 The Allied Nations met at Vienna in 1815 to quell the
demise.
Napoleon’s
mainly X
Britain,
Russia,
and Austria,
united
to defeat
was succeeded
by hisenemies,
brother Charles
in 1824.
The Prussia
French never
accepted
Charles’
rule, him
and
momentum of the Revolution, restore
the monarchy under Louis XVIII, and return France and
15
first
Leipzig
at Waterloo.
Nationshostile
met atto Vienna
in 1815In to
quell
the
by theat late
1820sthen
revolutionary
causesThe
grewAllied
increasingly
the monarch.
1830
rebels
much of Europe to pre-1789 conditions. The high ideals of the Revolution were dealt a serious
momentum
of the Revolution,
the yet
monarchy
under
Louis XVIII,
and returnCharles
France was
and
fortified barricades
in Paris andrestore
prepared
again for
revolutionary
insurrection.
blow by Klemens von Metternich’s principle of legitimacy. Louis XVIII ruled for nine years and
much
to pre-1789
conditions.
The highCharles’
ideals ofcousin
the Revolution
were
a serious
forcedoftoEurope
resign later
that year.
Louis Philippe,
ascended to
thedealt
throne
on the
was succeeded by his brother Charles X in 1824. The French never accepted Charles’ rule, and
blow
by Klemens
Metternich’s
of legitimacy.
XVIII ruled
years and
promise
of liberalvon
reforms.
Louis principle
Philippe ruled
under theLouis
title Citizen
Kingfor
in nine
an attempt
to
by the late 1820s revolutionary causes grew increasingly hostile to the monarch. In 1830 rebels
was succeeded
by hisconsent
brotherof
Charles
X in 1824. The French never accepted Charles’ rule, and
illustrate
the masses’
his rule.
fortified barricades in Paris and prepared yet again for revolutionary insurrection. Charles was
by the late 1820s revolutionary causes grew increasingly hostile to the monarch. In 1830 rebels
forced to resign later that year. Louis Philippe, Charles’ cousin ascended to the throne on the
fortified barricades in Paris and prepared yet again for revolutionary insurrection. Charles was
promise of liberal reforms. Louis Philippe ruled under the title Citizen King in an attempt to
forced to resign later that year. Louis Philippe, Charles’ cousin ascended to the throne on the
illustrate the masses’ consent of his rule.
13
N.A., "Louisiana
Purchase,
1803 Louis
- 1801–1829
- Milestones
- Officethe
of the
Historian."
promise
of liberal
reforms.
Philippe
ruled under
title
Citizen King in an attempt
https://history.state.gov/milestones/1801-1829/louisiana-purchase.
14
N.A., “Napoleon
Crowned
Emperor.”
illustrate
the masses’
consent
of his rule.
15
N.A., "Napoleon Bonaparte." http://www.history.com/topics/napoleon; Finnemore, “France: Peeps at History.
The Reign of Terror and the Rise of Napoleon.”
41
11
N.A., “Napoleon Crowned Emperor.” http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/napoleon-crowned-emperor.
John Finnemore, “France: Peeps at History. The Reign of Terror and the Rise of Napoleon.”
http://www.mainlesson.com/display.php?author=finnemore&book=france&story=terror.
12
11
40
N.A., “Napoleon Crowned Emperor.” http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/napoleon-crowned-emperor.
John Finnemore, “France: Peeps at History. The Reign of Terror and the Rise of Napoleon.”
http://www.mainlesson.com/display.php?author=finnemore&book=france&story=terror.
12
40
13
N.A., "Louisiana Purchase, 1803 - 1801–1829 - Milestones - Office of the Historian."
https://history.state.gov/milestones/1801-1829/louisiana-purchase.
14
N.A., “Napoleon Crowned Emperor.”
13
15 N.A., "Louisiana Purchase, 1803 - 1801–1829 - Milestones - Office of the Historian."
N.A., "Napoleon Bonaparte." http://www.history.com/topics/napoleon; Finnemore, “France: Peeps at History.
https://history.state.gov/milestones/1801-1829/louisiana-purchase.
The Reign of Terror and the Rise of Napoleon.”
14
N.A., “Napoleon Crowned Emperor.”
41
15
N.A., "Napoleon Bonaparte." http://www.history.com/topics/napoleon; Finnemore, “France: Peeps at History.
The Reign of Terror and the Rise of Napoleon.”
41
40
41
to
agricultural depression, negatively affecting the lower bourgeoisie. Louis Philippe attempted to
the foundations for economic prosperity. Still, Louis Napoleon, like his predecessors, failed to
strengthen France’s position in Europe without improving the condition of ordinary Frenchmen.
allow the French their desired social freedoms, political liberties, and most importantly, peace.
Louis Philippe, however, did not fulfill his promises, and he fell well short of advancing
Louis Philippe, however, did not fulfill his promises, and he fell well short of advancing
PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL
SCIENCE
the principles of 1789.16
During his reign, 1830-1848, France passed through an industrial and
16
the principles of 1789. During his reign, 1830-1848, France passed through an industrial and
agricultural depression, negatively affecting the lower bourgeoisie. Louis Philippe attempted to
agricultural
depression,from
negatively
affecting
the
lower
bourgeoisie.
LouisLouis
Philippe
attempted
to
This incited
the lower
class
andhis
the
petit
bourgeoisie.
Philippe
did not
Louis hostility
Philippe, however,
did not
fulfill
promises,
and he fell well
short
of advancing
strengthen France’s position in Europe without improving the condition of ordinary Frenchmen.
strengthen
France’s
position
in Europeinwithout
improving
the rule
condition
of ordinary drawn
Frenchmen.
16
improve
social
political
equality
France
and underFrance
his
the country
further
the principles
ofand
1789.
During
his reign,
1830-1848,
passed
throughwas
an industrial
and
Prussians ̶ would boost his approval. The strategy backfired, however, when the Prussians drove
Revolutions of france
their army into Paris and captured the city along with Louis Napoleon in 1870. Despite the
from prosperity
and political
stability.
By 1848,
again filled
the Parisian
agricultural
depression,
negatively
affecting
the revolution
lower bourgeoisie.
Louis
Philippeair.
attempted to
defeat to the Prussians and the economic turmoil of the 1860s, Louis Napoleon did help establish
During
theboost
Thirdhis
Republic,
the backfired,
principles of
1789 were
finally
accomplished.
Prussians
̶ would
approval.1870-1940,
The strategy
however,
when
the Prussians
drove
the foundations for economic prosperity. Still, Louis Napoleon, like his predecessors, failed to
Republican
reforms
the secularization
of the
system in
the 1905
their army into
Parisincluded
and captured
the city along
witheducation
Louis Napoleon
in 1882,
1870. and
Despite
the
allow the French their desired social freedoms, political liberties, and most importantly, peace.
Separation
Church and
legislation.
The of
1905
established
the religious
neutrality
of
defeat to theofPrussians
andState
the economic
turmoil
the law
1860s,
Louis Napoleon
did help
establish
Under
Louis position
PhilippeinFrance
failed
to establish
stable
institutions.
nephew of
strengthen
France’s
Europe
without
improving
the liberal
condition
of ordinaryThe
Frenchmen.
the
state, the freedom
of religious
exercise,
withdraw
of public
from religious
the foundations
for economic
prosperity.
Still,the
Louis
Napoleon,
like hisfunding
predecessors,
failed to
Napoleon
Bonaparte,
Louisthe
Napoleon,
succeeded
Philippe and Louis
introduced
the did
Second
This
incited
hostility from
lower class
and theLouis
petit bourgeoisie.
Philippe
not
This incited hostility from the lower class and the petit bourgeoisie. Louis Philippe did not
17
PRINCIPLES
SOCIAL
SCIENCE
In OF
1852,
Louis equality
Napoleon
declared
emperor
of France,
ending
short-lived
Republic.social
improve
and
political
in was
France
and under
his rule
the country
wasthe
drawn
further
improve social and political equality in France and under his rule the country was drawn further
republic.
Louisand
Napoleon
political
stability
from
prosperity
politicalbrought
stability.prosperity
By 1848,and
revolution
again
filled to
theFrance.
Parisian He
air. promoted
from prosperity and political stability. By 1848, revolution again filled the Parisian air.
This incited
hostility
from therailroads,
lower class
the
petit of
bourgeoisie. industry
Louis Philippe
did not
public
works,
construction
andtoand
other
means
Under Louis
PhilippeofFrance
failed
establish
stable furthering
liberal institutions. and
Theagriculture.
nephew of
Under Louis Philippe France failed to establish stable liberal institutions. The nephew of
improve
social and
political
andmetropolis,
under his rule
the countryFrench
was drawn further
Louis
Napoleon
rebuilt
muchequality
of ParisinasFrance
asucceeded
modern
he encouraged
Napoleon Bonaparte,
Louis
Napoleon,
Louis Philippe
and introduced investment,
the Second
Napoleon Bonaparte, Louis Napoleon, succeeded Louis Philippe and introduced the Second
18
from
prosperity
and
political
stability.
By
1848,
revolution
again
filled
the
Parisian
air.
17 price of bread, and constructed housing projects for workers.
Napoleon
lowered
In 1852, Louis Napoleon was declared emperor of France, endingLouis
the short-lived
Republic.the
Republic.17 In 1852, Louis Napoleon was declared emperor of France, ending the short-lived
Under Louis
Philippe
France
failed toifestablish
liberal
institutions.
The nephew
of
achieved
prosperity
for France,
only
forstable
a short
time.
the 1860’s
France’s
republic. peace
Louis and
Napoleon
brought
prosperity
and political
stability
toBy
France.
He promoted
republic. Louis Napoleon brought prosperity and political stability to France. He promoted
Napoleon was
Bonaparte,
Louis Economic
Napoleon, succeededofLouis
Philippe
introduced the
Second
economy
in decline.
the of
1860s
hadand
a industry
particularly
devastating
public
works, construction
of railroads,stagnation
and other means
furthering
and agriculture.
public works,
construction of railroads, and other means of furthering industry and agriculture.
17
1852,class.
Louis Napoleon
was declared
emperor
of France,
ending great
the short-lived
Republic.
impact
on theInmiddle
Napoleon
hopedmetropolis,
a war
against
of France’s
rivals ̶ the
Louis
Napoleon
rebuilt muchLouis
of Paris
as a modern
he one
encouraged
French investment,
Louis Napoleon rebuilt much of Paris as a modern metropolis, he encouraged French investment,
republic. Louis Napoleon brought prosperity and political stability to France.
He promoted
the
price
of
bread,
and
Louis Napoleon
lowered
constructed housing projects for workers.18
18
16
lowered
the price ofBiography
bread, and
constructed
housing projects for workers. Louis Napoleon
N.A., "Louis-Philippe,
King
of France." Encyclopedia
public
works, construction
of -railroads,
and other means Britannica.
of furthering industry and agriculture.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/349203/Louis-Philippe.
achieved
peace
and
prosperity
for
France,
if
only for a short time. By the 1860’s France’s
17
Finnemore,
“France:
at History.
Reign ofifTerror
of Napoleon.”
achieved
peace
andPeeps
prosperity
forTheFrance,
onlyand
fortheaRise
short
time. By the 1860’s France’s
18
Louis
rebuilt much
of Paris as a modern metropolis, he encouraged French investment,
N.A.,Napoleon
"Louis Bonaparte."
http://www.biography.com/people/louis-bonaparte-9218602.
economy was in decline. Economic stagnation of the 1860s had a particularly devastating
economy was in decline. Economic stagnation of the 1860s had a particularly
devastating
lowered the price of bread, and constructed housing
projects for workers.18 Louis Napoleon
42
impact
on
the
middle
class.
Louis
Napoleon
hoped
a
war
against
one
of
France’s
great
rivals ̶ the
impact on the middle class. Louis Napoleon hoped a war against one of France’s great rivals ̶ the
achieved peace and prosperity for France, if only for a short time. By the 1860’s France’s
19
The Third peace.
Republic
institutions,
and their
a ban
on religious
displayspolitical
in public
buildings.
allow
the French
desired
social freedoms,
liberties,
and most importantly,
PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
16
N.A.,
"Louis-Philippe,
was
in
decline.
Biography
Economic
- King of France."
Encyclopedia
economy
stagnation
of the Britannica.
1860s had a particularly devastating
16
N.A., "Louis-Philippe, Biography - King of France." Encyclopedia Britannica.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/349203/Louis-Philippe.
17
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/349203/Louis-Philippe.
Finnemore,
“France:
Peeps
at History.
Reign ofhoped
Terror and
the against
Rise of Napoleon.”
impact
on the
middle
class.
Louis The
Napoleon
a war
one of France’s
17
18 Finnemore, “France: Peeps at History. The Reign of Terror and the Rise of Napoleon.”
N.A., "Louis Bonaparte." http://www.biography.com/people/louis-bonaparte-9218602.
18
N.A., "Louis Bonaparte." http://www.biography.com/people/louis-bonaparte-9218602.
42
16
42
Britannica.
N.A., "Louis-Philippe, Biography - King of France." Encyclopedia
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/349203/Louis-Philippe.
17
18
Finnemore, “France: Peeps at History. The Reign of Terror and the Rise of Napoleon.”
N.A., "Louis Bonaparte." http://www.biography.com/people/louis-bonaparte-9218602.
42
42
great rivals ̶ the
Revolutions of france
transformed
France
into aRepublic,
modern civil
and political
society. of 1789 were finally accomplished.
During
the Third
1870-1940,
the principles
france
In thereforms
post-WWII
era, republican-liberal
gatheredRevolutions
pace.
Republican
included
the secularization reforms
of the education
systemFor
in instance,
1882, of
andthe
theFrench
1905
won
the right
to directly
president.The
During
France
its relations
Separation
of Church
andelect
Statethe
legislation.
1905 this
law period,
established
the stabilized
religious neutrality
of
During
the Third
Republic,
1870-1940,
principles
of 1789 the
were
finally accomplished.
with
former
including
Britain.
Today,the
France
has achieved
political,
economic
and
the state,
theenemies
freedom
of religious
exercise,
the
withdraw
of public funding
from
religious
Republican
reforms
included
the its
secularization
offor.
the20education
system in 1882, and the 1905
buildings.19 The Third Republic
social
freedoms
people
fought
institutions,
andthat
a for
bancenturies
on religious
displays
in public
Separation
Churchfought
and State
The1789
1905for
lawLiberté,
established
the religious
neutralityThe
of
TheofFrance
French
the legislation.
revolution
of
Égalité
et Fraternité.
transformed
into a modern
civil and political
society.
the state, the
freedom
religious
exercise,
the withdraw
public monarch,
funding from
religious
revolution
achieved
one of
ofera,
their
goals—the
overthrow
the of
Bourbon
but the
In the
post-WWII
republican-liberal
reformsofgathered
pace. For instance,
the French
French
19
The
ThirdNapoleon’s
Republic
institutions, andto afulfill
ban on others.
religiousFrance
displays
in public
buildings.
would
suffered
through
the France
Reign of
Terror,
won thestruggle
right to directly the
elect the president.
During this
period,
stabilized
its relations
transformed France into a modern civil and political society. with
former
enemies
including
Britain. Today, France has achieved the political, economic and
19
N.A., "France: The Third Republic and the 1905 Law." http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/france-theIn the post-WWII era, republican-liberal reforms gathered pace. For instance, the French
third-republic-and-the-1905-law-of-em-laicite-em.
social
freedoms that for centuries its people fought for.20 20
N.A., "Fourth Republic, French History." http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/215257/Fourth-Republic.
won the right to directly elect the president. During
this period, France stabilized its relations
43
The French fought the revolution of 1789 for Liberté, Égalité et Fraternité. The
with former enemies including Britain. Today, France has achieved the political, economic and
revolution achieved one of their goals—the overthrow of the Bourbon monarch, but the French
social freedoms that for centuries its people fought for.20 would struggle to fulfill the others. France suffered through the Reign of Terror, Napoleon’s
The French fought the revolution of 1789 for Liberté, Égalité et Fraternité. The
19
N.A., "France:
The Third
the 1905 Law."
http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/france-therevolution
achieved
oneRepublic
of theirandgoals—the
overthrow
of the Bourbon monarch, but the French
third-republic-and-the-1905-law-of-em-laicite-em.
20
N.A., "Fourth Republic, French History." http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/215257/Fourth-Republic.
would struggle to fulfill the others. France suffered
through the Reign of Terror, Napoleon’s
43
19
N.A., "France: The Third Republic and the 1905 Law." http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/france-thethird-republic-and-the-1905-law-of-em-laicite-em.
20
N.A., "Fourth Republic, French History." http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/215257/Fourth-Republic.
43
43
experienced generations of disappointment. The French Revolution of 1789 initiated significant
change to France’s social and political environment, it was not until the post-WWII years that
Revolutions of
reign, subsequent monarchies, another Napoleon emperor, republics and foreign occupations.
Principles of social science
france
Revolutions of
france
21
Only after the Fifth Republic, established in 1958, were all the objectives planned in 1789 finally
France accomplished the goals of the revolution: peace, prosperity, and liberal-republican
21
reign,
subsequent
monarchies,
republicstheir
and political
foreign occupations.
fulfilled.
The French
fought another
for theirNapoleon
freedoms,emperor,
yet to achieve
reforms they
principles. The French Revolution of 1789 therefore, existed as a pyrrhic victory because its
Only
after thegenerations
Fifth Republic,
established in 1958,
were all
the objectives
planned
in 1789
finally
experienced
of disappointment.
The French
Revolution
of 1789
initiated
significant
objectives were not fulfilled until several generations later, and at a tremendous cost.
fulfilled.
The French
for their
freedoms, yet
to not
achieve
their
political years
reforms
change to France’s
socialfought
and political
environment,
it was
until the
post-WWII
thatthey
experienced generations of disappointment. The French Revolution of 1789 initiated significant
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Principles of social science
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N.A. "Napoleon Bonaparte." http://www.history.com/topics/napoleon.
N.A. "Louis-Philippe, Biography - King of France." Encyclopedia Britannica.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/349203/Louis-Philippe.
N.A. "Louis Bonaparte." http://www.biography.com/people/louis-bonaparte-9218602.
21
Finnemore, “France: Peeps at History. The Reign of Terror and The Rise of Napoleon.”
Principles of social science
44
21
Finnemore, “France: Peeps at History. The Reign of Terror and The Rise of Napoleon.”
44
44
N.A. "France: The Third Republic and the 1905 Law."
http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/france-the-third-republic-and-the-1905-law-of-emlaicite-em.
N.A. "Fourth Republic, French History," Encyclopedia
Britannica.
45
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/215257/Fourth-Republic.
N.A. "Fifth Republic," Encyclopedia Britannica.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/206499/Fifth-Republic.
N.A. "Napoleon Bonaparte." http://www.history.com/topics/napoleon.
N.A. "Louis-Philippe,
- King of The
France."
Encyclopedia
experienced
generations Biography
of disappointment.
French
RevolutionBritannica.
of 1789 initiated significant
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/349203/Louis-Philippe.
change to France’s social and political environment, it was not until the post-WWII years that
N.A. "Louis Bonaparte." http://www.biography.com/people/louis-bonaparte-9218602.
Principles of social science
Principles of social science
The Cuban Embargo Act:
N.A. "France:
The Third
1905 Law."
France
accomplished
the Republic
goals of and
thethe
revolution:
peace, prosperity, and liberal-republican
http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/france-the-third-republic-and-the-1905-law-of-emlaicite-em. The French Revolution of 1789 therefore, existed as a pyrrhic victory because its
principles.
Political Economy After the Cold War
N.A. "Fourth
French
Encyclopedia
Britannica.
objectives
were Republic,
not fulfilled
until History,"
several generations
later,
and at a tremendous cost.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/215257/Fourth-Republic.
N.A. "Fifth Republic," Encyclopedia Britannica.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/206499/Fifth-Republic.
Grace Gilbert
On March 20, 2016 President Barak Obama became the first sitting president to visit Cuba since
1928. Obama anticipated the visit would serve as a symbolic gesture in the recently announced
policy of rapprochement between the United States and its neighbor, Cuba, just 90 miles away.
The principal point of contention between the United States and Cuba is the Cuban Embargo Act
of 1960. Congress imposed economic restrictions on Cuba that included curbs on travel between
the countries and limitations on commerce for all individuals under United States jurisdiction.1
The Obama administration has proposed to its counterparts in Havana various steps to open trade
lines, but the wheels of American and Cuban diplomacy spin slowly. Each President since 1960
has dealt with American-Cuban relations differently, creating inconsistencies throughout the
years, but almost all academics support the claim that the Embargo was a failure.
21
46
Finnemore, “France: Peeps at History. The Reign of Terror and The Rise of Napoleon.”
44
There are both vocal supporters and opponents to the embargo in the United States,
especially among the Cuban-American population in South Florida. Proponents argue that Cuba
has yet to meet America’s pre-set conditions required for lifting the embargo. These include
both Cuba’s transition toward more democratic political institutions as well as improvements in
human rights. Additionally, proponents argue that if the United States lifted the embargo
Grace Gilbert ‘17, plans to study medicine in university.
1
46
N.A., "Cuba Embargo - ProCon.org," ProCon.org Headlines. http:// www.cuba-embargo.procon.org.
47
47
Principles of social science
CUBAN embargo
without Cuba agreeing to these modifications, it would demonstrate political weakness on the
regime. By February, 1963Washington had banned all travel to Cuba. A few months later the
part of Washington.
Opponents, however, argue that the act should be lifted because the
Kennedy administration imposed the Cuban Assets Control Regulations as the comprehensive
liberalization of trade would surely promote political and social change in Cuba. Opponents also
mandate assessing sanctions that outlawed all financial transactions between Cuba and the
believe that trade restrictions against Cuba harm the United States economy.
United States.
The embargo has been the defining feature of the United States’ relationship with Cuba.
In the 1990s the embargo was strengthened with the 1992 Cuban Democracy Act and the
The United States and Cuba have experienced an unstable relationship since the Castro regime
Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity Act of 1996. These prohibited American businesses
took power in 1959. Antagonism between the two nations, however, has not always been the
from trading with Cuba and limited circulation of dollars on the island. The extent to which the
case.
In the late 1800’s relations with Cuba were positive, at least from the American
Cuban economy did decline was not a direct result of American action. Rather the fall of the
perspective. During this time American consumers purchased the majority of Cuba’s exports,
Soviet Union in 1991 and the curtailment of the variations of aid given from the USSR to Cuba
much it from Cuba’s established sugar and tobacco industries. 2 As industry boomed and
were the final impetus for the resulting economic crises Cubans experienced during the so-called
urbanization increased, Cuba also became a desired tourist destination for many Americans. By
“special period.”5
the 1950s Havana’s casinos and resorts were popular among American tourists.3
In the 1990s the Clinton administration initiated a moderate attempt to reconcile Cuban-
Relations between the United States and Cuba turned for the worse when former dictator
American policy. Travel bans were lifted and the United States reestablished an American office
Franjulica Bastita fled the island on December 31, 1958. Castro’s 26 of July Movement reached
in Havana. Clinton believed that the embargo was a “foolish, pandering failure” that ignored
Havana shortly after. Castro’s Marxist-inspired economic reforms severed relations with the
periodic immigration crisis and prohibited humanitarian aid deliveries after recurring natural
4
United States. Castro expropriated $1.8 billion in assets from American business interests in
disasters that devastated ordinary Cubans.6 In 1995 the Clinton Administration established the
1959. In October, 1960, President Eisenhower initiated the embargo against Cuba. Eisenhower
Cuban Migration Agreement, better known as “wet foot, dry foot” policy. It stated that Cuban
deployed a partial embargo on Cuban exports. He also closed the United States embassy in Cuba
immigrants found at sea would be redirected back to Cuba, but immigrants who reached land
and ended all diplomatic ties. Eisenhower initiated the infamous Bay of Pigs invasion operation,
would be permitted to remain in the United States. Then in 2001 Hurricane Michelle hit Cuba
which involved CIA-trained Cuban exiles attempting to initiate an insurgency against the Castro
2
N.A., "US Embargo Causing Crisis in Cuba," BMJ: British Medical Journal, vol. 307 (1993).
N.A., "Cuba Embargo - ProCon.org."
4
Remy Herrera, "US Embargo against Cuba: Urgent Need to Lift It," Economic and Political Weekly, no. 41 (2003),
pp. 4310-4312.
3
48
48
5
6
Ibid., pp. 4310-4312.
N.A., "Cuba Embargo - ProCon.org," ProCon.org Headlines.
49
49
Vatican representatives, the groups decided that restoration would proceed gradually. Regular
tourism would continue to be prohibited by America, but travel restrictions to and from the
Vatican representatives, the groups decided that restoration would proceed gradually. Regular
CUBAN embargo
Principles of social science
tourism would continue to be prohibited by America, but travel restrictions to and from the
and ravaged the country. For humanitarian reasons, the United States allowed for American food
United
and Cuba would
ease.decided
Cuban that
spiesrestoration
would be would
released.
AndCUBAN
plans
were
made
to
VaticanStates
representatives,
the groups
proceed
gradually.
Regular
embargo
companies to sell food to the island. America quickly became Cuba’s largest food supplier in
reopen the
American
embassy
in Havana.
In exchange,
the United
States to
convinced
to
tourism
would
continue
to be prohibited
by America,
but travel
restrictions
and fromHavana
the
2008.
United
Cuba would
ease. Cuban
spiesHouse
wouldbelieves
be released.
And
plans were
to
release States
dozensand
of political
prisoners.
The White
that the
embargo
was made
a policy
CUBAN embargo
The George W. Bush administration was not as reconciliatory as Clinton. Bush opposed
reopen
the American
embassy
In fix
exchange,
theinUnited
States but
convinced
Havana
to
that worked
previously
or was in
anHavana.
attempt to
problems
those years,
they now
believe
ties with Cuba and in fact attached harsher restrictions to the embargo, such as the restriction of
release
dozens
of political
prisoners.
The would
White be
House
thattoward
the embargo
was reforms.
a policy
commercial
exchange
between
the nations
morebelieves
conducive
democratic
United States and Cuba would ease. Cuban spies would be released. And plans were made to
that worked
was an
attempt
to fix problems
in list
those
but they of
now
believe
Morepreviously
recently, inor2015,
Cuba
was removed
from the
of years,
state sponsors
terrorism.
reopen the American embassy in Havana. In exchange, the United States convinced Havana to
commercial
exchange
between
the nations
would in
be amore
conducive
toward House,
democratic
On
July 1, 2015,
President
Obama
announced
speech
at the White
"Thereforms.
United
release dozens of political prisoners. The White House believes that the embargo was a policy
More
recently,
in 2015,reestablish
Cuba was diplomatic
removed from
the listwith
of state
sponsors of
of Cuba
terrorism.
States has
agreed
to formally
relations
the Republic
and
that worked previously or was an attempt to fix problems in those years, but they now believe
12
On Julyembassies
1, 2015, in
President
Obamacountries."
announced
in
the White House,
"Theflag
United
reopen
our respective
Asaa speech
sign of at
normalization,
the Cuban
was
commercial exchange between the nations would be more conducive toward democratic reforms.
States has
to formally
reestablish
relations
with
the for
Republic
of time
Cubasince
and
raised
overagreed
the country's
Washington,
DCdiplomatic
embassy on
July 20,
2015
the first
More recently, in 2015, Cuba was removed from the list of state sponsors of terrorism.
reopen embassies
in were
our respective
diplomatic
relations
severed 54countries."
years ago.1213 As a sign of normalization, the Cuban flag was
On July 1, 2015, President Obama announced in a speech at the White House, "The United
raised over
country's
Washington, DC
embassyand
on July
20, 2015
for thehas
firstcaptured
time since
The the
history
of Cuban-American
economic
diplomatic
relations
the
States has agreed to formally reestablish diplomatic relations with the Republic of Cuba and
diplomaticofrelations
were severed
54 years
ago.13 seminal Anatomy of a Failed Embargo: US
attention
historians.
Dona Rich
Kaplowitz
reopen embassies in our respective countries."12 As a sign of normalization, the Cuban flag was
Theagainst
historyCuba
of Cuban-American
economic policy.
and diplomatic
relations
hashistorians
capturedwho
the
Like most
academic
Sanctions
does not favor Washington
raised over the country's Washington, DC embassy on July 20, 2015 for the first time since
attention
of historians.
Dona Rich
Kaplowitz
seminalreminds
Anatomy
of a that
Failed
US
have written
on Cuban-American
relations,
Kaplowitz
readers
the Embargo:
embargo was
diplomatic relations were severed 54 years ago.13
Sanctions
against
does Castro,
not favor
policy.
Like
mostincredibly.
academic historians
who
initially placed
to Cuba
overthrow
andWashington
in this capacity
it has
failed
She concludes
The history of Cuban-American economic and diplomatic relations has captured the
have
written
on Cuban-American
relations, Kaplowitz
reminds readers
that theconsiderations.
embargo was
that the
negative
humanitarian consequences
have far outweighed
the political
attention of historians. Dona Rich Kaplowitz seminal Anatomy of a Failed Embargo: US
initially placed to overthrow Castro, and in this capacity it has failed incredibly. She concludes
12
Sanctions
against
Cuba
doesonnot
favor
Like most academic historians who
N.A., "Charting
a New
Course
Cuba,"
TheWashington
White House. policy.
https://www.whitehouse.gov/issues/foreignpolicy/cuba.
that
the
negative
humanitarian
consequences
have
far
outweighed
the political considerations.
13
N.A.,written
"Obama on
on U.S.
Embassy in Cuba:relations,
'This Is What
Change Looks
Like'" NBC
News.
have
Cuban-American
Kaplowitz
reminds
readers
that the embargo was
visitation.7 During the Bush administration, Fidel Castro stepped down from the presidency of
Cuba. Raúl Castro replaced Fidel in February, 2008. 8
Since the beginning of President Obama’s political career, he has consistently addressed
American relations with Cuba. It came as no surprise then, when in 2011 Obama began lifting
travel restrictions.9 The Obama administration was clear in that it wanted to mend ties with
Cuba, still Obama maintained that the embargo would remain until clear, positive, and genuine
democratic and humanitarian improvements were made on the island. Obama’s Secretary of
State, Hillary Clinton believed personally that Cuba did not want to mend their relations with the
Unites States, and that the Castro regime was simply politically sabotaging America.10
The most recent attempts to improve the relations between Cuba and the United States
occurred in December, 2014 when President Obama announced a full restoration of diplomatic
ties with Cuba.11 Through secret communication in Canada between American, Cuban and
7
Stephen Wilkinson, “US Cuba Policy After Bush: Succession or Transition?” International Journal of Cuban
Studies, no. 1.1 (2008), pp. 54–65.
8
Ibid., pp. 54–65.
9
Remy Herrera, "US Embargo against Cuba,” pp. 4310-312.
10
Ibid., pp. 4310-4312.
11
N.A., "Cuba Embargo - ProCon.org."
50
50
http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/u-s-cuba-relations/obama-announces-deal-open-cuban-embassy-n385001.
placed atoNew
overthrow
andWhite
in this
it has failed incredibly. She concludes
initially
N.A., "Charting
Course onCastro,
Cuba," The
House.
https://www.whitehouse.gov/issues/foreign51capacity
policy/cuba.
N.A.,
on U.S.
Embassy in Cuba:
'This Is Whathave
Change
Like'" NBC
that
the"Obama
negative
humanitarian
consequences
farLooks
outweighed
theNews.
political considerations.
http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/u-s-cuba-relations/obama-announces-deal-open-cuban-embassy-n385001.
12
13
12
51
N.A., "Charting a New Course on Cuba," The White House. https://www.whitehouse.gov/issues/foreignpolicy/cuba.
13
N.A., "Obama on U.S. Embassy in Cuba: 'This Is What Change Looks Like'" NBC News.
http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/u-s-cuba-relations/obama-announces-deal-open-cuban-embassy-n385001.
51
51
Each tightening of embargo sanctions has seen the Castro regime grow more oppressive.
Kaplowitz compares the Clinton administration, which tightened embargo policies, and the Ford
Each tightening of embargo sanctions has seen the Castro regime grow more oppressive.
Principles of social science
Each
tightening
of the
embargo
has seen
thetightened
Castro regime
moreandoppressive.
Kaplowitz
compares
Clintonsanctions
administration,
which
embargogrow
policies,
the Ford
Kaplowitz compares the Clinton administration, which tightened embargo policies, and the Ford
and
presidencies,
which sanctions
loosened them.
Kaplowitz
concludes,
a regretful
that the
EachCarter
tightening
of embargo
has seen
the Castro
regimein grow
moretone,
oppressive.
Principles of social science
only
reasoncompares
theof
United
States
maintained
the embargo
was because
of policies,
the “strong
wellKaplowitz
the Clinton
administration,
which tightened
embargo
and and
the Ford
Principles
social
science
14
funded”
anti-Castro
campaigns
in South Florida.
and
Carter
presidencies,
which loosened
them. Kaplowitz concludes, in a regretful tone, that the
Principles
of social
science
Remy
Herrera,
writing
in
the Economic
and Political
Weekly, in
argues
that the
embargo’s
and Carter
presidencies,
which
loosened
them. Kaplowitz
concludes,
a regretful
tone,
that the
only reason the United States maintained the embargo was because of the “strong and well-
15
14
Herrera
immediate
consequence
is to in
“cause
hunger
and despair”
to ordinary
only
reason
the United
States
maintained
the embargo
was because
of theCubans.
“strong and
wellfunded”
anti-Castro
campaigns
South Florida.
and Carter the
presidencies,
which loosened
them.
Kaplowitz
concludes,
in a regretful
tone,
that the
14
highlights
negative
consequences
of Florida.
the
embargo.
Herrera
is especially
ofembargo’s
American
funded”Remy
anti-Castro
campaigns
in the
South
Herrera,
writing
in
Economic
and Political
Weekly,
arguescritical
that the
only reason the
United
maintained
the embargo
was
because of
the “strong
and
well16
Increased
restrictions
almost
always
result
in
prohibitions
on
travel writing
toStates
island.
Remy
Herrera,
the Economic
and
Political
Weekly,
argues
that
the15embargo’s
Herrera
immediate
consequence
istheto in
“cause
hunger
and travel
despair”
to ordinary
Cubans.
14
funded” anti-Castro
campaigns
in South
Florida.citizens.
15
increases
inthe
criminal
charges
against
American
Moreover,
professional,
academic,
and
Herrera
immediate
consequence
is to
“cause
and despair”
to especially
ordinary
Cubans.
highlights
negative
consequences
of hunger
the embargo.
Herrera
is
critical
of American
Herrera,
writingand
in familial
the Economic
and
Political
Weekly, interests
argues that
the
embargo’s
16 the
in someRemy
cases
humanitarian
visits
to Cuba
arerestrictions
banned,
that
according
to
highlights
theon
negative
of
embargo.
Herrera
is especially
critical
of American
Increased
travel
almost
always
result in
prohibitions
travel consequences
to the island.
15
Herrera
immediate
consequence
isand
to temporal
“cause16 hunger
and
despair”
to ordinary
Cubans.
Herrera
regional
political
concerns.
Herrera
denounces
this
as aresult
form
of
Increased
travelMoreover,
restrictions
almost always
in
prohibitions
on travel
to the
island.American
increasessupersede
in criminal
charges
against
citizens.
professional,
academic,
and
highlights the
negative
consequences
of the
embargo.
Herreraagainst
is especially
critical ofconcludes,
American
economic,
and charges
political
sabotage.
“The
US
embargo
Cuba,”
increases
insocial
criminal
against
American
citizens.
Moreover,
in some cases
humanitarian
and
familial
visits
to Cuba
are
banned,professional,
interestsHerrera
thatacademic,
accordingand
to
16
Increased
travelit restrictions
almost
always
result
in
prohibitionsto on
travel
to the for
island.
“deserves
condemned
the violation
ofconcerns.
law
and
for that
its
lack of
of
in some supersede
casesbehumanitarian
andtemporal
familial
visits to
Cuba
arerepresents
banned,denounces
interests
according
to
Herrera
regional and
political
Herrera
thistotal
as a form
increases in 17
criminal
charges
against
Americaniscitizens.
Moreover,
academic,
and
Herrera
finds
that
Washington
just
as culpable
forprofessional,
the humanitarian
in
legitimacy.”
Herrera supersede
regional
and
temporal
political
concerns.
Herrera
denounces
this asconcludes,
a crisis
form of
economic,
social
and
political
sabotage.
“The US
embargo
against
Cuba,”
Herrera
in
some
humanitarian
and
familialCubans
visits to
aretobanned,
interests
thattheaccording
to
Cuba
as cases
the
Castro
Ordinary
areCuba
forced
bear the
brunt
of
social
economic,
social
andregime.
politicalfor
sabotage.
“The US
embargo
against
Cuba,”
concludes,
“deserves
to
be condemned
the violation
of
law
it represents
and
forHerrera
its total
lackand
of
Herrera
supersede
and temporal
political
concerns.The
Herrera
denounces
this
as a form
of
economic
effects
ofregional
the finds
embargo,
not the
Castro
lackforof
food
andits
medicine
is the
“deserves
to17 beHerrera
condemned
for Washington
the
violation
law
represents
and
for
total crisis
lack
of
that
isofregime.
just
as itculpable
the
humanitarian
in
legitimacy.”
economic,
social
and political of
sabotage.
“The
US embargo
against
Cuba,” Herrera
concludes,
17
most
consequence
America’s
embargo,
leading
insufficient
medical
treatment,
Herrera
finds that
Washington
isare
justforced
as
culpable
forthethebrunt
humanitarian
crisisand
in
legitimacy.”
Cuba immediate
as the Castro
regime.
Ordinary
Cubans
to to
bear
of the social
“deserves
to cancer
be condemned
violation
of law
it represents
and by
fordestroying
its total lack
of
especially
for
andembargo,
otherfor
fatalthe
diseases.
Herrera
argues
America,
Cuba’s
Cuba
as the
Castro
regime.
Ordinary
are
forced
tothat
bear
thefood
bruntand
of medicine
the social
economic
effects
of the
not
theCubans
Castro
regime.
The
lack
of
is and
the
17
Herrera
finds
that Washington is just as culpable for the humanitarian crisis in
legitimacy.”
14
economic
effects
of
the embargo,
not the
Castro
regime.
The to
lack
of food and
medicine
is the
Remy
Herrera,
"US
Embargo
against
pp. 4310-4311.
most
immediate
consequence
of Cuba,’
America’s
embargo,
leading
insufficient
medical
treatment,
15
Ibid., pp. 4141-4142.
Cuba
as
Castro regime. Ordinary Cubans are forced to bear the brunt of the social and
Ibid.,immediate
pp. the
4141-4142.
most
consequence
America’s
leadingthat
to America,
insufficient
treatment,
especially
for cancer
and other of
fatal
diseases.embargo,
Herrera argues
bymedical
destroying
Cuba’s
Ibid., pp. 4310-4311.
economic
effects
of
the
embargo,
not the Castro regime. The lack of food and medicine is the
especially
for cancer and other fatal diseases. Herrera
argues that America, by destroying Cuba’s
14
52
Remy Herrera, "US Embargo against Cuba,’ pp. 4310-4311.
15
most
16 Ibid.,
immediate
pp.
4141-4142.
consequence
of America’s embargo, leading to insufficient medical treatment,
16
17
Ibid.,
4141-4142.
Remypp.
Herrera,
"US Embargo against Cuba,’ pp. 4310-4311.
17
15
Ibid., pp. 4310-4311.
4141-4142.
16
especially
for
cancer
Ibid., pp. 4141-4142. and other fatal diseases. Herrera
17
52
Ibid.,
pp.
4310-4311.
14
Remy Herrera, "US Embargo against Cuba,’ pp. 4310-4311.
15
52
Ibid., pp. 4141-4142.
16
Ibid., pp. 4141-4142.
17
Ibid., pp. 4310-4311.
14
52
52
economic livelihood, is fighting an undeclared war against Cuba. The embargo, in short, is a
crime against humanity and an attack on the basic rights of ordinary Cubans.
economic livelihood, is fighting an undeclared war against Cuba. The embargo,
in short, is a
CUBAN embargo
crime against humanity and an attack on the basic rights of ordinary Cubans.
economic livelihood, is fighting an undeclared war against Cuba. The embargo, in short, is a
David Katz contributes to the academic consensus on the embargo in his "Sanctioned
economic livelihood, is fighting an undeclared war against Cuba. The embargo, in short, is a
crime against humanity and an attack on the basic rights of ordinary Cubans.CUBAN embargo
State: The US Embargo on Cuba." Katz argues that the embargo has failed to accomplish its
crime against humanity and an attack on the basic rights of ordinary Cubans.
originally stated goal of regime change. Instead, the embargo has given the Castro regime
CUBAN embargo
David Katz contributes to the academic consensus on the embargo
in his "Sanctioned
embargo
“political ammunition" in its attempt to paint capitalist America as theCUBAN
hemispheric
tyrant.
State: The US Embargo on Cuba." Katz argues that the embargo has failed to accomplish its
David
contributes
to the
academic
consensus
on the embargo
his the
"Sanctioned
Moreover,
the Katz
embargo
has denied
significant
economic
opportunities
in tradeinand
food and
originally
stated
goal
of
regime
change.
Instead,
the
embargo
has
given
the
Castro
regime
David Katz contributes to the academic consensus on the embargo in his "Sanctioned
State:
The sectors.
US Embargo
on the
Cuba."
Katzhas
argues
the embargo
has failed
to accomplish
its
hospitality
Finally,
embargo
eventhat
inhibited
the possibility
of democratic
reform
“political
attempt
to argues
paint capitalist
America has
as the
hemispheric
tyrant.
State:
Theammunition"
US Embargo in
onits
Cuba."
Katz
that the embargo
failed
to accomplish
its
originally
goal ofhas
regime
change.
embargo
given
Castro regime
The embargo
afforded
CastroInstead,
politicalthe
excuses
in thehas
form
of anthe
American
culprit
in Cuba.18 stated
Moreover, stated
the embargo
deniedchange.
significant
economic
opportunities
tradethe
andCastro
the food
and
originally
goal ofhas
regime
Instead,
the embargo
has in
given
regime
“political
ammunition"
in its attempt
to paint crises
capitalist
AmericaAnd
as the
for
the regime’s
humanitarian
and economic
in Cuba.
the hemispheric
embargo hastyrant.
also
hospitalityammunition"
sectors. Finally,
theattempt
embargotohas
evencapitalist
inhibitedAmerica
the possibility
democratic reform
“political
in its
paint
as theofhemispheric
tyrant.
Moreover, the
embargo
has denied
significant
economic
opportunities
inCubans.
trade andThe
the embargo,
food and
engendered
an
impassioned
anti-American
sentiment
among
ordinary
Theembargo
embargohas
hasdenied
afforded
Castro political
excuses
in the form
of an and
American
culprit
in
Cuba.18 the
Moreover,
significant
economic
opportunities
in trade
the food
and
hospitalitytosectors.
Finally,
the embargo
has even
inhibitedCuba
the possibility
democratic
reform
according
Katz, was
established
in an effort
to convince
to open itsofdoors
to democracy,
for
the regime’s
and economic
crises
in Cuba.
And theof embargo
also
hospitality
sectors.humanitarian
Finally, the embargo
has even
inhibited
the possibility
democratichas
reform
18
embargo
hassmokescreen
afforded Castro
politicaltoexcuses
thepeople
form of
American
culprit
in Cuba.
but
instead The
it has
provided
for Castro
distractinthe
of an
Cuba
from the
real
engendered
an impassioned
anti-American
among in
ordinary
The embargo,
embargo has afforded
Castrosentiment
political excuses
the formCubans.
of an American
culprit
in Cuba.18 The
for
the regime’s
humanitarian
and economic
crises from
in Cuba.
AndKatz
the speculates
embargo has
problems
of corruption
and incompetence
emanating
Havana.
overalso
the
according
to
Katz,
was
established
in
an
effort
to
convince
Cuba
to
open
its
doors
to
democracy,
for the regime’s humanitarian and economic crises in Cuba. And the embargo has also
engendered
impassioned
anti-American
sentiment
Cubans.
embargo,a
good that a an
revision
in American
policy could
bring. among
Liftingordinary
the embargo
wouldThe
encourage
but
instead
it
has
provided
smokescreen
for
Castro
to
distract
the
people
of
Cuba
from
the real
engendered an impassioned anti-American sentiment among ordinary Cubans. The embargo,
according to Katz,
was established
in aninternational
effort to convince
Cuba to
open its exposure
doors to democracy,
reengagement
between
Cuba and the
community,
including
to western
problems of
corruption
and incompetence
emanating
fromCuba
Havana.
Katz
speculates
over the
according
to Katz,
was established
in an effort
to convince
to open
its doors
to democracy,
but instead
has provided
smokescreen for and
Castro
to distract the
people
of Cuba
fromcertainly
the real
ideals
like itliberalism,
entrepreneurialism
democracy.
Trade
would
almost
goodinstead
that a itrevision
in American
policy for
could
bring.
Lifting the
the people
embargo
encourage
but
has provided
smokescreen
Castro
to distract
of would
Cuba from
the reala
problems
of
corruption
and
incompetence
emanating
from
Havana.
Katz
speculates
over
the
introduce liberal ideas, and with ideas desire for reforms.
reengagement
between
Cuba
and
the
international
community,
including
exposure
to
western
problems of corruption and incompetence emanating from Havana. Katz speculates over the
good that a revision in American policy could bring. Lifting the embargo would encourage a
ideals
likea revision
liberalism,
entrepreneurialism
andbring.
democracy.
Trade
wouldwould
almost
certainlya
good that
in American
policy could
Lifting the
embargo
encourage
reengagement between Cuba and the international community, including exposure to western
with
ideas
for reforms.
introduce liberal
ideas, and
18
reengagement
between
Cuba
the desire
international
community,
including
exposure
to western
David Katz, "Sanctioned
State:
Theand
US Embargo
on Cuba," Harvard
International
Review,
no. 27 (2005).
ideals like liberalism, entrepreneurialism and democracy. Trade would almost certainly
53 democracy. Trade would almost certainly
ideals like liberalism, entrepreneurialism and
introduce liberal ideas, and with ideas desire for reforms.
introduce liberal ideas, and with ideas desire for reforms.
18
David Katz, "Sanctioned State: The US Embargo on Cuba," Harvard International Review, no. 27 (2005).
53
argues that America, by destroying Cuba’s
18
David Katz, "Sanctioned State: The US Embargo on Cuba," Harvard International Review, no. 27 (2005).
18
David Katz, "Sanctioned State: The US Embargo on Cuba,"
53 Harvard International Review, no. 27 (2005).
53
53
Embargo Act. It has certainly not contributed to the decline of the Castro regime. The embargo
has defined relations between these two nations, and has done so in a negative manner.
Historians, international affairs correspondents, political scientists and public intellectuals
Principles of social science
CUBAN embargo
more generally write and speak poorly of the short and long term consequences of the Cuban
Embargo Act. It has certainly not contributed to the decline of the Castro regime. The embargo
The Cuban Embargo Act has been handled inconsistently by each president of the United
Historians, international affairs correspondents, political scientists and public intellectuals
has defined relations between these two nations, and has done so in a negative manner.
States, perhaps adding to its ineffectiveness. In 1960, President Eisenhower created the
more generally write and speak poorly of the short and long term consequences of the Cuban
Embargo, and in 2014 President Obama announced plans to terminate it. Restoring trade
Embargo Act. It has certainly not contributed to the decline of the Castro regime. The embargo
Principles of social science
relations with Cuba was a significant change in foreign policy, with Cuba being so close to the
has defined relations between these two nations, and has done so in a negative manner.
U.S. in proximity. President Obama’s efforts to restore trade relations with Cuba is one of the
The Cuban Embargo Act has been handled inconsistently by each president of the United
most notable policy changes during his presidency, and also one of the most positive things to
Principles of social science
States,
perhaps adding to its ineffectiveness. In 1960, President Eisenhower created the
occur between the two countries.
Embargo, and in 2014 President Obama announced plans to terminate it. Restoring trade
The Cuban Embargo Act has been handled inconsistently by each president of the United
relations with Cuba was a significant change in foreign policy, with Cuba being so close to the
States, perhaps adding to its ineffectiveness. In 1960, President Eisenhower created the
U.S. in proximity. President Obama’s efforts to restore trade relations with Cuba is one of the
Embargo, and in 2014 President Obama announced plans to terminate it. Restoring trade
most notable policy changes during his presidency, and also one of the most positive things to
relations with Cuba was a significant change in foreign policy, with Cuba being so close to the
occur between the two countries.
U.S. in proximity. President Obama’s efforts to restore trade relations with Cuba is one of the
most notable policy changes during his presidency, and also one of the most positive things to
occur between the two countries.
Works Cited
Herrera, Rémy. "Anti-Cuba Embargo, New Curtailment of Freedoms," Economic and Political
Weekly, no. 39 (2004).
______. "US Embargo against Cuba: Urgent Need to Lift It," Economic and Political Weekly
no. 38 (2003).
Katz, David. "Sanctioned State: The US Embargo on Cuba," Harvard International Review, no.
27 (2005).
Lowenthal, Abraham. Review of Cuba's Socialist Economy toward the 1990s by Andrew
Zimbalist. The International History Review, no. 3 (1999).
Wilkinson, Stephen. “US Cuba Policy After Bush: Succession or Transition?” International
Journal of Cuban Studies, no. 1.1 (2008).
N.A. “Charting a New Course on Cuba,” The White House.
https://www.whitehouse.gov/issues/foreign-policy/cuba.
N.A. "Cuba Embargo - ProCon.org," ProConorg Headlines.
http://www.cuba-embargo.procon.org/.
N.A. "Obama on U.S. Embassy in Cuba: 'This Is What Change Looks Like.'" NBC News.
http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/u-s-cuba-relations/obama-announces-deal-open-cubanembassy-n385001.
N.A. "US Embargo Causing Crisis in Cuba," BMJ: British Medical Journal, vol. 307
(1993).
54
54
54
54
55
55
The Cultural Effects of the Islamic Conquest of Spain
The Cultural Effects of the Islamic Conquest of Spain
Fiona Hanly-Jorda
Fiona Hanly-Jorda
Islamic conquest of SPAIN
Islamic conquest of SPAIN
The Cultural Effects of the Islamic Conquest of Spain
The Arab invasion of Spain extended over a period of 700 years. During which
Fiona
Hanly-Jorda
The Arab
invasion of Spain extended over a period of 700 years. During which
Christians retreated both socially and politically while Muslims advanced and assimilated their
Christians retreated both socially and politically while Muslims advanced and assimilated their
culture, architecture, and innovations across the Iberian peninsula. The Islamic presence in
culture,
architecture,
andSpain
innovations
acrossover
the Iberian
peninsula.
Islamic
presence
in
The
Arab
invasion of
extended
a period
of 700 The
years.
During
which
Iberia is the single most important outside historical cultural influence in Spain. During the 700
Iberia
is theretreated
single most
outside
historical
cultural
influence
in Spain.
During thetheir
700
Christians
bothimportant
socially and
politically
while
Muslims
advanced
and assimilated
or more years that the Muslims controlled Spain, their culture effectively shaped Spain. The
or more architecture,
years that theand
Muslims
controlled
their culture
effectively
shaped Spain.
culture,
innovations
acrossSpain,
the Iberian
peninsula.
The Islamic
presenceThe
in
blends of European, Christian and Islamic conventions provide the foundation for the distinct
blends
European,
Christian
andoutside
Islamichistorical
conventions
provide
the foundation
for the the
distinct
Iberia isofthe
single most
important
cultural
influence
in Spain. During
700
culture that remains unique to modern Spain.
culture
remains
unique
to modern
Spain.Spain, their culture effectively shaped Spain. The
or
morethat
years
that the
Muslims
controlled
Muslims first arrived in Southern Iberia in 711 A.D. Much of the region was under
first Christian
arrived inand
Southern
in 711 provide
A.D. Much
of the region
wasdistinct
under
blends Muslims
of European,
IslamicIberia
conventions
the foundation
for the
control of the Visigoth, a so-called Roman barbaric tribe that filled the political vacuum
control
of the
Visigoth,
Roman barbaric tribe that filled the political vacuum
culture that
remains
uniqueatoso-called
modern Spain.
following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire.1 The arrival of the Islamic Berbers from
1
following
the collapse
of the Western
Roman
Empire.
arrival
of the
Islamic
Berbers
from
Muslims
first arrived
in Southern
Iberia
in 711The
A.D.
Much
of the
region
was under
North Africa introduced Islamic culture and faith to Western Europe. The Berber armies
The political
Berber vacuum
armies
North
culture
and faith
to Western
Europe.
controlAfrica
of theintroduced
Visigoth, Islamic
a so-called
Roman
barbaric
tribe that
filled the
consisted mostly of Islamic soldiers. When the soldiers conquered and then settled in Spanish
1
consisted
mostly
of of
Islamic
soldiers.Roman
WhenEmpire.
the soldiers
conquered
settled
in Spanish
following the
collapse
the Western
The
arrival ofand
thethen
Islamic
Berbers
from
Visigothic cities, they encountered large Christian populations hostile toward all Muslims. As a
Visigothic
cities,
they encountered
large Christian
toward
Muslims.
As a
TheallBerber
armies
North
Africa
introduced
Islamic culture
and faithpopulations
to Westernhostile
Europe.
result, the Christians segregated themselves into distinct boroughs. This exodus left cities like
result, the Christians
themselves
into
exodus
left in
cities
like
consisted
mostly ofsegregated
Islamic soldiers.
When
thedistinct
soldiersboroughs.
conquered This
and then
settled
Spanish
Cordoba and Toledo available to the Muslims, who quickly revitalized cities once prosperous
Cordoba and
Toledo
to the
Muslims,
quickly revitalized
cities
prosperous
Visigothic
cities,
they available
encountered
large
Christianwho
populations
hostile toward
allonce
Muslims.
As a
under Roman Imperial rule. 2
under
Imperialsegregated
rule. 2
result, Roman
the Christians
themselves into distinct boroughs. This exodus left cities like
Cordoba and Toledo available to the Muslims, who quickly revitalized cities once prosperous
2
plans
Fiona Roman
Hanly-Jorda
‘18,rule. to study medicine in university.
under
Imperial
Fiona Hanly-Jorda ‘18, plans to study medicine in university.
While the Spanish-Christian aristocracy and merchant townspeople were resistant to
the Spanish-Christian
and merchant
townspeople
were
resistant
to
IslamicWhile
rule, Jews
and peasants in aristocracy
the area quickly
reconciled
with their
new
Muslim
Islamic
peasantsof in
the area
quicklythereconciled
with by
their
new regarding
Muslim
rulers. rule,
This Jews
initialand
expression
goodwill
reflected
relative lenience
Muslims
rulers.
This initial
expression
goodwill
reflected the
relative
by arrived,
Muslimstaxes
regarding
taxes, religious
conversion
andofsocial
conventions.
When
thelenience
Muslims
on
taxes,
conversion
and social
conventions.
When
arrived,
taxes The
on
Jewish religious
and peasant
owned property
actually
decreased by
20% the
and Muslims
serfdom was
abolished.
Jewish
and
peasant
ownedlegislation
property actually
by for
20%services
and serfdom
was abolished.
Muslims
also
established
setting decreased
a base wage
performed,
and workedThe
to
Muslims
also established
settingThe
a base
wage for nature
servicesofperformed,
to
limit conditions
of povertylegislation
in the region.
progressive
Islamic and
lawsworked
enticed
limit conditions
of poverty
in the region.
of Islamic
laws enticed
waves
of Islamic
conversions.
Over The
the progressive
next severalnature
generations
the growing
Muslim
3
waves
of inIslamic
conversions.
Over the of
next
several
the growing
Muslim
population
Iberia encouraged
the assimilation
Muslim
andgenerations
Spanish traditions.
3
population
in the
Iberia
encouraged
the invasion
assimilation
of the
Muslim
and Spanish
After
initial
waves of
and
collapse
of thetraditions.
Visigothic kingdom
the initial
waves
of invasion
the collapse
of region’s
the Visigothic
kingdom
under After
Roderick,
Muslims
made
significantand
contributions
to the
architecture.
Still
under
Roderick,
Muslims
made significant
contributions
the landscape,
region’s architecture.
today Mosques,
gardens,
hospitals,
palaces, and
libraries dotto the
especiallyStill
in
today
Mosques,
gardens,
hospitals,itspalaces,
and libraries
the landscape,
especially
in
Southern
Spain.
In Granada,
Alhambra,
a fortressdot
stocked
with reflecting
pools and
Southern
Spain.
In Granada,
its Alhambra,
a 4fortress
stocked
with
pools and
bucolic gardens,
is constructed
on Moorish
designs.
Cordoba,
also in
the reflecting
south, is famous
for
4
bucolic
gardens,
is constructed
on Moorish
also in the
is famous
for
designed
by the renown
Islamicdesigns.
architect Cordoba,
‘Abd al-Rahman
I. south,
Located
in the city
its
mosque,
5 in the city
designed
by thetorenown
Islamic
architect
‘Abdofal-Rahman
Located
its
mosque,
center,
the mosque
is meant
resemble
the Great
Mosque
DamascusI.in Syria.
5
center, Islamic
the mosque
is meant
to resemble
Great
Mosque
of Damascus
in Syria.
culture
also influenced
thethe
style
of Iberia’s
dominant
language,
Castellano.
Islamicand
culture
also influenced
the style
of Islamic
Iberia’s languages.
dominant language,
Castellano.
“Almohada”
“alcohol”
are derivations
from
Indeed, most
words in the
“Almohada”
and “alcohol”
fromArabic
Islamicorigins.
languages.
Indeed,
most
words
in the
Spanish language
that begin are
withderivations
ah- or al- have
Phrases
such as
“hasta
la vista”
1
N.A., "Visigoth," Ancient History Encyclopedia. http://www.ancient.eu/visigoth/.
21
BBC,
"Religions."Ancient
http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/spain_1.shtml.
N.A., "Visigoth,"
History Encyclopedia. http://www.ancient.eu/visigoth/.
2
BBC, "Religions." http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/spain_1.shtml.
Fiona Hanly-Jorda ‘18, plans to study medicine56
in university.
1
2
56
N.A., "Visigoth," Ancient History Encyclopedia. http://www.ancient.eu/visigoth/.
BBC, "Religions." http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/spain_1.shtml.
56
56
Spanish
language
beginofwith
ah- or al- have Arabic origins. Phrases such as
Ahmed Nazeer,
"Thethat
Conquest
Spain."
http://historyofislam.com/contents/the-age-of-faith/the-conquest-of-spain/.
34 Colum Hourihane, The Grove Encyclopedia of Medieval Art and Architecture (Oxford, 2012).
Ahmed Nazeer, "The Conquest of Spain."
5
N.A. "History of the Mosque, Cathedral of Cordoba.”
http://historyofislam.com/contents/the-age-of-faith/the-conquest-of-spain/.
4http://www.mezquitadecordoba.org/en/history-mosque-cordoba.asp.
Colum Hourihane, The Grove Encyclopedia of Medieval Art and Architecture (Oxford, 2012).
5
N.A. "History of the Mosque, Cathedral of Cordoba.”
57
http://www.mezquitadecordoba.org/en/history-mosque-cordoba.asp.
3
57
57
“hasta la vista”
Islamic conquest of SPAIN
Principles of social science
Islamic conquest of SPAIN
Islamic conquest of SPAIN
come from the Arabic word “hatta” which means “until,” and “Ojalá” is derived from the Arabic
Spanish agriculture was transformed as the region was introduced to new crops from
phrase “Insha’ Allah!,” meaning “If God Wills.” Numerous other phrases and words in the
Spanish
agriculture
was transformed
as
region
introduced
to
from
Spanish
agriculture
transformed
as the
theproduction
region was
wasincreased
introduced
to new
new crops
crops
other parts
of the
Islamic was
Empire.
Agricultural
significantly
fromfrom
the
Spanish language demonstrate Arabic influence.6
other
parts
of
the
Islamic
Agricultural
production
increased significantly
from
the
other
parts of
ofnew
the irrigation
Islamic Empire.
Empire.
Agricultural
production
significantly
from also
the
integration
technology
such as canal
digging. increased
The manufacturing
industry
Muslims not only left their mark on architecture and language, they also introduced the
integration
of
technology such
as
digging. The
industry
also
integration
of new
new irrigation
irrigation
suchwork
as canal
canal
The manufacturing
manufacturing
industry
saw improvements,
as silk technology
and brocade
fromdigging.
the peninsula
became well
knownalso
in
Spanish to many intellectual innovations, namely, alchemy, algebra, chess, the introduction of
saw
as silk
brocade
from
the
became
well
in
saw improvements,
improvements,
silk and
and
brocade work
work
from
the peninsula
peninsula
becameadvances
well known
known
in
Mediterranean
tradingascenters.
Industrially,
Muslims
in Spain
made important
in crank
Arabic numbers instead of Roman numerals, the number zero, and Aristotelian philosophy.7
Mediterranean
trading
Industrially, Muslims
in Spain
made
advances
in
Mediterranean
trading centers.
centers.
made important
important
advances
in crank
crank
and lever technology.
Finally, Industrially,
the infamousMuslims
success in
of Spain
the Spanish
and Portuguese
slave
trade
The instruments brought from Islamic countries gave way to the popularization of the guitar
and
lever
technology. Finally,
infamous
success
of
Spanish
and Portuguese
trade
and
lever
Finally, the
the of
infamous
success owes
of the
themuch
Spanish
Portuguese slave
slave
trade
during
thetechnology.
period of colonization
the Americas
to and
the innovations
in slavery
and flamenco. Cooking in Spain was also greatly influenced by the introduction of herbs and
during
the
of
of
owes
to
innovations in
slavery
during
the period
period
of colonization
colonization
of the
the Americas
Americas
owes much
much
to the
the
in Slavery
slavery
organization
and marketing
first introduced
by the Berbers.
William
D. innovations
Phillips, in his
spices from northern Africa and the eastern Mediterranean.8
organization
and
marketing
first
introduced
by
the
William
D.
in
organization
and Early
marketing
first Iberia,
introduced
by that
the Berbers.
Berbers.
William
D. Phillips,
Phillips,
in his
his Slavery
Slavery
in Medieval and
Modern
argues
it was Muslims
in Iberia
who introduced
the
Medieval Muslims in Spain also excelled in the field of medicine, and thus introduced to
Iberia something of a revolution in the medical sciences. The Spanish Catholic Church had
discouraged scientific inquiry into disciplines like astronomy and medicine.9 At the start of the
eleventh century, the Cordoban doctor Al Zahrawi published an encyclopedia of surgery that
was used as a medical reference for the next 500 years. Al Zahrawi discovered the process
of dissolving catgut to stitch wounds along with a second surgery to remove the sutures.
Muslim doctors in Spain also discovered the use of shining a light into the eye of patients to
observe the pupil. And in dental hygiene, Muslims introduced the toothbrush.
6
Habeeb Salloum, “Arabic Contributions to the Spanish Language."
http://www.alhewar.net/Basket/Habeeb_Salloum_Spanish_Language.htm.
7
N.A., "Muslim Spain and European Culture." http://www.sunnah.org/history/moors.htm.
8
N.A., "Arab Influences on Spanish Language and Culture: Don Quijote.”
http://www.donquijote.org/culture/spain/society/customs/arab-influence-on- spanish-language-and-culture.
9
Tanya Lewis, "Science and the Catholic Church: A Turbulent History."
http://w ww.livescience.com/27790-catholic-church-and-science-history.html.
in
Medieval
and
Modern
Iberia,
that
10 it was Muslims in Iberia who introduced the
in
Medieval
and Early
Early
Modern
Iberia, argues
argues
that
it And
was Muslims
in Iberia
who cities
introduced
the
Spanish
to modern
slave
commercial
practices.
the number
of large
in Spain
10
Spanish
slave
practices.
10 And the number of large cities in Spain
Spanish to
toasmodern
modern
slave commercial
commercial
practices.
number
of large having
cities indoubled
Spain
increased
the population
reached 1 million
by theAnd
end the
of the
10th century,
increased
as
population
reached
11 million
by
increased
as the
the conquest
populationbegan
reached
million
by the
the end
end of
of the
the 10th
10th century,
century, having
having doubled
doubled
since
the Islamic
in the
early
700s.
since
Islamic
conquest
in
700s.
since the
the
Islamic extended
conquest began
began
in the
the early
early
700s.
Muslims
their influence
into
the Spanish family and the medieval European
Muslims
their
influence
into
Spanish
family
and
the
European
Muslimsof extended
extended
their
influence
into the
the
Spanish
family
and Marriage
the medieval
medieval
understanding
gender and
sexuality
as well.
Eukene
Lacarra
Lanz’s
and European
Sexuality
understanding
of
and
as well.
Lacarra Lanz’s
Marriage
and Sexuality
understanding
of gender
gender
and sexuality
sexuality
well. Eukene
Eukene
Lanz’s
Marriage
Sexuality
in Medieval and
Early Modern
Iberiaas reviews
IslamicLacarra
medieval
literature
on and
marriage
and
in
Medieval
and
Early
Modern
Iberia
reviews
medieval literature
literature on
on marriage
marriage and
and
in
MedievalDon
andJuan
EarlyManuel’s
Modern Conde
Iberia Lucanor
reviews Islamic
Islamic
sexuality.
containsmedieval
several tales demonstrating
Islamic
sexuality. Don
Don Juan Manuel’s
Manuel’s Conde
Conde Lucanor
Lucanor contains several
several tales
tales demonstrating
demonstrating Islamic
11
sexuality.
Islamic
views on marriageJuan
and sexuality, and
the pervasivecontains
misogyny that existed
in medieval Iberia.
views on
on marriage
marriage and
and sexuality,
sexuality, and
and the
the pervasive
pervasive misogyny
misogyny that
that existed
existed in
in medieval
medieval Iberia.
Iberia.11
11
views
10
Molly Warsh, review author, "Slavery in Medieval and Early Modern Iberia."
http://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth=0&type=summary&url=/journals/journal_of_interdisciplinary_hi
10
Molly Warsh, review author, "Slavery in Medieval and Early Modern Iberia."
10
story/v045/45.3.warsh.html.
Molly Warsh, review author, "Slavery in Medieval and Early Modern Iberia."
11
http://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth=0&type=summary&url=/journals/journal_of_interdisciplinary_hi
James McCutcheon, review author, "Marriage and Sexuality in Medieval and Early Modern Iberia.”
http://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth=0&type=summary&url=/journals/journal_of_interdisciplinary_hi
story/v045/45.3.warsh.html.
http://www.ehumanista.ucsb.edu/volumes/volume_01/mccutcheon/08192002McC.pdf.
author, "Marriage and Sexuality in Medieval and Early Modern Iberia.”
James McCutcheon, review author, "Marriage and Sexuality in Medieval and Early Modern Iberia.”
http://www.ehumanista.ucsb.edu/volumes/volume_01/mccutcheon/08192002McC.pdf.
59
http://www.ehumanista.ucsb.edu/volumes/volume_01/mccutcheon/08192002McC.pdf.
story/v045/45.3.warsh.html.
11
11 James McCutcheon, review
58
59
59
58
59
Principles of social science
islamic conquest of spain
Many of them follow themes of domestic violence against women, exemplifying the Islamic
trade with other regions. Arab merchants brought a nuanced understanding for handling human
ideal of subordinate female gender roles. It is no coincidence, Lanz notes, that Spanish culture
trafficking. And the prosperity brought to places like Cordoba, Seville and Toledo contributed to
today is well known for its bravado, machismo, and in some cases, overt displays of misogyny.
the expansion of urbanization. These influences and others were strong enough to fashion a
In Jean Dangler’s Making Difference in Medieval and Early Modern Iberia, the broader
contributions to the development of Iberia from the seventh to the eighteenth century are
highlighted.12
medieval Spain that looked decidedly more Arab than European, even into the modern period
after the reconquest.
Dangler finds that Iberia during the period of Islamic conquest was
simultaneously characterized by discord and cultural agreement, or convivencia. The discord
that did exist on the peninsula would have been typical to any social environment with a large
multicultural population living in the same region with different religions and cultures. Despite
the differences between Islam, Catholicism, and Judaism, most ordinary people who occupied
Iberia engendered cultural harmony. This unique social-cultural organization was the central
component to fostering Iberia’s cultural phenomena. Dangler notes how Spain, singular in
Western European culture, exhibited Arabic cultural traditions deep into the modern world.
Dangler argues that Islamic culture was the lynchpin holding together medieval Iberia.
The Islamic conquest of Iberia left a lasting impact on Spanish culture. Indeed, it is the
most significant of all outside influences in Spanish history. The Islamic conquest illustrates the
historical cultural thesis on the cultural consequence that follows when a foreign group of people
inhabits land for an extended period of time. Inevitably there is a profound cultural imprint left
on that region’s history. Arab law facilitated assimilation of Islamic traditions, especially among
the poor. The incorporation of Islamic techniques in agricultural boosted production and
12
J.B. Owens , “Making Difference in Medieval and Early Modern Iberia.”
http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/40008598?sid=21105183406141&uid=3739600&uid=70&uid=2&uid=2134
&uid=3739256&uid=4.
60
61
60
61
Islamic conquest of SPAIN
Principles of social science
Works Cited
Ahmed, Nazeer. "The Conquest of Spain."
http://historyofislam.com/contents/the-age-of-faith/the-conquest-of-spain/.
BBC. "Muslims in Spain." http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4385768.stm#spain.
N.A. "History of the Mosque, Cathedral of Cordoba.”
http://www.mezquitadecordoba.org/en/history-mosque-cordoba.asp.
N.A. "Muslim Spain and European Culture." http://www.sunnah.org/history/moors.htm.
N.A. "Visigoth," Ancient History Encyclopedia. http://www.ancient.eu/visigoth/.
BBC. "Religions." http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/spain_1.shtml.
Berco, Christian, review author. “Marriage and Sexuality in Medieval and Early Modern
Iberia.” http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_the_history_of_sexuality/summary/v012/12.4be
rco.html.
Hourihane, Colum. The Grove Encyclopedia of Medieval Art and Architecture (Oxford, 2012).
http://www.gereon.greenheart.es/catala.php?lan=en.
Lewis, Tanya. "Science and the Catholic Church: A Turbulent History."
http://www.livescience.com/27790-catholic-church-and-science-history.html.
Salloum, Habeeb. "Arabic Contributions to the Spanish Language."
http://www.alhewar.net/Basket/Habeeb_Salloum_Spanish_Language.htm.
McCutcheon, James, review author. “Marriage and Sexuality in Medieval and Early Modern
Iberia.” http://www.ehumanista.ucsb.edu/volumes/volume_01/
mccutcheon/08192002McCutcheo n.pdf.
Owens, J.B., review author. “Making Difference in Medieval and Early Modern Iberia.”
http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/40008598?sid=21105183406141&uid=3739600&uid=70
&uid=2&uid=2134&uid=3739256&uid=4.
Warsh, Molly, review author. “Slavery in Medieval and Early Modern Iberia.”
http://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth=0&type=summary&url=/journals/journal_of_interdiscipl
inary_history/v045/45.3.warsh.html.
N.A. "Arab Influences on Spanish Language and Culture: Don Quijote.”
http://www.donquijote.org/culture/spain/society/customs/arab-influence-onspanish-language-and-culture.
N.A. “Christianity and the Muslim Conquest of Spain."
http://lostislamichistory.com/christianity-and-the-muslim-conquest-of-spain/.
62
62
63
63
Commercial Crossroads:
istanbul
A History of Crossroads:
late-Medieval Istanbul
Commercial
The split between western Latin Catholics and eastern Muslims had become
a fairly
istanbul
Yannick
Schmied
A History
of late-Medieval
regular historical experience, interrupted only by brief periods of rapprochement and commercial
Istanbul
and cultural
reconciliation.
The mostLatin
spectacular
of these
occurredMuslims
during the
of the
The split
between western
Catholics
and eastern
hadperiod
become
a fairly
Yannick Schmied
Early modern European explorers like Christopher Columbus and Bartolomeu Dias were
encouraged to discover new passages to the east in part because following the Muslim Ottomans
Early modern European explorers like Christopher Columbus and Bartolomeu Dias were
conquest of Istanbul in 1453 European merchants were increasingly cut off from eastern trade
encouraged to discover new passages to the east in part because following the Muslim Ottomans
routes.1 European merchants only granted restricted access to Istanbul, and thus constrained in
conquest of Istanbul in 1453 European merchants were increasingly cut off from eastern trade
their ability to reach eastern markets. For centuries the advance of the Islamic civilization across
routes.1 European merchants only granted restricted access to Istanbul, and thus constrained in
North Africa, the Middle East and South Asia had threatened Europeans with geographical and
their ability to reach eastern markets. For centuries the advance of the Islamic civilization across
cultural isolation. European engagement with communities and economies east of Anatolia and
North Africa, the Middle East and South Asia had threatened Europeans with geographical and
South of the Mediterranean had progressively diminished since the expansion of Islam. The Silk
cultural isolation. European engagement with communities and economies east of Anatolia and
Road of the Roman era, that intricate web of commercial lines connecting peoples from distant
South of the Mediterranean had progressively diminished since the expansion of Islam. The Silk
civilizations, was but a distant memory for medieval Europeans hampered by feudal restrictions
Road of the Roman era, that intricate web of commercial lines connecting peoples from distant
and religious zealotry.2 The Crusades of the late medieval period, as well as the Spanish
civilizations, was but a distant memory for medieval Europeans hampered by feudal restrictions
Reconquista of the Iberia, set Latin Christians at war with Muslims on both ends of the
and religious zealotry.2 The Crusades of the late medieval period, as well as the Spanish
Mediterranean, leaving Europe further isolated commercially from markets in the Orient. 3
Reconquista of the Iberia, set Latin Christians at war with Muslims on both ends of the
Mediterranean, leaving Europe further isolated commercially from markets in the Orient. 3
Yannich Schmied ‘16, plans to study engineering at Lucerne University of Applied Science and
Art.
1 Jerry H. Bentley
and‘16,
Herbert
F. Ziegler,
Traditions
& Encounters:
A Global
Perspective
on the Past
(New York,
Yannich
Schmied
plans
to study
engineering
at Lucerne
University
of Applied
Science
and
2011), pp. 490, 615, 616.
Art.
2
N.A., “Mongol invasion of Europe,” New World Encyclopedia.
http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe
1
3 Jerry H. Bentley and Herbert F. Ziegler, Traditions & Encounters: A Global Perspective on the Past (New York,
Joshua
Mark,
"Silk
2011),
pp.J.490,
615,
616.Road," Ancient History Encyclopedia. http://www.ancient.eu/Silk_Road/.
64
2
Mongol
conquest experience,
of Asia during
the 13thonly
century.
The
Mongol
conquest of Asia
regular historical
interrupted
by brief
periods
of rapprochement
andinadvertently
commercial
4
afforded
Istanbul
an exciting
opportunity
to become
the occurred
center ofduring
world the
commerce.
And the
and cultural
reconciliation.
The
most spectacular
of these
period of the
period ofconquest
Mongol hegemony
in fact
the last
time
in the conquest
city’s history
that inadvertently
served as the
Mongol
of Asia during
therepresents
13th century.
The
Mongol
of Asia
capstone Istanbul
in commercial
bridges
between to
East
and West.
TheofMongols
provided 4theAnd
region
afforded
an exciting
opportunity
become
the center
world commerce.
the
surrounding
Istanbul
a sort of
apparatus,
encouraging
political
and economic
stability.
period of Mongol
hegemony
in federal
fact represents
the last
time in the
city’s history
that served
as the
Istanbul,
with
its impenetrable
walls and
location,
became not
only the
the region
main
capstone in
commercial
bridges between
Eaststrategic
and West.
The Mongols
provided
transportationIstanbul
channelafor
also the closest
metropolis
in proximity
to thestability.
Mongol
surrounding
sortrecourses,
of federalbutapparatus,
encouraging
political
and economic
empire. Other
large
cities such walls
as Kiev
Lublin were
left became
largely innotruin,
Istanbul
Istanbul,
with its
impenetrable
andandstrategic
location,
onlybutthe
main
managed to escape
thefor
destruction
thealso
Mongolian
hordes
and emerge
as the pivotal
in
transportation
channel
recourses,ofbut
the closest
metropolis
in proximity
to the point
Mongol
inter-continental
trade. cities such as Kiev and Lublin were left largely in ruin, but Istanbul
empire.
Other large
In to
1206,
Genghis
Khan unified
of greater
Mongolia
into aaswarring
state point
focused
managed
escape
the destruction
of the tribes
Mongolian
hordes
and emerge
the pivotal
in
on military conquest.
inter-continental
trade. Khan would record the most successful pattern of conquest in world
history.InBy
1209,
northern
China
fell,the
shortly
various
small principalities
in state
central
Asia
1206,
Genghis
Khan
unified
tribesafter
of greater
Mongolia
into a warring
focused
accepted
Mongol
rule. Khan
After would
Ghenghis
Khan’s
deathsuccessful
in 1227, his
second
Ögödei
on military
conquest.
record
the most
pattern
of son
conquest
in Khan,
world
continued
the1209,
line northern
of conquest
through
the Caucasus
and Russian
principalities.
Raids were
history. By
China
fell, shortly
after various
small principalities
in central
Asia
successfully
performed
Poland and
Hungary
a briefson
period
of turmoil
accepted
Mongol
rule. against
After Ghenghis
Khan’s
deathasinwell.
1227,After
his second
Ögödei
Khan,
(1246-1250),
and through
his son Qubilai,
the grandson
and great-grandson
continued
theMöngke
line of Tolui
conquest
the Caucasus
and Russian
principalities.of Genghis
Raids were
4successfully performed against Poland and Hungary as well. After a brief period of turmoil
N.A., “History of Istanbul, Istanbul Valiliği.” http://www.istanbul.english.gov.tr/
65
(1246-1250), Möngke Tolui and his son Qubilai, the grandson and great-grandson of Genghis
N.A., “Mongol invasion of Europe,” New World Encyclopedia.
http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe
3
Joshua J. Mark, "Silk Road," Ancient History Encyclopedia. http://www.ancient.eu/Silk_Road/.
4
64
64
N.A., “History of Istanbul, Istanbul Valiliği.” http://www.istanbul.english.gov.tr/
65
65
Principles of social science
istanbul
istanbul
Khan respectively, ordered Mongol armies across the Middle East and into southern Chinese
The Mongols reconciled much of the Mediterranean and South Asia with Christian
Song territory. This marked the greatest extent of the Mongol empire, before it was split into
Europe The
by brining
swaths of
Islamic
territory
under a single
regime.
Mongolswide
reconciled
much
of the
Mediterranean
and South
Asia The
withMongolian
Christian
four principalities, the Golden Horde in eastern Europe, Ilkhante in Persia, Chagatai in central
administration
did not
and Christians.
This had
effect of
Europe by brining
widedistinguish
swaths of between
Islamic Muslims
territory under
a single regime.
ThetheMongolian
Asia, and the Khanate of the Great Khan in eastern Asia.5
quelling
the centuries-old
religiousbetween
hostilities
that precluded
commercial
between
administration
did not distinguish
Muslims
and Christians.
This exchange
had the effect
of
When Marco Polo was accompanied by Mongolian envoys in the late 1200s, he was told
Muslims
and centuries-old
Christians. Early
Islamhostilities
under thethat
Caliphs
(632-1258)
was militant,
and between
took an
quelling the
religious
precluded
commercial
exchange
“whilst in our company ye shall travel with perfect security, and need not fear to be molested by
increasingly
disposition.
Medieval
Christian
doctrinewas
wasmilitant,
not much
Muslims andanti-Christian
Christians. Early
Islam under
the Caliphs
(632-1258)
anddifferent.
took an
nobody.”6 The highly autocratic and oppressive regime established by the Mongols created a
Indeed,
one ofanti-Christian
the ten commandments
European
Christians
to “show
mercy
increasingly
disposition.of chivalry
Medievalurged
Christian
doctrine
was not
much no
different.
secure environment for merchants and travelers like Polo. Merchant envoys were protected
8
and
do not
to make
war with the
In short,
both were
determined
to destroy
the
Indeed,
onehesitate
of the ten
commandments
of infidel.”
chivalry urged
European
Christians
to “show
no mercy
under Mongol law, and all who lived under Mongol authority were forced out of fear to respect
9
other.
and
do not hesitate to make war with the infidel.”8 In short, both were determined to destroy the
Mongol laws. Legislative decrees severely punished crimes against property. For instance,
other.9 The Mongols mitigated the conflicts between Christian and Muslims across the Eurasian
thieves were flogged for minor offences. The theft of a horse was a capital offence. Horse
landmass.
raze mitigated
of Baudasthe
(1258),
in modern
marked
end ofacross
the caliphate.
At
The The
Mongols
conflicts
betweenIraq,
Christian
andthe
Muslims
the Eurasian
thieves were often split by the sword in public display. Merchants and their businesses were
Baudas
the The
Mongols
Caliph.in Without
formed
by religious
intolerance,
landmass.
raze defeated
of Baudasthe(1258),
modern the
Iraq,barrier
marked
the end
of the caliphate.
At
afforded a level of security absent in much of the medieval world. Atâ-Malek Juvayni, the
the Mongols
allowed defeated
trade to flow
freely through
Asia.
the population
in Islamic-ruled
Baudas
the Mongols
the Caliph.
Without
the Much
barrierofformed
by religious
intolerance,
Persian scholar who wrote extensively of the Khan’s conquest and administration, found
territories
wasallowed
not Muslim,
was through
a great diverse
populace
with
heterogeneous
religious
the Mongols
trade torather
flow itfreely
Asia. Much
of the
population
in Islamic-ruled
“Wayfarers now ply to and fro without fear or dread or the inconvenience of paying a toll and
affiliations.
the Caliphate
the ruling
class
was
replaced by religious
Mongol
territories wasWhen
not Muslim,
rather itwas
was destroyed,
a great diverse
populace
with
heterogeneous
pray for the fortune of the happy King who uprooted their foundations and left no trace of
10
officials
loyal When
to Khanthe
andCaliphate
indiscriminate
in their commercial
religious
affiliations.
was destroyed,
the rulingandclass
was associations.
replaced by Mongol
anyone of them.”7
officials loyal to Khan and indiscriminate in their commercial and religious associations.10
Timothy May, “The Mongol Empire in World History.”
http://worldhistoryconnected.press.illinois.edu/5.2/may.html.
6
Marco Polo, The Book of Ser Marco Polo: The Venetian Concerning the Kingdoms and Marvels of the East. ed.
Henry Yule, vol. 1 (Cambridge, 2010), chapter 3, prologue.
7
Marjorie Bignham, “Ten Essential Women for a World History Class.”
http://worldhistoryconnected.press.illinois.edu/5.2/may.html.
8
5
66
N.A. "Knights Code of Chivalry," Code of Chivalry. http://www.medievalchronicles.com/medieval-knights/codeof-chivalry-knights/.
9 8 Bentley and Ziegler, Traditions & Encounters, p. 540.
10 N.A. "Knights Code of Chivalry," Code of Chivalry. http://www.medievalchronicles.com/medieval-knights/codePolo, The Book of Ser Marco Polo, vol. 1, chapter 6.
of-chivalry-knights/.
67
9
Bentley and Ziegler, Traditions & Encounters, p. 540.
10
Polo, The Book of Ser Marco Polo, vol. 1, chapter 6.
66
67
67
were mended, facilitating a more uninhibited commercial flow between civilizations. However,
undefeated for 1000 years. Istanbul’s famous impermeable walls protected the city from the
the failure of the Mongols to subdue the Mamluks in Egypt left Mediterranean commercial
Mongols. The walls consisted of an inner wall 12 meters high and 5 meters thick with 96
Principles
of social
science
Under Mongolian
hegemony
the
and man-made. Istanbul was blessed with natural and constructed defenses that left the city
divisions between the Muslim and Christian worlds
were mended, facilitating a more uninhibited commercial flow between civilizations. However,
traffic exposed to piracy and harassment. The inability of the Mongols to conquer the Mamluks
Under
Mongolian
hegemony
theMamluks
divisions between
Muslim andcommercial
Christian worlds
the failure
of the
Mongols to
subdue the
Egypt leftthe
Mediterranean
Under
Mongolian
hegemony
the divisionsin between
the
Muslim and Christian worlds
contributed to making Istanbul the most significant point of intersection in East-West trade.
were mended, facilitating a more uninhibited commercial flow between civilizations. However,
were mended, facilitating a more uninhibited commercial flow between civilizations. However,
Principles
Istanbul becameof
thesocial
logicallyscience
appropriate route to traverse Eurasia, especially with its strategic
the failure of the Mongols to subdue the Mamluks in Egypt left Mediterranean commercial
the failure of the Mongols to subdue the11Mamluks in Egypt left Mediterranean commercial
location at the mouth of the Black Sea. Moreover, the Mongols laid waste to much of Eastern
traffic exposed to piracy and harassment. The inability of the Mongols to conquer the Mamluks
Principles of social science
Europe. The kingdom
of Hungary
was largely destroyed, as was Poland.12 And Batu Kahn, the
Principles
of social
science
contributed to making Istanbul the most significant point of intersection in East-West trade.
grandson of Ghengis and founder of the Golden Horde, sacked Kiev in 1238 and later took
traffic
piracy
and harassment.
of the
Mongols
to conquer
Istanbulexposed
becameto
logically
appropriate The
routeinability
to traverse
Eurasia,
especially
withthe
itsMamluks
strategic
traffic
exposed
tothe
piracy
and harassment.
The
inability
of the
Mongols
to conquer
the
Mamluks
control of Crimea. During much of the medieval period, Muslim hostility in Asia left sections in
11 significant point of intersection in East-West trade.
contributed
to mouth
making Istanbul
theSea.
most
Mongols
laid wasteinto East-West
much of Eastern
location at the
the Black
contributed
to makingofIstanbul
the most Moreover,
significantthe
point
of intersection
trade.
northern-eastern Europe as one of the only passages left to Christians interested in trade with
12
Istanbul became
the logically
appropriate
routedestroyed,
to traverse Eurasia,
especially
strategic
Andwith
Batuits
the
Europe.
The kingdom
of Hungary
was largely
was Poland.
Istanbul became
the logically
appropriate
route to traverseasEurasia,
especially
with
itsKahn,
strategic
Asia. For an extended time this passage
served
as
the
principal
trade
route
between
East
and
11
the Mongols
to much
Eastern
location atoftheGhengis
mouth of
thefounder
Black Sea.
11 Moreover,
grandson
and
of the
Golden Horde,
sacked laid
Kievwaste
in 1238
and of
later
took
Moreover,
the Mongols
laid
waste
to much
of
Eastern
location at the mouth of
the Black Sea.
West. However, the Mongols devastated this region to such an extent that12large freight could not
Kahn, the
Europe.ofThe
kingdom
of Hungary
largely destroyed,
as was hostility
Poland. And
control
Crimea.
During
much ofwas
the medieval
period, Muslim
AsiaBatu
left sections
in
Batu
Kahn, the
Europe. The
kingdom
of Hungary
was
largely destroyed,
as was Poland.12in And
be transported through the territory, thus Istanbul became the most significant point for
grandson
of Ghengis
andasfounder
of the
Horde,
sacked
Kiev interested
in 1238 and
later took
northern-eastern
Europe
one of the
onlyGolden
passages
left to
Christians
in trade
with
grandson
of Ghengis
and founder
of the
Golden
Horde,
sacked
Kiev in 1238 and
later took
commercial exchange.13
control
of Crimea.
During
much
the medieval
Muslim hostility
in Asia
left sections
in
Asia. For
an extended
time
this of
passage
served period,
as the principal
trade route
between
East and
control
of Crimea.
During
much
of
the medieval
period,
Muslim hostility
in Asia
left sections
in
Istanbul was an integral trade post because it provided an important place for security.
northern-eastern
as one
of the only
Christians
in trade
West. However, Europe
the Mongols
devastated
thispassages
region to left
suchto
extent thatinterested
large freight
couldwith
not
northern-eastern
Europe
as one
of the only
passages
left
toanChristians
interested
in trade
with
The warring Mongolian frontier and religiously torn territories meant Istanbul was a rare safe
Asia.
For an extended
passage
served
as thebecame
principal
between point
East and
be transported
through time
the this
territory,
thus
Istanbul
thetrade
mostroute
significant
for
Asia.
For an extended
time
this
passage
served
as the principal
trade
route
between East and
bastion. Istanbul became the center of trade because of its location and defenses, both natural
13
West. However,
the Mongols
devastated this region to such an extent that large freight could not
commercial
exchange.
West. However,
the Mongols devastated this region to such an extent that large freight could not
be transported
through
the territory,
Istanbul
becamean the
most place
significant
point for
Istanbul was
an integral
trade postthus
because
it provided
important
for security.
transported
through
the
territory,
May,
“The Mongol
Empire in
World
History.”thus Istanbul became the most significant point for
11
be
12
13
N.A.,
“Golden
Horde, Mongol
Empire,” Encyclopædia Britannica.
commercial
exchange.
13 frontier and religiously torn territories meant Istanbul was a rare safe
The
warring
Mongolian
commercial
exchange.
http://www.britannica.com/place/Golden-Horde
13
N.A., “Mongol Invasion
Europe.”trade post because it provided an important place for security.
wasbecame
anofintegral
bastion.Istanbul
Istanbul
the center
of trade
because
of its location
and defenses,
both natural
Istanbul
was an integral
trade post
because
it provided
an important
place for security.
68 torn territories meant Istanbul was a rare safe
The warring Mongolian frontier and religiously
The warring Mongolian frontier and religiously torn territories meant Istanbul was a rare safe
11
May, “TheIstanbul
Mongol Empire
in World
History.”
bastion.
became
the center
of trade because of its location and defenses, both natural
Istanbul
became
center
of trade because
of its location and defenses, both natural
N.A., “Golden
Horde,
Mongolthe
Empire,”
Encyclopædia
Britannica.
12
bastion.
http://www.britannica.com/place/Golden-Horde
N.A., “Mongol Invasion of Europe.”
11
11 May, “The Mongol Empire in World History.”
12 May, “The Mongol Empire in World History.”
Britannica.
12 N.A., “Golden Horde, Mongol Empire,” Encyclopædia68
N.A., “Golden Horde, Mongol Empire,” Encyclopædia Britannica.
http://www.britannica.com/place/Golden-Horde
http://www.britannica.com/place/Golden-Horde
13
13 N.A., “Mongol Invasion of Europe.”
N.A., “Mongol Invasion of Europe.”
13
68
68
68
istanbul
undefeated for 1000 years. Istanbul’s famous impermeable walls protected the city from the
and man-made. Istanbul was blessed with natural and constructed defenses that left the city
Mongols.
The walls
consisted
of an
inner
wall 12 meters
high
and 5 meters
thick
with 96 placed
bastions
placed
every
53 meters.
The
outer
spanned
9 meters
high
with
96
and man-made.
Istanbul
was blessed
with wall
natural
and constructed
defenses
thattowers
left the city
undefeated for 1000 years. Istanbul’s famous impermeable walls protected the city from the
between
theforlarger
behind them.
A moat
18 meters
and 5-10
meters
undefeated
1000 bastions
years. Istanbul’s
famous
impermeable
wallswide
protected
the city
fromdeep
the
istanbul
Mongols.
The
walls
consisted
of
an
inner
wall
12
meters
high
and
5
meters
thick
with
96
jagged shoreline
fitted with
strong currents,
as well as the
a chain
that stretched
in front of the city’s
surrounded
the walls
city.
The fortifications
Persians,
Mongols. The
consisted
of an innerwarded
wall 12 off
meters high
and 5 Avars,
meters Sacrens,
thick withBulgarians,
96
16
central port.
was virtually
impossible
for unwelcomed
visitorsofto717,
dock.the
Russians
andItOttomans
1453.The
During
Arab
invasion
Arab96armies
attacked
istanbul
bastions placed
every 53until
meters.
outerthe
wall
spanned
9 meters high
with
towers
placed
istanbul
Despite
the
general
destruction
the
Mongolians
wrought
over
much
of
Eurasia,
the
city with
men, andbehind
returnedthem.
defeated
with 30,000.
Historians
estimate
the giant
between
the 200,000
larger bastions
A moat
18 meters
wide and
5-10 that
meters
deep
administratively
the Mongol
empire
implemented
important
legislation
to facilitate
14
bastions
placed
every
53
The17
outer
wall
spanned
9 meters
high designed
with
96 towers
placed
walls
defeated
armies
times.
surrounded
thelarge
city.besieging
Themeters.
fortifications
warded
off
the Persians,
Avars,
Sacrens,
Bulgarians,
bastions placed every 53 meters. The outer wall spanned 9 meters high with 96 towers placed
commerce.
suchbastions
tool was the
introduction
licenses
called
the Tablet
of deep
between
theOne
larger
behind
them.
Aof
moat
18 requirements,
meters
wide
and
5-10
meters
Istanbul
not only
had 1453.
impressive
landthe
fortifications,
butofa717,
maritime
defense
capable
of
Russians
and
Ottomans
until
During
Arab
invasion
the
Arab
armies
attacked
between the larger bastions behind them. A moat 18 meters wide and 5-10 meters deep
surrounded
the
city.
The
fortifications
warded
off the
Persians,
Sacrens,
Bulgarians,
shielding
naval
attacks.
Maritime
authorities
at Istanbul
kept
theHistorians
seasAvars,
safe from
pirates
and
Principles
of
social
science
the city with
200,000
men,
and
returned
defeated
with
30,000.
estimate
that
the other
giant
surrounded the city. The fortifications warded off the Persians, Avars, Sacrens, Bulgarians,
15
14Arab
Russians
and Ottomans
until
During
invasion
of 717, thesafely
Arab by
armies
The
potential
threats,
allowing
land1453.
merchants
to the
cross
between
the continents
ferry.attacked
walls defeated
large
besieging
armies
17 times.
Russians and
Ottomans
until
1453.
During
the Arabsafe
invasion
ofof717,
the Arab
armies
attacked
Authority.
These
licenses
were
intended
to promote
passage
convoys
within
Mongolianthe city
with 200,000
men,had
andimpressive
returned
defeated
withnaval
30,000.
estimate
that
the giant
Sea
of Marmara
provided
Istanbul
with an
important
advantage.
The
narrow
Dardanelles
Istanbul
not
only
land
fortifications,
butHistorians
a maritime
defense
capable
of
the city with
200,000Marco
men, and
defeated
with
30,000.
Historians
estimate
giant
controlled
territory.
Poloreturned
described
the rights
that
came with
the tablet,
“And that
I canthe
assure
14
wallsBosphorus
defeated
besieging
and
straits
on Maritime
eitherarmies
sideauthorities
of17
thetimes.
seaatdisable
flanking operations. In narrow straits, the
shielding
navallarge
attacks.
14Istanbul kept the seas safe from pirates and other
wallsthat
defeated
large besieging
armies
times.
you,
whithersoever
they went
they17
would
honorably
be provided with whatever they stood in
15 this
Istanbul
not
only
had
impressive
land
fortifications,
but
a maritime
capable
of
number
of
ships
deployed
does
not
necessarily
determine
outcome
of safely
thedefense
conflict.
For
The
potential threats, allowing land 17
merchants to cross betweenthe
the
continents
by ferry.
need of,Istanbul
or chosenot
to command.”
The Mongols
also introduced
medium
of exchange
only had impressive
land fortifications,
buta apaper
maritime
defense
capable inof
shielding
naval attacks.
authorities
at Istanbul
kept
the seasnumbers.
safe
from
pirates
and
other
reason,
Istanbul
was
ableMaritime
to
hold of
amphibious
attacks
of superior
Finally,
Istanbul
Sea
of Marmara
provided
Istanbul
with
an important
naval
advantage.
The
narrow
Dardanelles
much
of their
Khan instituted
a standard
currency
legislation.
Alland
foreign
shielding
navaldominion.
attacks. Maritime
authorities
at Istanbul
kept thethrough
seas safe
from pirates
other
15
The
potential
threats,
allowing
land
merchants
to
cross
between
the
continents
safely
by
ferry.
had
strong
naval
fortifications.
The
impenetrable
apparatus
included
a
naval
wall
on
top
of
a
and Bosphorus straits on either side of the sea disable flanking operations. In narrow straits,
18
15 the
merchants
were banned
from
substituting
and the
other
precious safely
metalsby
as ferry.
currency.
The
potential threats,
allowing
land
merchantstrading
to crossgems
between
continents
Sea of Marmara
provided
an important
navalthe
advantage.
Thethenarrow
Dardanelles
number
ofother
shipsvaluable
deployed Istanbul
does could
notwith
necessarily
determine
outcome
of
conflict.
Forforthis
Gems
only
sold
to the
Khan
administration,
in
exchange
a
Sea ofand
Marmara
providedstones
Istanbul
with
an be
important
naval
advantage.
The narrow
Dardanelles
and
Bosphorus
straits
on
either
side
of
the
sea
disable
flanking
operations.
In
narrow
straits,
the
reason, Istanbul
was
19 able to hold of amphibious attacks of superior numbers. Finally, Istanbul
Theeither
introduction
ofsea
standard
throughout
standard
currency.
and Bosphorus
straits on
side of the
disablecurrency
flanking facilitated
operations. trade
In narrow
straits,the
the
number
of
ships
deployed
does
not necessarily determine the outcome of the conflict. For this
14
had
strong
naval
fortifications.
The
impenetrable apparatus included a naval wall on top of a
Comer
Plummer,
“Walls
of Istanbul.”
http://www.historynet.com/ancient-history-walls-of-Istanbul.htm.
empire,
and
enriched
Istanbul
in consequence.
number
of ships
deployed
does
not
necessarily determine the outcome of the conflict. For this
15
J.J. O’Neil, “How Muslim piracy changed the world.”
reason,
Istanbul was
hold of
amphibious
of superior
numbers.
Finally,
Istanbul
http://gatesofvienna.blogspot.com/2009/11/how-Muslim-piracy-changed-world.html.
jagged shoreline
fittedable
withtostrong
currents,
as
wellattacks
as
a chain
that
in front
city’s
Mongols
trading
privileges
withstretched
the Genoese
and of
itsthe
colonies
reason,The
Istanbul
was also
ableestablished
to hold of special
amphibious
69 attacks of superior numbers. Finally, Istanbul
strong
fortifications.
The impenetrable
apparatus
included
naval wall on top of a
had
central
port.naval
It1261,
was
virtually
impossible
for unwelcomed
visitors
to
dock.a16
in
the newly
restored
Byzantine
Empire
signed
a treaty
Genoa
helped
hadCrimea.
strong In
naval
fortifications.
The impenetrable
apparatus
included
awith
naval
wall that
on top
of a
Despite
theingeneral
destruction
the Mongolians
wrought
Eurasia,
14
settle
trading
rights
Emperor
Michael
VIII Palaeologus
gave over
Genoamuch
specialofprivileges
Comer
Plummer,
“WallsCrimea.
of Istanbul.”
http://www.historynet.com/ancient-history-walls-of-Istanbul.htm.
15
J.J. O’Neil, “How Muslim piracy changed the world.”
administratively
the Mongol
empireCembalo,
implemented
important
legislation
designed
to facilitate
http://gatesofvienna.blogspot.com/2009/11/how-Muslim-piracy-changed-world.html.
ts like Kaffa,
Cherson,
Genovez
Kaya, Lusta
and Soldia.
With
to
commercial entrep
69
14
such
the http://www.historynet.com/ancient-history-walls-of-Istanbul.htm.
introduction
of the
licenses
thetoTablet
of
Comer
colonies,
Plummer,
One
Genoa
“Walls
tool
gained
of
Istanbul.”
was
exclusive
commerce.
these
rights
to
Blackrequirements,
Sea trade andcalled
access
the western
14
15
J.J.
O’Neil,
“How “Walls
Muslimofpiracy
changed
the world.”
Comer
Plummer,
Istanbul.”
http://www.historynet.com/ancient-history-walls-of-Istanbul.htm.
http://gatesofvienna.blogspot.com/2009/11/how-Muslim-piracy-changed-world.html.
J.J. O’Neil, “How Muslim piracy changed the world.”
Plummer, “Walls of Istanbul.”
17
69
Polo, The Book of Ser Marco
Polo, vol. 1, chapter 8, prologue.
18
Ibid., vol. 1, chapter 29. 69
Authority. These licenses were intended to promote safe passage of convoys within Mongolian19
Ibid., vol. 2, chapter 24.
15
16
Principles of social science
http://gatesofvienna.blogspot.com/2009/11/how-Muslim-piracy-changed-world.html.
69
70
controlled territory. Marco Polo described the rights that came with the tablet, “And I can assure
administratively the Mongol empire implemented important legislation designed to facilitate
jagged shoreline fitted with strong currents, as well as a chain that stretched in front of the city’s
commerce. One such tool was the introduction of licenses requirements, called the Tablet of
central port. It was virtually impossible for unwelcomed visitors to dock.16
jagged
shorelineof
fitted
with strong
currents, as well as a chain that stretched in front of the city’s
Principles
social
science
Despite the general destruction the Mongolians wrought over much of Eurasia,
jagged shoreline fitted with strong currents, as well as a chain that stretched
in front of the city’s
central shoreline
port. It was
virtually
impossible
for unwelcomed
visitors
to stretched
dock.16 in front of the city’s
jagged
fitted
with strong
currents,
as well as a chain
that
administratively
Mongol
implemented
legislation
designed
facilitate
Authority. Thesethe
licenses
wereempire
intended
to promote important
safe passage
of convoys
within to
Mongoliancentral port. It was virtually impossible for unwelcomed visitors to dock.16
16
the virtually
general impossible
destructionforthe
Mongolians
wrought
over
much of Eurasia,
central Despite
port. It was
unwelcomed
visitors
to dock.
commerce.
One suchMarco
tool was
thedescribed
introduction
of licenses
requirements,
called “And
the Tablet
controlled territory.
Polo
the rights
that came
with the tablet,
I canof
assure
Despite the general destruction the Mongolians wrought over much of Eurasia,
administratively
the
Mongol
empire
implemented
important
legislation
designed
to
facilitate
Despite the general destruction the Mongolians wrought over much of Eurasia,
you, that whithersoever they went they would honorably be provided with whatever they stood in
Principles of
administratively
thesocial
Mongolscience
empire implemented important legislation designed to facilitate
commerce. One such
tool wasempire
the introduction
of licenses
requirements,
the Tablet
of
administratively
the Mongol
implemented
important
legislationcalled
designed
to facilitate
need of, or chose to command.”17 The Mongols also introduced a paper medium of exchange in
commerce. One such tool was the introduction of licenses requirements, called the Tablet of
Authority.
licenses
werethe
intended
to promote
safe passage
of convoys
Mongoliancommerce. These
Oneof
such
tool was
introduction
of licenses
requirements,
calledwithin
the Tablet
of
Principles
social
science
much of their dominion.
Khan
instituted a standard currency through legislation. All foreign
Principles
of social
science
controlled territory.
Marco Polo
described the rights that came with the tablet, “And I can assure
Principles
social
merchants wereof
banned
fromscience
substituting trading gems and other precious metals as currency.18
Authority. These licenses were intended to promote safe passage of convoys within Mongolianyou, that whithersoever they went they would honorably be provided with whatever they stood in
Authority.
Thesevaluable
licensesstones
were intended
to be
promote
passage
of convoys within
MongolianGems
and other
could only
sold tosafe
the Khan
administration,
in exchange
for a
controlled territory.
Marcowere
Polo17
describedtothe
rights safe
that came
with
tablet,within
“And IMongoliancan assure
Authority.
These licenses
intended
promote
passage
of the
convoys
need of, or chose to19command.” The Mongols also introduced a paper medium of exchange in
controlledcurrency.
territory. Marco
describedofthe
rights that
came with
the tablet,
“And
I can assure
The Polo
introduction
standard
currency
facilitated
trade
throughout
the
standard
you, that whithersoever
theyPolo
wentdescribed
they would
provided
with
whatever
in
controlled
territory. Marco
thehonorably
rights thatbe
came
with the
tablet,
“Andthey
I canstood
assure
much of their dominion. Khan instituted a standard currency through legislation. All foreign
you, thatand
whithersoever
they went
they would honorably be provided with whatever they stood in
empire,
enriched Istanbul
in17consequence.
need that
of, or
chose to command.”
The would
Mongols
also introduced
a paper
ofthey
exchange
you,
whithersoever
they went they
honorably
be provided
withmedium
whatever
stood in
merchants were banned from substituting
trading gems and other precious metals as currency.18
17
need of,The
or chose
to command.”
The
Mongols
also
introduced
a
paper
medium
of
exchange
in
Mongols
also established
special
trading
privileges
with
the
Genoese
and
its
colonies
much
of or
their
dominion.
Khan17instituted
a standard
currency through
All foreign
need of,
chose
to command.”
The Mongols
also introduced
a paper legislation.
medium of exchange
in
Gems and other valuable stones could only be sold to the Khan administration, in exchange for a
much
of
their
dominion.
Khan
instituted
a
standard
currency
through
legislation.
All
foreign
in Crimea. In 1261, the newly restored Byzantine Empire signed a treaty with Genoa that helped
18
merchants
weredominion.
banned from
substituting
gemscurrency
and other
precious
metals as All
currency.
much
of their
Khan
instituted trading
a standard
through
legislation.
foreign
standard currency.19 The introduction of standard currency facilitated trade throughout the
18
merchants
were
banned
from substituting
tradingVIII
gemsPalaeologus
and other precious
metals
as currency.
settle trading
rights
in Crimea.
Emperor Michael
gave Genoa
special
privileges
Gems
and other
stones
could onlytrading
be soldgems
to theand
Khan
administration,
in exchange
for 18a
merchants
were valuable
banned from
substituting
other
precious metals
as currency.
empire, and enriched Istanbul in consequence.
Gems
and otherentrep
valuable
stones
could
only be sold
to theGenovez
Khan administration,
in exchange
for a
Kaffa,
Cembalo,
Cherson,
Kaya, Lusta and
Soldia. With
to
commercial
19 ts like
The
introduction
of be
standard
currency
facilitated tradein throughout
thea
standard
Gems
andcurrency.
other valuable
stones
could only
sold to the
Khan administration,
exchange for
The Mongols
19 also established special trading privileges with the Genoese and its colonies
The
introduction
of
standard
currency
facilitated
trade
throughout
the
standard
currency.
these colonies, Genoa
gained exclusive rights to the Black Sea trade and access to the western
19 Istanbul in consequence.
empire,
enriched
The introduction of standard currency facilitated trade throughout the
standardand
currency.
in Crimea. In 1261, the newly restored Byzantine Empire signed a treaty with Genoa that helped
empire, and enriched Istanbul in consequence.
16
Plummer,
of Istanbul.”
The
Mongols
also
established
special trading privileges with the Genoese and its colonies
empire,
and“Walls
enriched
Istanbul
in consequence.
17
settle
rights
inMarco
Crimea.
Emperor
Michael
VIII Palaeologus gave Genoa special privileges
Polo,trading
The
Book
of
Ser
Polo,
vol.
1,
chapter
prologue.
The Mongols also established special8,trading
privileges with the Genoese and its colonies
18
vol.
chapter
in Ibid.,
Crimea.
1261,29.the
restored
Byzantine
Empire
signed
a treaty
with Genoa
thatcolonies
helped
The1,In
Mongols
alsonewly
established
special
trading
privileges
with
the Genoese
and its
19 commercial entrep ts like Kaffa, Cembalo, Cherson, Genovez Kaya, Lusta and Soldia. With
to
vol. 2,In
chapter
in Ibid.,
Crimea.
1261,24.the newly restored Byzantine Empire signed a treaty with Genoa that helped
70VIII
settle
tradingInrights
Crimea.
EmperorByzantine
Michael
Palaeologus
specialthat
privileges
in
Crimea.
1261,inthe
newly restored
Empire
signed a gave
treatyGenoa
with Genoa
helped
these colonies, Genoa gained exclusive rights to the Black Sea trade and access to the western
settle trading rights in Crimea. Emperor Michael VIII Palaeologus gave Genoa special privileges
ts like Kaffa,
Cembalo,
Cherson,
Genovez Kaya,
Lusta and
Soldia.
With
to
commercial
entrep
settle
trading rights
in Crimea.
Emperor
Michael
VIII Palaeologus
gave Genoa
special
privileges
Silk
Road. The commercially minded Mongols allowed the Genoese to maintain their
16
Plummer,
“Walls
of
Istanbul.”
to commercial entrep ts like Kaffa, Cembalo, Cherson, Genovez Kaya, Lusta and Soldia. With
17
these
colonies,
Genoa
exclusive
rights
to the Black
Sea trade
access
the western
tsgained
like
Kaffa,
Cherson,
Genovez
Kaya,and
Lusta
andtoSoldia.
With
to
commercial
20 1,Cembalo,
Polo,
The Book entrep
of
Ser Marco
Polo,
vol.
chapter
8, prologue.
commercial
positions
in Crimea.
18
Ibid.,colonies,
vol. 1, chapter
29. gained exclusive rights to the Black Sea trade and access to the western
these
Genoa
19
16
these
colonies,
Genoa
the western
Ibid.,
vol. 2,
chapter
24. gained exclusive rights to the Black Sea trade and access toistanbul
Plummer,
“Walls
of Istanbul.”
17
16
18
16
17
19
17
18
18
19
19
70
Polo,
The Book
ofof
SerIstanbul.”
Marco Polo, vol. 1, chapter 8, prologue.
Plummer,
“Walls
Ibid.,
vol.
1,
chapter
29.
Plummer,
“Walls
Polo, The Book
ofof
SerIstanbul.”
Marco Polo, vol. 1, chapter 8, prologue.
Ibid.,
vol.
2,
Polo,
of Ser24.
Marco Polo, vol. 1, chapter 8, prologue.
Ibid., The
vol. Book
1, chapter
chapter
29.
Silk Road.
Road.
Silk
The commercially
commercially minded
minded Mongols
Mongols allowed
allowed the
the Genoese
Genoese to
to maintain
maintain their
their
The
20
commercial positions
positions in
in Crimea.
Crimea.20
commercial
istanbul
istanbul
Istanbul’s naval
naval fortifications
fortifications along
along the
the Bosphorus
Bosphorus guarded
guarded entry
entry to
to the
the Black
Black Sea
Sea and
and
Istanbul’s
21
thus limited
limited Muslim
Muslim piracy
piracy in
in the
the region.
region.21
Trade throughout
throughout the
the Black
Black Sea
Sea region
region prospered
prospered in
in
thus
Trade
consequence. By
By allowing
allowing the
the Genoese,
Genoese, and
and later
later the
the Venetians,
Venetians, to
to maintain
maintain their
their commercial
commercial
consequence.
interests in
in Crimea,
Crimea, the
the Mongols
Mongols unintentionally
unintentionally contributed
contributed to
to the
the commercial
commercial importance
importance of
of
interests
Istanbul. In
In Genoese
Genoese cities
cities within
within the
the Mongol
Mongol empire,
empire, violence
violence was
was not
not tolerated,
tolerated, neither
neither was
was
Istanbul.
22
disruption to
to commerce.
commerce.22
Much of
of the
the region’s
region’s trade
trade trickled
trickled south
south through
through Istanbul,
Istanbul, the
the last
last
disruption
Much
stop before
before the
the Mediterranean.
Mediterranean.
stop
Mongol hegemony
hegemony over
over Eurasia
Eurasia left
left Istanbul
Istanbul in
in aa favorable
favorable position
position commercially.
commercially. The
The
Mongol
militant ideology
ideology and
and warrior
warrior disposition
disposition of
of the
the Mongols
Mongols created
created aa vast
vast empire
empire that
that encompassed
encompassed
militant
much of
of Asia
Asia and
and Eastern
Eastern Europe.
Europe. The
The Mongols
Mongols used
used an
an authoritarian
authoritarian style
style of
of rule
rule to
to maintain
maintain
much
internal stability
stability within
within their
their vast
vast empire.
empire. Mongol
Mongol economic
economic policies
policies such
such as
as the
the requirements
requirements
internal
for licenses
licenses and
and aa regional
regional currency
currency contributed
contributed to
to the
the prosperity
prosperity of
of the
the region,
region, and
and the
the success
success of
of
for
Istanbul as
as aa commercial
commercial center.
center. Istanbul’s
Istanbul’s famous
famous walls,
walls, its
its strategic
strategic position
position connecting
connecting the
the
Istanbul
Black and Mediterranean seas, as well as Mongolian efforts to decimate traditional trade routes
20
20
Esther Lederberg,
Lederberg, “Continuity
“Continuity and
Medieval Colonization
Colonization of
European colonies
colonies on
on the
the Black
Black Sea.”
Sea.”
Esther
Medieval
European
through
Russia, Poland
and and
Hungary,
made
certainofthat
Istanbul
would
emerge
as a commercial
http://www.estherlederberg.com/Eugenics%20(Anecdotes)/Genoa%20Black%20Sea.html.
http://www.estherlederberg.com/Eugenics%20(Anecdotes)/Genoa%20Black%20Sea.html.
21
21 Plummer, “Walls of Istanbul.”
of Istanbul.”
metropolis.
Mongolian
power over Islamic territories also contributed to the
22 Plummer, “Walls
22 Lederberg, “Continuity and Medieval Colonization of European colonies on the Black Sea.”
Lederberg, “Continuity and Medieval Colonization of European colonies on the Black Sea.”
ascendency of
71
71
Istanbul by quelling religious animosities between
western Christians and eastern Muslims.
Before the Ottoman conquest of the city in 1453, the rise of the Mongols was the single most
important factor in the emergence of Istanbul trade. When the Mongols experienced a reduction
Principles of social science
Istanbul’s naval fortifications along the70Bosphorus guarded entry to the Black Sea and
Ibid.,
29.
Ibid., vol.
vol. 1,
2, chapter
chapter 24.
Ibid., vol. 2, chapter 24.
70 throughout the Black Sea region prospered in
thus limited Muslim piracy in the region.21 Trade
in their regional primacy to the Ottomans trade across Eurasia was once again restricted. These
consequence. By allowing the Genoese, and later the Venetians, to maintain their commercial
restrictions precipitated the European quest for an alternative route to the east, which ultimately
70 contributed to the commercial importance of
interests in Crimea, the Mongols unintentionally
led to Columbus’ voyage to the New World.
70
Istanbul. In Genoese cities within the Mongol empire, violence was not tolerated, neither was
71
Before the
the Ottoman
Ottoman conquest
conquest of
of the
the city
city in
in 1453,
1453, the
the rise
rise of
of the
the Mongols
Mongols was
was the
the single
single most
most
Before
important factor
factor in
in the
the emergence
emergence of
of Istanbul
Istanbul trade.
trade. When
When the
the Mongols
Mongols experienced
experienced aa reduction
reduction
important
Silk Road.
The commercially minded Mongols allowed the Genoese to maintain their
commercial positions in Crimea.20
Principles of social science
Principles of social science
istanbul
in their
their regional
regional primacy
primacy to
to the
the Ottomans
Ottomans trade
trade across
across Eurasia
Eurasia was
was once
once again
again restricted.
restricted. These
These
in
Istanbul’s
naval fortifications along the Bosphorus guarded entry to the Black Sea and
Works
Cited
restrictions precipitated
precipitated the
the European
European quest
quest for
for an
an alternative
alternative route
route to
to the
the east,
east, which
which ultimately
ultimately
restrictions
thus limited Muslim piracy in the region.21 Trade throughout the Black Sea region prospered in
Bentley, Jerry H. and Herbert F. Ziegler. Traditions & Encounters: A Global Perspective on the
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By2011).
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Columbus’ voyage
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led
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O’Neil, J. J. “How Muslim Piracy Changed the World.”
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Plummer, III, Comer. “Walls of Istanbul.”
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http://www.historynet.com/ancient-history-walls-of-Istanbul.htm.
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Esther
Lederberg,
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and Medieval
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of Chivalry,"
CodeColonization
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http://www.medievalchronicles.com/medieval-knights/code-of-chivalry-knights/.
21
22
Plummer, “Walls of Istanbul.”
Lederberg,
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andof
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of European
colonies on the Black Sea.”
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