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SCHEDULES OF
REINFORCEMENT
• 1. RATIO SCHEDULES
PROVIDE A REWARD AFTER A CERTAIN NUMBER OF RESPONSES (RATIO =
NUMBER)
• 2. INTERVAL SCHEDULES
PROVIDE REWARD AFTER A CERTAIN TIME INTERVAL
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Fixed Ratio (FR)
Variable Ratio (VR)
Fixed Interval (FI)
Variable Interval (VI)
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
Fixed Ratio (FR)
Variable Ratio
(VR)
Fixed Interval
(FI)
Variable Interval
(VI)
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Rewards appear after a
certain set number of
responses
Example: A factory
workers gets paid after
every 10 cases of a
product are completed
SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
Fixed Ratio (FR)
Variable Ratio
(VR)
Fixed Interval
(FI)
Variable Interval
(VI)
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
The number of
responses for a reward
(reinforcement) varies
Example:
Telemarketers never
know how many calls it
takes to make a sale
slot machine pay-offs
SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
Fixed Ratio (FR)
Variable Ratio
(VR)
Fixed Interval
(FI)
Variable Interval
(VI)
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Time period between
rewards remains
constant
Example:
Weekly paycheck
Quarterly school grades
SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
Fixed Ratio (FR)
Variable Ratio
(VR)
Fixed Interval
(FI)
Variable Interval
(VI)
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Rewards appear after a
certain amount of time,
but that amount varies
Example:
Random visits from the
boss who delivers praise
Fishing
THE PROBLEM OF PUNISHMENT
PUNISHMENT
AN AVERSIVE CONSEQUENCE USED TO
WEAKEN THE BEHAVIOR THAT FOLLOWS
• HOW DOES THIS DIFFER FROM NEGATIVE
REINFORCEMENT?
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PUNISHMENT VS. NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT
Negative
Reinforcement
Response
Consequence
Loud Noise
Press Lever
Loud Noise
Removed
Press Lever
Loud Noise
Applied
Punishment
No Noise
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TWO TYPES OF PUNISHMENT
1. POSITIVE PUNISHMENT
THE APPLICATION OF AN AVERSIVE
STIMULUS AFTER A RESPONSE
TOUCHING A HOT STOVE WILL LIKELY
REDUCE THE CHANCE OF IT
HAPPENING AGAIN
WASHING YOUR MOUTH OUT WITH SOAP
FOR SWEARING
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TWO TYPES OF PUNISHMENT
2. NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT (OMISSION
TRAINING)
THE REMOVAL OF AN
REINFORCER/STIMULUS AFTER A
RESPONSE
TAKING THE CAR KEYS FROM A
MISBEHAVING TEEN
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A CHILD WHO TALKS BACK MAY NOT BE
ALLOWED TO WATCH IT’S FAVORITE
CARTOON
FOUR KINDS OF CONSEQUENCES
STIMULUS
Positive or
appetitive
+
Present
Remove
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Positive
Reinforcement
Bonus for working hard
leads to more hard work
Negative
Reinforcement
Aspirin curing headache
causes more aspirin use
Negative or
aversive
Punishment
Getting speeding ticket
leads to less speeding
Omission Training
Missing dinner leads to
less staying out late
WHY PUNISHMENT DOESN’T
WORK
1.THE POWER OF PUNISHMENT USUALLY DISAPPEARS WHEN THREAT OF
PUNISHMENT IS REMOVED
PUNISHMENT…
2. …OFTEN TRIGGERS AGGRESSION OR ESCAPE
3. …MAY INCREASE APPREHENSION IN THE LEARNER, INHIBITING THE
LEARNING NEW AND BETTER RESPONSES
4. …IS OFTEN UNFAIR AND APPLIED UNEQUALLY
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
WHEN DOES PUNISHMENT WORK?
• IT MUST BE IMMEDIATE
• IT MUST BE CERTAIN AND CONSISTENT
• IT SHOULD BE LIMITED IN DURATION AND INTENSITY
• SHOULD BE CLEARLY TARGET THE BEHAVIOR, NOT THE PERSON
• LIMITED TO THE SITUATION IN WHICH THE RESPONSE OCCURRED
• SHOULD NOT SEND MIXED MESSAGES (I CAN HIT YOU BUT YOU
CAN’T HIT OTHERS
• NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT IS THE MOST EFFECTIVE
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
ALTERNATIVES TO PUNISHMENT
• EXTINCTION
• REINFORCING PREFERRED ACTIVITIES
• THE PREMACK PRINCIPLE
• PROMPTING AND SHAPING
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OPERANT AND CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
COMPARED
• CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
INVOLVES THE ASSOCIATION
OF TWO STIMULI (UCS + CS)
BEFORE THE RESPONSE OR
BEHAVIOR
• IT IS LARGELY A RESPONSE
TO PAST STIMULATION AND
ENDS WITH THE RESPONSE
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
• OPERANT CONDITIONING
INVOLVES A REINFORCING
(REWARD) OR PUNISHING
STIMULUS AFTER A RESPONSE
OR BEHAVIOR
• IS DIRECTED AT ATTAINING
SOME FUTURE
REINFORCEMENT OR
AVOIDING PUNISHMENT AND
REQUIRES A STIMULUS THAT
FOLLOWS THE RESPONSE
HOW DOES COGNITIVE
PSYCHOLOGY EXPLAIN LEARNING?
According to cognitive
psychology, some forms of
learning must be explained
as changes in mental
processes, rather than as
changes in behavior alone
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
How Does Cognitive Psychology
Explain Learning?
• INSIGHT LEARNING –
PROBLEM SOLVING OCCURS BY MEANS OF A SUDDEN
REORGANIZATION OF PERCEPTIONS.. SUDDENLY PERCEIVING
FAMILIAR OBJECTS IN NEW FORMS OR RELATIONSHIPS
• COGNITIVE MAPS –
A MENTAL REPRESENTATION OF PHYSICAL SPACE
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
WOLFGANG KÖHLER
AND INSIGHT LEARNING
• EXAMPLE: CHIMP STACKS CRATES TO REACH FOOD
• THIS IS A FORM OF COGNITIVE LEARNING
• BEHAVIORISM HAS NO CONVINCING STIMULUSRESPONSE EXPLANATION FOR KOHLER’S
DEMONSTRATION.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
• KÖHLER OBSERVED THE MANNER IN
WHICH CHIMPANZEES SOLVE PROBLEMS,
SUCH AS THAT OF RETRIEVING BANANAS
WHEN POSITIONED OUT OF REACH.
• HE FOUND THAT THEY STACKED WOODEN
CRATES TO USE AS MAKESHIFT LADDERS, IN
ORDER TO RETRIEVE THE FOOD.
• KÖHLER CONCLUDED THAT THE CHIMPS
HAD NOT ARRIVED AT THESE METHODS
THROUGH TRIAL-AND-ERROR (WHICH
THORNDIKE HAD CLAIMED TO BE THE BASIS
OF ALL ANIMAL LEARNING, THROUGH HIS
LAW OF EFFECT)
• RATHER THEY HAD EXPERIENCED AN
INSIGHT (ALSO KNOWN AS AN “AHA
EXPERIENCE”), IN WHICH, HAVING
REALIZED THE ANSWER, THEY THEN
PROCEEDED TO CARRY IT OUT IN A WAY
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon
2007 WAS “PURPOSEFUL.”
THAT
EDWARD TOLMAN’S COGNITIVE MAP
• ORGANISMS LEARN THE SPATIAL LAYOUT
OF THEIR ENVIRONMENTS BY
EXPLORATION, EVEN IF THEY ARE NOT
REINFORCED FOR EXPLORING
• (EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE: ANIMALS
FORGING FOR FOOD)
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
EDWARD TOLMAN’S
COGNITIVE MAP
• ARGUED THAT IS WAS A COGNITIVE
MAP THAT ACCOUNTED FOR A RAT
QUICKLY SELECTING AN
ALTERNATIVE ROUTE IN A MAZE
WHEN THE PREFERRED PATH WAS
BLOCKED
• CHALLENGED THE WORK OF
PAVLOV, WATSON, AND SKINNER
• CLAIMED LEARNING WAS MENTAL,
NOT BEHAVIORAL.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
EXAMPLES OF COGNITIVE MAPS
• GIVING DIRECTIONS
• WALKING THROUGH
YOUR HOUSE IN THE DARK
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OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING: BANDURA’S
CHALLENGE TO BEHAVIORISM
• A FORM OF COGNITIVE LEARNING
• WE LEARN BY WATCHING OTHERS’ BEHAVIOR
AND THE CONSEQUENCES OF THEIR BEHAVIOR
• ALBERT BANDURA: PROPOSED THAT REWARDS
CAN BE EFFECTIVE IF WE MERELY SEE SOMEONE
ELSE GET THEM
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
BANDURA’ BOBO DOLL EXPERIMENT
1961•
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
BANDURA FOUND THAT THE
CHILDREN EXPOSED TO THE
AGGRESSIVE MODEL WERE MORE
LIKELY TO ACT IN PHYSICALLY
AGGRESSIVE WAYS THAN THOSE
WHO WERE NOT EXPOSED TO THE
AGGRESSIVE MODEL.
The Bobo Experiment Video
WATCH THE VIDEO
ALBERT BANDURA BOBO DOLL EXPERIMENT
ON YOUTUBE
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
CHILDREN SEE, CHILDREN DO
WATCH THE VIDEO
CHILDREN SEE. CHILDREN DO.
ON YOUTUBE
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
RECENT COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGISTS
FINDINGS
RESCORLA
• HAS SHOWN THAT THE MOST CRITICAL
FEATURE OF A CS IS ITS VALUE IN
PREDICTING WHEN THE US WILL OCCUR
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KAMIN
• EXPANDED ON THIS CONCEPT
AND DEMONSTRATED THAT A
CS - R CONNECTION ONLY
OCCURS IF THE CS CONTAINS
UNIQUE INFORMATION ABOUT
THE UCS
SUMMARY
REINFORCEMENT CHANGES NOT ONLY
THE BEHAVIOR BUT ALSO THE
INDIVIDUAL’S EXPECTATIONS FOR
FUTURE REWARDS AND
PUNISHMENTS IN SIMILAR
SITUATIONS .
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Reinforcement changes
expectations and behavior
BRAIN MECHANISMS AND LEARNING
LONG-TERM POTENTIATION
• BIOLOGICAL PROCESS INVOLVING THE STRENGTHENING OF
SYNAPSES IN GROUPS OF NERVE CELLS; BELIEVED TO BE THE NEURAL
BASIS OF LEARNING
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ARE THERE TWO LEARNING CIRCUITS??
• SIMPLE ‘MINDLESS’ LEARNING, LIKE LEARNING TO RIDE A BIKE
• MORE COMPLEX LEARNING THAT REQUIRES CONSCIOUS
PROCESSING: CONCEPT FORMATION, INSIGHT LEARNING,
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING, MEMORY OF SPECIFIC EVENTS.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007