Download FIMA Year Book 2014 - Federation of Islamic Medical Associations

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َ ِ‫ﺮُم َﻋﻠَْﻴ ِﻬ ُﻢ اﻟْ َﺨﺒَﺎﺋ‬ ‫ﺎت َوﻳُ َﺤ‬
َ ُ
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157:‫ﺳﻮرة اﻷﻋﺮاف‬
“…He (Allah) allows them as lawful what
is good (and pure) and prohibits them
from what is bad (and impure)…”
The Glorious Qur’an: Al-A’raf:7:157
FIMA
Year Book 2014
Federation of Islamic Medical Associations
‫اﻻﺗﺤﺎد اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻲ ﻟﻠﺠﻤﻌﻴﺎت اﻟﻄﺒﻴﺔ اﻹﺳﻼﻣﻴﺔ‬
ADDICTION:
MEDICAL, PSYCHOSOCIAL AND ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVES
:‫اﻹدﻣﺎن‬
‫اﻷﺑﻌﺎد اﻟﻄﺒﻴﺔ واﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ واﻟﻨﻔﺴﻴﺔ واﻟﺮؤﻳﺔ اﻹﺳﻼﻣﻴﺔ‬
Publisher:
Jordan Society for Islamic Medical Sciences – Jordan Medical
association, Amman-Jordan
‫رد‬‫ء ا‬‫ط‬‫ ا‬ -‫ ا‬‫م ا‬‫ ا‬
With special permit from:
Federation of Islamic Medical Associations (FIMA)
October, 2014
FIMA
YEAR BOOK 2014
Editorial Board
Editor in Chief
Hossam E. Fadel
Clinical Professor, Obstetrics and Gynecology
Maternal Fetal Medicine
The Medical College of Georgia,
Georgia Regents University
Augusta, GA, USA
Aly A. Misha’l
Senior Consultant in Endocrinology
Chairman-Ethics Committee, and
Ex-Chief of Medical Staff
Islamic Hospital
Amman- Jordan
Abul Fadl Mohsin Ebrahim
Professor Emeritus
School of Religion, Philosophy and Classics
University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
Musa bin Mohammad Nordin
Consultant Pediatrician – Neonatologist
Professor- Cyberjaya University College
Of Medical Sciences (CUCMS)
Kuala Lumpur – Malaysia
Publisher:
JORDAN SOCIETY FOR ISLAMIC MEDICAL SCIENCES, In collaboration with, and special
permit from: FEDERATION OF ISLAMIC MEDICAL ASSOCIATIONS ( FIMA ).
ADDICTION: Medical, Psychosocial and Islamic Perspectives
‫ ا‬‫ؤ‬‫ وا‬‫ وا‬‫ وا‬‫د ا‬‫ ا‬:‫ن‬‫د‬‫ا‬
All rights reserved, No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieved system,
or transmitted in any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise
without the prior permission of the publisher.
First Edition: October, 2014
ISBN: 969-8695-10
‫ ا‬‫رد‬‫ ا‬‫ا‬
‫ة‬‫ى دا‬ ‫اع‬‫ ا‬‫ر‬
‫ط‬‫ ا‬‫ا‬
( 2014/10/4934 )
Jordan Society for Islamic Medical Sciences
FIMA Year Book 2014: ADDICTION: Medical, Psychosocial and Islamic
Perspectives / Jordan Society for Islamic Medical Sciences – Amman:
JSIMS, 2014.
( 180 ) P
Deposit No.:2014/10/4934
Descriptors: Addiction// Medical// Psychosocial
‫و‬‫ ا‬‫ وا‬‫ت ا‬ ‫ ا‬‫ة ا‬‫ت دا‬‫ أ‬
Opinions in the articles are those of their authors. The editorial board does not necessarily
endorse these opinions, nor do these opinions represent the official position of FIMA.
Printed in Amman-Jordan, Al-Dustour Printing.
EDITORIAL
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Editorial
IX
2. FIMA: Federation of Islamic Medical Associations: in Brief
XIII
3. BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS UNDERLYING ADDICTION
Ilhan Yargic
4. ALCOHOL USE DISORDERS: SCIENTIFIC HORIZONS
AND ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVES
Mohammad Ali Albar, and Aly Mishal
5. TOBACCO DEPENDENCE: THE WHOLE STORY
Feras Hawari
6. OPIATE ADDICTION
M. Basheer Ahmad
7. CANNABIS
Adnan Takriti
8. QAT ADDICTION IN YEMEN: SOCIO - ECONOMIC PERSPECTIVES
ON HEALTH
Husni Al-Goshae
9. BEHAVIORAL ADDICTION
Mehmet Dinc
10. ADDICTION AND SUBSTANCE ABUSE IN PREGNANCY
Hassan M. Harirah, and Saher E. Donia
11. MOBILIZATION OF THE PUBLIC AGAINST ADDICTION:
THE TURKISH GREEN CRESCENT SOCIETY AS A MODEL INSTITUTION
M. Ihsan Karaman
12. BEWARE OF SPIRITUAL BYPASSING: INTEGRATE PSYCHOTHERAPY
IN THE ADDICTION RECOVERY PROCESS
Ketam Hamdan
13. HARM REDUCTION STRATEGY IN THE TREATMENT OF ADDICTION
IN THE CONTEXT OF ISLAMIC JURISPRUDENCE
Imthiaz Hoosan and Prof. Yasien Mohamed
14. ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVES ON PROPHYLAXIS AND THERAPY
OF ADDICTION
Mahmoud Abu Dannoun
15. ISLAMIC RELIGIOUS INPUT IN THE TREATMENT
AND REHAB OF DRUG ADDICTION: EXPERIENCES FROM MALAYSIA
Mahmood Nazar Mohamed, and Sabitha Marican
16. ISLAMIC PSYCHO-SPIRITUAL THERAPY (PST):
PANACEA FOR THE DRUG ADDICT
M. Hatta Shaharom
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014 VII
EDITORIAL
EDITORIAL
Dear FIMA members
Assalamu Alaykum
Bismillah al-Rahman al-Rahim
Praise be to Allah the Most Merciful, the Most Beneficent. May Allah (‫ )ﷻ‬shower His blessings and
peace on the Prophet and Messenger Muhammad (‫)ﷺ‬.
I begin by thanking the FIMA Executive Committee for honoring me with the responsibility of being
the Editor-in-Chief again for this year's yearbook. I thank Allah (‫ )ﷻ‬for giving me this opportunity
and enabling me to accomplish this task. I pray to Allah (‫ )ﷻ‬to accept my effort in His way and to
reward all who participated in this effort.
This year’s yearbook is addressing the worldwide serious problem of addiction. Addiction is a
chronic relapsing disease characterized by craving for a drug, compulsive drug use, inability to
control intake, and a resultant state of withdrawal with specific features when the drug cannot be
accessed. Another type of addiction has been recently described, i.e. behavioral addiction. It is the
same condition except that the putative agent is not a drug but a certain behavior.
In the first chapter, Dr Yargic discusses biologic mechanisms underlying addiction. He argues that
addiction is a brain disease that starts with drug use that triggers a series of biological cascades.
The drugs affect four interrelated biologic systems; brain reward system, autonomic nervous
system, prefrontal cortex (PFC), and the brain stress system. Drugs stimulate the mesolimbic
dopaminergic system much more than natural stimuli and produce a reward or high. Repetitive
stimulation causes sensitization that causes craving for the drug. Other neurotransmitters are also
involved e.g. serotonin. Dr Yargic describes the brain stress system as an alarm circuit that is
triggered by unpleasant stimuli. It is mediated by corticotrophin releasing factor resulting in
release of glucocorticoids, norepinephrine and dynorphin. This system aims to neutralize the reward
effects of drug use and to decrease dopamine release and restore normal function. This causes
tolerance to the drug and dysphonic syndrome when the use stops because the changes in the
stress system continue after avoiding the drug. Long term use of drugs leads to adaptation within
the autonomic nervous system and target organs. This adaptation is disturbed when the drug is
avoided and results in the physical manifestations of withdrawal. The prefrontal cortex is involved
in both the limbic reward system and the regulation of the higher order executive functions. In
addition PFC dysfunction is related to both compulsive drug use and the dysfunctional behaviors of
the addict.
Alcohol is the most widely abused drug worldwide. Alcohol dependence (Alcohol Use Disorder) is
more common than dependence on all other psychoactive drugs combined. This is primarily because
of its easy availability in most world communities. Although "social drinking” is acceptable in most
nations, no level of alcohol consumption is considered safe. Drs Al-Bar and Mishal describe the
epidemiology of alcohol consumption. They report that the total cost of alcohol consumption and
dependence to national USA economy was 185 billion USD in 1998. This excludes the intangible
losses that are difficult to quantify, including; domestic violence, child abuse and loss of careers.
The authors discuss in detail the medical harmful effects of alcohol. Globally, alcohol is reported to
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
IX
EDITORIAL
be responsible for 3.2% of all deaths and 4% of disease burden. Excessive alcohol consumption and
binge drinking are the third leading cause of preventable death in USA.
The cardiovascular effects have been the subject of several studies. Some observational studies
conferred some “beneficial “effects of social drinking primarily cardioprotective effects (decrease
in the risk of coronary heart disease). These studies were not replicated in randomized studies and
were not endorsed by professional organizations such as the Royal College of Physicians (UK) or by
the American Heart Association's Science advisory Council in its 2001 report. Any such possible
benefit is outweighed by its harmful effects on almost all organ systems as detailed in the article.
Alcohol is a contributing factor in accidents, especially car accidents and in injuries resulting from
the use of dangerous equipment. Up to 45% of injured patients reported consuming alcohol before
their injuries and more than a third reported that their injury occurred within 30 minutes of their
last drink. Suicide, homicide, serious assaults and rape are significantly increased in association with
alcohol consumption.
The authors point out that the main difficulty in the control of alcohol use disorder is that policies
are not directed towards limiting the availability of alcohol. They compare this with efforts to
curtail the availability of other dependence inducing drugs. They cite the failure of the prohibition
amendment passed in USA 1919-33 and of similar attempts in Russia. The attempt to only partially
limit alcohol consumption, by penalizing driving under the influence of alcohol and the prohibition of
sale or service of alcoholic drinks to youngsters has not been successful either. They compare
these failed efforts to the successful Islamic approach. Islam aimed at and succeeded almost
completely in eliminating alcohol consumption by a gradual approach of its prohibition, simultaneous
nurturing of moral values, and inculcation of faith that led people to obey God’s orders.
Dr Hawari discusses tobacco dependence. Smoking is probably as widespread as alcohol intake.
Tobacco smoking is highly addictive. Nicotine acts on the nucleus accumbens causing release of
dopamine similar to other recreational drugs. As other addictive drugs nicotine addiction is
characterized by the persistence of drug seeking behavior, and the occurrence of withdrawal
symptoms upon abrupt cessation. According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of mental
disorders it is ranked third after heroin and cocaine and higher than alcohol and cannabis in its
ability to cause dependence. It has been documented that smoking is responsible for increased
morbidity and mortality due to various diseases directly attributed to smoking and the effects of
second hand smoking mostly affecting women and children.
It is estimated that more than 5 million persons die annually due to tobacco related diseases.
Smoking is associated with increased incidence of cardiovascular diseases, peripheral vascular
disease, cerebrovascular diseases, and of sudden death. Smoking also increases the risk of head and
neck cancers, lung, urinary bladder, colon, liver, and breast cancers. This increased risk is caused by
the presence of at least 69 chemicals in tobacco smoke that are carcinogenic. Smoking causes and
affects many respiratory diseases, notably chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) .
Dr Hawari then discusses tobacco dependence treatments. Quitting smoking results in significant
and rather quick beneficial effects on health. It reduces premature death by 90% for those who
quit before the age of 30 and by 50% for those who quit before the age of 50. The World Health
Organization (WHO) has recommended strategies to encourage smoking cessation. These include
inclusion of smoking cessation advice in primary healthcare settings, establishing accessible and
free quit-lines and ensuring the availability of low cost pharmacotherapy. These include nicotine
replacement therapy as well as medications that help suppress the urge to smoke such as Buprion,
and varenicline. WHO also developed “The Treaty Framework Convention on Tobacco Control” that
X
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
EDITORIAL
advocates various strategies to counteract marketing of cigarettes and smoking culture by the
tobacco industry.
Dr Basheer Ahmed discusses opiate addiction. Globally between 24 and 25 million adults aged
between 15 and 64 years used an illicit opiate in 2010, 12 million of whom were in the USA. Opiate
addiction is the most serious form of drug addiction. In that year, 100 deaths occurred every day
from opiate overdose in the USA.
A major component of opiate addiction is the abuse of prescription opiates. Prescriptions for opioid
analgesics increased from 75.5 million in 1999 to 206.5 million in 2009. Oxycodone, oxycontin,
fentanyl and codeine are commonly prescribed for moderate and severe pain, sometimes without
proper justification.
There are three medications approved by the Federal Drug Administration (FDA) in the USA for
long term treatment, the opioid agonist methadone, the opioid partial agonist buprenorphine, and
the opioid antagonist naltrexone. Along with the medications psychosocial treatment significantly
enhances successful results. Dr Ahmed states that the elucidation of the underlying cause(s) of the
addictive behavior through psychosocial therapy enhances the motivation to stop drugs, teaches
coping with stress, changes reinforcement contingencies, fosters management of pain effects and
enhances social support and inter-personal functioning. Dr Ahmed laments the fact that contrary to
Islamic teachings, Muslims are heavily involved in planting, harvesting, refinement, smuggling, and
distribution of heroin(and Cannabis) to Western countries. Afghanistan is the world's top user of
heroin per capita. Iran and Pakistan have a high percentage of heroin addicts.
Dr Ahmed emphasizes the responsibility of Muslim communities to support and help to rehabilitate
the addicts- rather than stigmatizing them-and to encourage them to seek treatment. He
emphasizes that for Muslim patients, psychotherapy should focus on spirituality, strong belief in
God, asking for forgiveness, increasing the hope and giving strength to coping mechanisms. This
spiritual guidance may affect the brain reward system so the addict recognizes new cues for
pleasure redirecting it away from drugs to new religious experiences.
Another commonly used psychoactive drug is Cannabis which is discussed by Dr Takriti in another
chapter. He reports that the United Nations considered cannabis the most used illicit drug
worldwide.
Cannabis is produced from dried leaves, flower, stems and seeds of the weed Cannabis Sativa. It
contains 460 compounds, at least 80 of which are cannabinoids, the most active of which is
tetrahydrocannabinoid (THC). Cannabis can be consumed as the dried herb, resin, or oil. Cannabis
can be smoked in cigarettes alone or with tobacco. The resin and oil may be eaten directly or
incorporated in foodstuffs. THC binds to cannabinoid receptors. These are two types; CB1 and CB 2
and both are G-protein coupled receptors. TCH via CB1 receptors indirectly increase dopamine
release. It also acts as an allosteric modulator of the mu and delta opioid receptors. This results in
relaxation, mild euphoria (the "high"), increased appetite, and impairment of short term memory,
psychomotor coordination and concentration. Marijuana use has been implicated as a gateway to
harder drugs. Dr Takriti presents the various evidence for and against this theory. It is clear that
there is no evidence of a specific pharmacologic effect of cannabis priming the brain for cocaine or
heroin. It may be that the presumed gateway effect is caused by the common factors involved in
using drugs in the first place, and that cannabis users are more likely to be subjected to situations
allowing them to get acquainted with individuals using or selling the various other illegal drugs.
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
XI
EDITORIAL
Most countries have laws against the cultivation and possession or transport of cannabis. In the
USA although Federal law still prohibits and penalizes marijuana use, some states have allowed its
medicinal uses such as for treating nausea and vomiting associated with chemotherapy. Whilst some
states (Colorado and Washington) have already legalized its recreational use. Other countries have
lightened penalties for cannabis use, enforcing confiscation and fines rather than imprisonment.
Islamically, cannabis is considered an intoxicant, with significant harms on cognitive functions and
psychosocial problems, and is prohibited. The author cites early jurists’ opinions and a more recent
fatwa by the Grand Mufti of Egypt. The rulings of alcohol apply similarly for cannabis.
Qat was categorized as a drug in 1973. It is primarily consumed in Yemen, and East African
countries. According to Dr al-Goshae in his contribution to this yearbook, 70-80% of Yemenis chew
qat on a daily basis. Qat plantation occupies 58.5% of the total cultivated land and consumes 60% of
the scarcely available water. Two to three billion USD are spent yearly on qat consumption. Almost
20% of Yemen's workforce is involved in qat business. As it is locally produced and locally consumed,
qat generates no national income.
The main active constituents in qat are cathinone and cathine. They are central nervous system
stimulants that induce release of catecholamines. At first they cause alertness, talkativeness, and
euphoria but later they cause depression. Excessive and prolonged qat chewing may cause psychosis
and schizophrenia. It also affects the cardiovascular system causing hypertension, palpitation, cold
extremities, and sweating. Qat also affects the gastro-intestinal system causing hyperacidity and
aggravation of duodenal ulceration.
Dr al-Goshae then discusses whether qat produces dependence. While it is true that qat induces
psychoactive effects that cause individuals to continue using it regularly despite its harmful
effects on the family, income and health, but qat chewers do not experience significant withdrawal
symptoms on abrupt cessation of its use. Some researchers believe that qat dependence is mainly
psychological and chewers can quit the habit easily.
Because of the significant harmful socioeconomic effects the Yemeni government had sought to
curtail its use. Qat chewing is banned in all government institutions and during work hours. Taxes
were levied against various qat businesses. More recently, NGOs are trying to combat qat growing
and consumption. To date, these efforts have been ineffective. Religious scholars in Yemen issued
opinions declaring the prohibition of qat chewing. However there is no clear official fatwa (religious
decree) in that regard In Yemen. In Saudi Arabia, the Fatwa Institution, and the International
Islamic Fiqh Academy issued fatwas that qat is a narcotic and thus prohibited.
The other type of addiction i.e. behavioral addiction is discussed by Dr Dinc. It is difficult to draw
the line between personal lifestyle and preferences on one hand and psychiatric pathology on the
other. Dr Dinc cites the definition by Dr Griffiths as any behavior that fulfils six components,
salience, mood modification, tolerance, withdrawal, conflict, and relapse. Gambling has been the
best example of behavioral addiction, but at present there are many more examples such as
internet, pornography, and shopping. Dr Dinc focuses on internet addiction because of its
affordability, accessibility, anonymity, and that it can be used for all causes; sex, gambling,
shopping, etc. He recommends paying special attention to children and youngsters to prevent them
from developing behavioral addiction. Those who are at special risk are those who have any type of
psychopathology and those who suffer from Attention Deficit Disorder. He recommends teaching
them to use the internet responsibly and to encourage periodic physical exercise. He recommends
XII FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
EDITORIAL
encouraging the youngsters to express themselves and to socialize and to participate in group
activities to express themselves and have a meaning and fulfillment of their lives.
There is no specific treatment for behavioral addiction. However, psychosocial treatment methods
like the 12 step approach and pharmacologic treatment such as naltrexone which is a part of opiate
addiction treatment may be helpful.
Drs Harirah and Donia discuss substance abuse during pregnancy. It is estimated that about 4% of
pregnant women use some type of illicit drugs e.g. cocaine or marijuana, and that many more smoke
and drink alcohol. Smoking is relatively common especially in teenagers. Both nicotine and carbon
monoxide readily cross the placenta. Their concentration in fetal blood is much higher than in the
maternal blood. Smoking increases the risk of abortion, ectopic pregnancy, placental insufficiency,
fetal growth restriction (FGR), low birth weight (LBW), and preterm delivery.
Marijuana is the most commonly used illicit drug during pregnancy in USA. THC crosses the placenta
and has direct toxic effects on the fetus. FGR and preterm delivery are associated with marijuana
use but there is no evidence of increased incidence of fetal malformations.
Alcohol is still commonly consumed by pregnant women despite all its hazards. According to the
2010 National survey, 18.8% do, and 38% report binge drinking during pregnancy. Alcohol freely
crosses the placenta and its level in fetal blood is the same as in the maternal blood. The fetal liver
cannot metabolize it as efficiently as the mother’s liver. Alcohol consumption in pregnancy is
associated with abortion, and fetal malformation specifically Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, characterized
by FGR, decreased head circumference, abnormal facies, cardiac and renal abnormalities.
Heroin and methadone are the most common opiates used by the pregnant women with a recent
increase in prescription opiate analgesics abuse.Pregnant women who are using heroin should be
tested for sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). Intravenous heroin addicts have significantly
increased risk of HBV, HCV, and HIV infections. They must be counseled about methadone
maintenance treatment which is associated with much better outcome. Heroin readily crosses the
placenta. Heroin addicts experience six-fold increase in the risk of maternal complications; FGR,
preterm delivery, LBW, stillbirth, depressed Apgar scores, meconium staining of the amniotic fluid,
and chorioamnionitis. The judicial use of analgesic opioids has not been associated with increased
fetal malformations or other complications. However, if they are used around the time of delivery
there will be increased risk of neonatal withdrawal. Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome is the most
consistent outcome in neonates delivered of mothers addicted to opioids. The withdrawal symptoms
include seizures, breathing complications, tremors, and difficulty in feeding.
Another addiction drug used in pregnancy is cocaine. In the USA, a 1995 survey found that the
prevalence of cocaine abuse in pregnancy was 4.5%, 0.4%, and 0.7% of Afro-American, white, and
Latino women respectively. Cocaine has dopaminergic effects leading to euphoria or “the high”.
Cocaine hasalso sympathomimetic effects causing vasoconstriction, hypertension, tachycardia, and
possibly arrhythmias. Prenatal use of cocaine is associated with FGR, LBW, and decreased fetal
head circumference. Use in the first trimester increases the risk of abortion and fetal
malformation.Use later in pregnancy is associated with increased risk of placental abruption,
preterm labor, premature rupture of membranes, and stillbirth. Cocaine abusing mothers are prone
to infant neglect and abuse.
Methamphetamine is becoming a relatively common drug of abuse in young women and thus in
pregnancy. As with virtually all other drugs of abuse, amphetamine use is associated with risky
sexual behavior, teenage pregnancy, and potential increased risk of STDs. Prenatal exposure to
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014 XIII
EDITORIAL
amphetamine leads to LBW and to neonatal complications such as decreased alertness and poor
feeding.
Barbiturates and other sedatives such as benzodiazepine are sometimes prescribed to pregnant
women. There is no definite evidence of teratogenic effects but their use in the last trimester may
be associated with neonatal withdrawal symptoms and with the floppy infant syndrome.
Drs Harirah and Donia discuss the general principles of management of pregnant women abusing
drugs. Preconception counseling vis a vis cessation of smoking, abstaining from alcohol is very
important. Generally, other addicts do not present themselves to prenatal counseling or even for
prenatal care, especially in the early part when most of the teratogenic events occur. Screening for
fetal malformations should be adequately pursued. Genetic counseling should be offered if a
malformation is diagnosed. Serial sonography should be provided for evaluation of fetal growth.
Fetal well being testing should be offered in the third trimester. Nutritional counseling by trained
nutritionists is to be recommended to mitigate the poor nutritional status of these women. Timing
of delivery can be a challenge. The risks of prematurity should be balanced against that of
stillbirth. Pain relief management during labor should be discussed in advance.
Dr Karaman relates the experience of the Turkish Green Crescent Society (TGCS) in combating the
problem of addiction. He notes the power groups that promote addiction mainly the alcohol and
tobacco industries, the "addiction industry". He describes the impact of addiction on global
mortality figures as well as the disease burden. Dr Karaman reports that the annual value of the
illicit drugs in the world is estimated at 320 billion USD which is beyond governments' control. He
gives the history and the programs of TGCS. The society played a major role in the Turkish
government adoption and implementation of the WHO 's Framework Convention on Tobacco Control.
Although a "National Alcohol Control Action Plan" was introduced in Turkey in May 2013, there is
significant opposition from the secularists and the alcohol industry. The Society continues to
advocate for the law. TGCS aims to be a part of the international solidarity to fight addiction on a
global level. The Society is a member of the European Alcohol Policy Alliance and holds a special
consultative status with the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations. The Society serves
as a model and helped to form similar societies in Palestine, Bosnia, Malaysia, and Thailand.
Eventually they hope to establish the “World Federation of Green Societies"
After elucidating the problem, the next chapters of the yearbook address the different
approaches to the treatment of addiction. Dr Hamdan discusses the psychological model of
addiction therapy but stresses its possible hindrance by "Spiritual Bypassing". She defines it as a
person's utilization of spiritual procedures and beliefs to avoid unresolved psychological issues that
may be the trigger for the addiction. There is scarce research about “Spiritual Bypassing” and
almost none from the Muslim perspective. Most Muslims believe that addiction is a great sin and the
result of weak Iman, and that increasing one's faith and Islamic practices is the way to overcome
it. This, however, does not solve the problem. It allows the person to avoid examining or taking
responsibility for the issues underlying addiction. Dr Hamdan notes that devout Muslims believe
that calamities and illnesses are a means to get closer to Allah so they should embrace their illness
because it cleanses and purify them from their sins. So an addict should use the problem as an
opportunity to reevaluate his or her life and to increase one’s Islamic practices. Further, Muslims
tend not to discuss problems such as addiction with family or friends depriving themselves from the
beneficial effect of social support in the addiction recovery process. Instead they tend to seek
help from an Imam rather than from a professional. The religious leaders usually have no formal
XIV FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
EDITORIAL
education or training in these types of issues and Muslims thus forgo proper treatment. Dr Hamdan
believes that the Imams should serve as mentors referring these addicts to professional
counselors/ mental health professionals rather than just prescribing engaging in more Islamic
rituals and practices. This does not mean one should neglect spirituality. In fact many psychology
experts recognize its essential role. Studies suggest that early childhood trauma such as abuse or
neglect by parents often results in children engaging in addiction behavior later in life. Psychological
help will probably unveil issues in the unconscious which are the root cause of the addiction
behavior. Muslims in general shun psychological counseling because of cultural taboo. This needs to
be corrected.
Psychotherapy and Islam combined will allow one to address the root cause of addiction and result
in better chance of recovery. Muslim religious leaders and healthcare providers need to make
concerted effort to debunk the negative stereotype of psychotherapy, counseling and mental
health services. Dr Hamdan stresses the point that while the Quran and Sunnah provide the
principles by which one lives his life, "professional counseling could be used to help the person
understand why he or she may have difficulty applying these principles”. " In that sense she
believes that " Psychotherapy and counseling can serve to enhance a person's spiritual beliefs not
taking away from or replacing religion".
In most Muslim majority countries the traditional treatment of drug addiction is based on
abstinence. Another strategy i.e. "Harm Reduction" is discussed by Drs Hoosen and Mohamed. This
strategy allows substitute drugs such as methadone for heroin addicts and provides syringes,
needles and condoms for intravenous drug users as a means to treat the addiction while minimizing
the health, social and economic harms to the addicts, their families and community at large. It
tends to reduce legal problems, crime, domestic violence and job loss. The permissiveness of this
approach is controversial, especially in Muslim countries. The authors opine that this approach is
acceptable within Islamic guidelines.
Harm reduction is a mainstream drug policy in all European Union member countries. The authors
cite Spain as an example of the change in drug policy to harm reduction with resultant increase in
retention rates in treatment centers and a parallel decrease in morbidity and mortality of the
addicts. The authors also cite a similar experience in some Muslim majority countries. In Iran,
substance abuse was dealt with primarily by punitive measures. This was associated with high
relapse rates and increased risky behavior. Political and religious leaders recognized that
incarceration and abstinence were unsuccessful in addressing the continued increase in drug abuse
and in rates of HIV infection. This led to a review of the government policies and subsequently the
introduction of harm reduction strategies. In Malaysia the zero tolerance approach to drug use
failed to curtail the problem. This gradually changed to harm reduction programs with the approval
of the "Institute of Islamic Understanding" which declared that the harm reduction approach did
not violate Shari’ah (Islamic jurisprudence). Similarly in Afghanistan harm reduction interventions
were introduced in 2003.
Harm reduction strategies are generally challenged in Muslim countries based on the concept that
intoxicants and extramarital sex are forbidden in Islam. Distribution of syringes, condoms and
substitute drugs imply approval of the illicit behaviors. The authors, however, point out that the
abstinence only approach has been unsuccessful in stemming the spread of HIV and the punitive
approach was counterproductive. They propose citing contemporary Muslim scholars who believe
that it is not sufficient for verdicts to be passed purely on the basis of classical legal texts but has
to employ Ijtihad taking into consideration the objectives of Shari’ah which in essence are meant to
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014 XV
EDITORIAL
bring benefit and ward off harm. According to this school of thought, if harm reduction strategies
which involve the use of haram (forbidden) substances, and haram practices are beneficial to the
society as a whole, by preventing harm to the general public, then this strategy will be Islamically
acceptable. The authors invoke some Qura’nic verses and prophetic Ahadith and fiqh principles that
support their view. In "Harm Reduction strategies addicts may not achieve total abstinence and
they may still indulge in drug use but they do that in a less risky manner thus minimizing the harms
to themselves and others". They will be encouraged to enter into treatment facilities where they
will be more likely to engage with health professionals and maybe "more receptive to Islamic
psychotherapy which may motivate them towards total abstinence". The authors also point out the
similarity of harm reduction strategy to the gradual way Islam adopted for alcohol prohibition.
They also point out that addiction is an illness and addicts require treatment and not punishment.
Furthermore, the authors remind us that Islam teaches us compassion towards the sick and that it
is “not the duty of the health practitioner to pass moral judgment but only to care for the patient."
In another chapter Dr. Abu Dannoun discusses the Islamic perspectives of addiction prophylaxis
and therapy. He points out that although the prohibition of Khamr was largely applied to alcohol, the
major and may be the only known addictive substance known then, in fact the prohibition is clearly
because of its intoxicating effect. On that basis the ruling of prohibition applies to any other
intoxicating substance regardless of its chemical structure or other scientific means of
characterization. In Islam tahrim (prohibition) is linked to faith and its manifestations such as
prayers and fasting. This has more authority on the true Muslim than manmade laws. Tahrim of
intoxicants is deeply rooted in the Muslim psyche that even with the current decline of the
leadership of Islam in Muslim societies, addiction is a less of a problem than in non-Muslim
countries. The individual Muslim avoids alcohol and other intoxicants because it is prohibited and
because of his or her desire to please Allah. In addition, the society as a whole exerts pressure on
its members to avoid addictive substances. It is ironic that in non-Muslim countries there are
serious attempts to curtail the availability of other addictive substances while alcohol is largely
accepted as a social drink despite the fact that the former have less deleterious effects than
alcohol.
Dr Abu Dannoun brings up the question of whether addiction is an illness or a behavioral disorder.
Other contributors to this yearbook consider it to be a brain disease but still is it a disease that
one has no control on? Dr Ahmed, in his opiate article, states that while genetics and other biologic
underlying factors are involved in addiction, it is very possible that one can control it. Contemporary
Western oriented approaches are based on the concept that addiction is a disease that needs
therapy. Significant concessions are practiced to drug addicts in the harm reduction approach as
discussed previously. Dr Abu Dannoun does not approve of this approach while not neglecting the
medical, psychosocial and rehabilitation needs of drug addicts. He does consider addiction a devious
behavior and ethical-religious disobedience which are self afflicted by the individual. These
considerations render them liable to punitive measures. He believes that recognized therapeutic
measures should be mandatory. They may be gradual and long-term but should aim at complete
abstinence. Clearly Dr Abu Dannoun’s approach is orthodox in nature but I think that harm
reduction approach merits consideration and should be subjected to Ijtihad by Muslim scholars
alongside medical experts, psychotherapists, social workers, and others directly involved in the care
of addicted individuals.
XVI FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
EDITORIAL
Drs Mohamed and Marican from Malaysia state in their article that there are different methods of
addiction treatment and no single treatment is suitable for all. Treatment must be carefully
adjusted to ensure that a specific plan meets the person's changing needs. Detoxification maybe
the first sep but counseling and behavioral therapy should be applied to minimize the rate of
relapse. Recovery can be a lifelong process with multiple treatments. In Malaysia, Compulsory
Centers for Drug Users (CCDUs) were established to provide primarily psychosocial treatment.
More recently the supply and demand reduction approach was applied and resulted in a decrease in
the number of drug addicts. Supply reduction focuses on legislation, and law enforcement. Demand
reduction is achieved through several methods including education, increasing public awareness of
the dangers of addiction, and the establishment of effective abstinence based treatment programs.
Because of the limited success of the supply and demand reduction approach the harm reduction
approach was introduced in the first decade of this century. In 2005 MMT was endorsed by the
government. Moreover, this approach includes religious teaching conducted by certified religious
teachers. The harm reduction approach resulted in further reduction of substance abuse, greater
concern for one's own health, decrease in illegal activities, longer retention in treatment centers
and increase in gainful employment. There is evidence that by participation in these programs the
recovering addicts become more practicing Muslims with less attraction to negative life influences.
The authors note that the inclusion of religious teaching in drug treatment does have positive
effect onto the lives of the clients, while religious input in isolation is of little value. This supports
the importance of avoiding Spiritual Bypass described earlier by Dr Hamdan, and the Harm
Reduction approach discussed by Drs Hoosen and Mohamed.
The religious input should not be a fixed program but needs to be tailored to each individual needs
specifically to their prior religious knowledge.
Dr Shaharom describes a role for Islamic Psycho-Spiritual Therapy (IPST) in the treatment of
addiction. He defines it as a healing technique that transfers the individual from the realm of ill
health to that of well-being that is Rabbani (Godly). IPST incorporates the different theories of
psychotherapy that are not inherently anti-religion, Islamizing them in the process. Dr Shaharom
recommends using his designed Islamic Religiosity Scale to evaluate each individual and to design
the best combination of modalities for his treatment and to follow his progress. The basic
modalities are prayers, meditation, zikr (remembrance of Allah), and Qura’nic reading / recitation.
Dr Shaharom stresses that in some cases IPST needs to be coupled with pharmacotherapy. He
cites beneficial results for IPST and concludes that it is relevant in the treatment of addiction.
I conclude by thanking all the authors for their contributions to the issue. I especially thank
members of the Editorial Board: Drs. Aly Misha’l, Abul Fadl Mohsin Ibrahim, and Musa Mohd Nordin
for their valuable input and guidance. I sincerely appreciate the work of Dr. Mishal's staff for
copyediting and proofreading of the manuscripts, especially Ms. Elham Mohammad Swaid.
I pray that Allah (‫ )ﷻ‬accept and bless our efforts in His service. May Allah (‫ )ﷻ‬guide us to the
right path and have mercy on us. Amin.
Wassalam
Hossam E Fadel, M.D., Ph.D., F.A.C.O.G
Clinical professor, Obstetrics and Gynecology.
Maternal Fetal Medicine, The Medical College of Georgia
Georgia Regents University
Augusta, GA, USA
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014 XVII
EDITORIAL
Federation Of Islamic Medical
Associations ( FIMA ) in Brief
 Established at the outset of the 15th Hijrah century, December 1981, in
Orlando, Florida, USA, where senior leading medical professionals
representing ten Islamic medical organizations, from various parts of the
world, convened and laid down the foundation of the Federation.
 Subsequently, in March 1999, FIMA was incorporated in the State of
Illinois as a non-profit organization, then acquired the special consultative
status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council
(UN-ECOSOC).
 Since that time, FIMA membership progressively expanded to include 29
full members, 13 associate members, and more than 15 prospective and
collaborating organizations from all over the world.
 Most FIMA activities and achievements are based on the endeavors of its
member Islamic Medical Associations (IMAs), in constructive mutual
cooperation, and harmonious understanding.
 Islamic medical activities of FIMA have a holistic nature. Leadership,
mutual cooperation and innovation are prerequisites for the welfare of our
communities, our Ummah and humanity at large.
 These activities include, but are not limited to:
1. Cooperation in humanitarian medical relief work, where and when needed
in disaster stricken countries, regardless of ethnicity, religion or race. The
FIMA Save Vision Program was initiated in early 2005. To date more than
100,000 eye surgeries were performed by volunteer ophthalmologists and
teams from IMAs in several countries, in Africa, South and Southeast Asia,
where visual impairments are rampant. The program included training of
local medical professionals to continue and widen this activity by qualified
local talents. The program also included establishment of local eye
hospitals or eye sections in existing general hospitals, in deprived
communities.
This activity qualified FIMA for a distinguished award from the American
College of Physicians ( ACP ), designated for outstanding humanitarian
medical achievements.
Over the past five years, two new humanitarian activities were launched:
The cleft lip/palate, and the vesico-vaginal fistula projects, both highlighted
as significant medical and psychosocial problems in several needy
communities.
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014 XIX
EDITORIAL
2. Collaboration with regional and international organizations in areas of
preventive medicine and community health education.
3. Scientific, professional and ethical jurisprudence related conferences,
seminars and publications.
4. Establishment of the Consortium of Islamic Medical Colleges ( CIMCO ),
to foster cooperation in improvement of curriculum, training, research,
administration, and up-bringing of model medical practitioners.
5. Establishment of the Islamic Hospitals Consortium ( IHC ), to pursue
cooperation and coordination among medical professionals and hospital
administrators in areas of experience exchange, benchmarking,
improvement of health care delivery, ethical, administrative and operational
activities, to meet the most advanced international standards, in the context
of Islamic principles.
6. Publication of FIMA Year Books, which address biomedical, ethical,
scientific and other related issues that are needed for medical practitioners,
educators as well as Jurists.
7. In 2013, FIMA committee on Bioethics embarked on the project of
Encyclopedia of Medical and Health Ethics. In view of the extensive effort
needed, this project is expected to span over several years.
8. Medical students’ activities, including conferences, seminars, publications,
camps, Umrah and Ziarah programs.
9. Collaboration to extend a helping hand to Muslim medical practitioners in
underprivileged countries, to work together and organize professional
medical societies, to serve their communities.
10. Establishment of resource centers. The HIV/AIDS Resource Center has
been functional in prophylactic, social and therapeutic activities in several
countries for the past two decades. The Biomedical Ethics Resource Center
has been functional for the past decade.
For Correspondence:




FIMA President: Dr. Tanveer Zubairi- Pakistan
E-mail: [email protected]
FIMA General Secretary: Prof. Abdul Rashid Abdul Rahman- Malaysia
E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]
FIMA Executive Director: Dr. Aly A. Misha’l
E-mail: [email protected]
FIMA Executive Director in USA: Dr. Parvaiz Malik
E-mail: [email protected]
FIMA WEBSITE: www.fimaweb.net
XX FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS UNDERLYING ADDICTION
Ilhan Yargic*
Abstract:
Addiction is a behavioral disorder related to alterations in neurobiological systems
involved in reward system, brain stress response, physical withdrawal, inhibition and
executive control. Genetic and epigenetic variations in these neurobiological systems
cause individual differences and responses to these substances. The current review
summarizes the literature on the biological basis of drug addiction. In addition, this
review tries to explain the path from occasional recreational substance use to the
compulsive, addicted state. It will help to understand why the absolute avoidance of
psychoactive drugs is very crucial.
Keywords: addiction, mechanism, abuse, dependence, neurobiology
Introduction:
Drug addiction is a chronic, relapsing
disorder that is characterized by a craving
for drugs, compulsive drug use, loss of
control in limiting intake, and emergence
of an aversive state (withdrawal) when the
drug is not accessed1. Although any drug
use has a potential for further abuse or
dependence, clinical experience and
animal studies show that neurobiological
effects of occasional and limited use of a
drug, like alcohol, is different from those
of a chronic dependent state2. Addiction
develops as a result of a transition from the
first neurobiological state to the second.
Drug intake, accompanied by a biological
vulnerability causes some permanent functional and structural changes3 in various
parts of the central nervous system (CNS)
and several neuro-endocrinological modul-
ator systems. Generally, the discussion
about the health hazards of alcohol and
drugs has often focused on their
deleterious effects on bodily functions and
organs like the liver and lungs. However,
the worst effect of alcohol and drugs is on
the brain, because they cause long term
neuroadaptive changes in the CNS which
leads to compulsive drug use with frequent
relapses and poor outcomes even after
acute withdrawal symptoms have abated.
Modern research on drug abuse has
demonstrated the biochemical, cellular,
genetic, epigenetic and circuitry mechanisms that mediate the progression from
experimentation with a drug to addiction.
These changes in the brain have a potential
to continue for a long time after drug use
has stopped.
*Prof. Dr. Ilhan Yargic
Istanbul University Istanbul Medical Faculty
Psychiatry Department, Istanbul, Turkey
E-mail: [email protected]
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
1
BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS
These changes in the brain have a potential
to continue for a long time after drug use
has stopped. Addiction is a biopsychosocial disorder similar to other chronic
physiological disorders such as diabetes
mellitus that are progressive and influenced by environmental factors and stressors. A diabetic person cannot claim that he
will use his will power to keep a normal
blood glucose level after he consumes a
large amount of carbohydrate. Likewise,
an addict cannot keep limiting his drug use
and avoid bad consequences forever. But
like a diabetic person who should avoid
food that is rich in carbohydrates, an addict
should take every precaution to stay away
from drugs for good.
Alcohol and drugs have effects on four
interrelated biological systems in the brain
that underlie addiction.
These are brain reward system, brain stress
systems, autonomic nervous system (related to physical withdrawal) and pre-frontal
cortex function (related to cognitive
inhibitory control).
Drug use produces biological changes that
ruin the homeostatic operations of the CNS
and a new state of chronic dysregulation
(an allostatic state) is shaped4.
Brain Reward Systems:
Reward system is the fuel of life.
Mesolimbic dopaminergic system that
connects nucleus accumbens and venterotegmental area and gives projections to the
prefrontal cortex is the neural structure of
the reward pathway. This brain circuit is
present in human and all animals and it
gives an appetitive stimulus to obtain
innate needs (food and sex) that are
necessary for survival of the individual and
continuation of the generations. The
pleasure imbedded in them is like a small
fee given to the creatures to turn the wheel
of physical existence.
2
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
Through this mechanism, Allah has
programmed us to want things that we
need to survive. For example eating food is
not a burden that we just have to do but it
is a pleasure we seek for. Rewards serve as
positive reinforcers because they affect the
behavior towards obtaining a goal that
results in pleasure and satisfaction. When
someone uses a psychoactive drug, he is
abusing the reward system outside its
special purpose. Almost all drugs of abuse
stimulate mesolimbic dopaminergic system
much stronger than the natural stimuli,
thus they produce pleasurable effects
initially.
Repetitive stimulation of this system
causes sensitization that is responsible of
craving for the specific drug. Drugs act
like computer viruses that change the
original program of a computer (the brain)
and reorganize the system to perceive them
as a basic need, re-program the system to
produce an urge for them (drugs). The drug
user imagines this strong desire for drugs
as his natural will. Especially in the initial
phases of addiction, they say “I use it as I
want to use it”. They do not take into
consideration that this urge is not innate
and it develops after drug use. This strong
feeling of desire (impulse) for drug use
that affects decision-making process of the
person is one of the key elements of
addiction. Most of the drugs of abuse
increase dopamine in the mesolimbic
system directly or indirectly to produce a
reward or a high. For example opiates act
on opioid receptors which then stimulate
dopamine receptors, cocaine competes
with dopamine in the synaptic cleft for the
dopamine reuptake pump and keeps
dopamine in the cleft.
Activation of dopamine neurons is a motivational factor that produces rewardanticipation.
When a reward is higher than expected,
sensitization of dopamine neurons incr-
BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS
eases. This sensitization increases the urge
or motivation for the reward5. Drugs may
produce different effects on individuals6.
For example cocaine or meth-ylphenidate
use increases dopamine levels in human
brain and this increase is associated with
pleasure. If drug-naïve subjects had low
levels of dopamine D2 receptors, they
experience pleasure. But if they originally
had high receptor levels, they experience
unpleasant feelings. This study explains
the biological mechanism of why drug use
is pleasurable for some people and tends to
be repetitive while it is unpleasant and not
repetitive for others6.
Neurotransmitters other than dopamine
also play a role in reward system7.
Dopamine independent reward mechanisms have been described for opioids and
alcohol.
Serotonergic receptors in the nucleus
accumbens mediate the reinforcing effects
of psychostimulant drugs. Stimulation of
µ-opioid receptors in the nucleus accumbens and ventral tegmental area are responsible for the reinforcing effects of opioids.
Opioid receptors in the ventral striatum
and amygdala mediate the reinforcing
effects of ethanol. Acute intoxicating doses
of alcohol also increase inhibitory γaminobutyric acid (GABA) in the
amygdala. Activation of the mesolimbic
dopamine system produces an incentive
salience linked to the environmental
stimuli and drives goal-directed behavior1.
Pleasure (hedonic state) provided by the
reward starts a learning process including
condi-tioning with cues that are associated
with drug use, assigning value and
motivational status to the reward.
Motivational state produced by drug
withdrawal is like hunger and sexual
arousal that increase the incentive salience
of the reward and related cues8. As the
hunger or withdrawal rises, struggle to get
the reward will accelerate.
The brain has a plastic property and it
rapidly develops an adaptation to the
effects of drugs. This is called tolerance.
Repetitive use of a drug increases reward
thresholds (decreases reward). For this
reason, drug use does not produce satiety
as in natural rewards like food. A person
can eat up to a certain amount of his
favorite food each time but increases the
amount of a drug in subsequent uses. The
person cannot get the same high from a
drug during chronic use but he still
experiences a high level of urge to use it.
In other words, tolerance does not
extinguish this desire. The brain keeps the
value of possible actions in memory
according to the amount of reward it
produced in the past5. This stored value is
used to evaluate possible results of future
actions as reward or punishment.
Brain Stress Systems:
Stress system is the brain alarm circuit that
is triggered by danger or unpleasant
stimuli. Some neurochemicals that are
activated by acute or chronic stressors
initiate some typical behavioral responses.
In animals various behavioral responses
like freezing or flight may be observed1.
Brain stress systems include neurocircuitry
mediated by glucocorticoids, corticotropinreleasing factor (CRF), norepinephrine,
and dynorphin. There are also neurochemicals like neuro-peptide Y (NPY),
nociceptin, and endo-cannabinoids that
oppose the brain stress systems.
Stimulation of nucleus accumbens, the
reward system, also activates brain stress
systems that subsequently feedback to decrease dopamine release in the mesolimbic
dopamine system. Brain stress systems aim
to neutralize the effects of the drug and
restore normal function despite the
presence of drug. This causes tolerance to
the effects of the drug use and dysphoric
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
3
BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS
syndrome when the use is stopped because
the change in stress systems continues
although the drug use is avoided1.
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and
corticosterone are elevated during withdrawal and this disturbs the hypothalamicpituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and extrahypothalamic brain stress system mediated
by cortisol releasing factor (CRF).
Withdrawal and protracted abstinence from
drugs produce anxiety and irritability
mediated by CRF1. Dynorphin activation
mediates depressive responses to stress and
dysphoric responses during withdrawal
from drugs9. Animal studies10 show that
when primates were conditioned to associate a cue with a pleasurable object like
food, increased dopaminergic activity was
a response to the cue and not to the food.
Absence of food caused a drop in
dopaminergic function. Reduction in the
dopaminergic activity is considered to be
associated with negative affect like
dysphoria. So when an addict comes across
with a cue (e.g. needle, money), and
cannot access the drug he may feel
dysphoric. This negative feeling will also
increase the drive to get the drug.
Physical Withdrawal:
Withdrawal is the emergence of specific
behavioral and physical symptoms
following sudden discontinuation of a drug
in subjects who had been under its chronic
influence. It is the result of reversal of
homeostatic mechanisms which had been
disturbed by the drug before discontinuation11. In other words withdrawal is
the result of sudden backward change of
the homeostatic mechanisms that caused
tolerance to the drug. Actually in
stimulants and heroin, tolerance starts to
develop very early on and the person
cannot get the same effect from the same
amount of drug and needs progressively
4
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
higher drug doses to get the same effect, so
that the person gets into the vicious cycle
of tolerance. Acute physical withdrawal is
related to the somatic effects of drug use.
Long term use of many drugs leads to
adaptations within the autonomic nervous
system and its target organs.
This adaptation is disturbed when drug use
is avoided12. For this reason, medications
that modulate the autonomic nervous
system, such as clonidine and propranolol
are effective at reducing acute withdrawal
symptoms. Acute somatic symptoms of
withdrawal abate in days to weeks after the
drug is discontinued, however, a chronic or
protracted withdrawal state, where the
patient suffers from unpleasant psychological symptoms especially triggered by
drug cues, lasts for months to years.
Permanent changes in the brain may
induce relapses to drug abuse long after
detoxification.
Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-ergic
system and the glutamatergic system play
important roles in alcohol withdrawal13.
Increased glutamatergic NMDA function is
involved in seizures and cell death.
Amygdala and hippocampus are critical
sites for glutamatergic hyperactivity.
Reduction in dopamine plays a role in both
early abstinence and protracted withdrawal
from many drugs of abuse14.
Neuroimaging studies have shown reduced
dopaminergic activity in opiate, cocaine
and alcohol addictions. Even partial recovery of this change takes several months6.
Altered reward neurotransmitters increase
brain reward thresholds (a higher set point
for drug reward) during abstinence. This in
turn produces the negative motivational
state in withdrawal (psychological symptoms of withdrawal) and makes the patient
vulnerable to relapse1.
Withdrawal symptoms are aversive for the
drug user; therefore he starts to seek the
BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS
drug not for pleasure but to avoid
withdrawal symptoms.
Impulse control
And decision making:
Inhibitory control and decision making are
key executive functions for the development of addiction and they are mediated by
the forebrain. Prefrontal cortex (PFC) is
involved in regulation of both limbic
reward regions and higher-order executive
functions. Therefore in addiction, PFC
dysfunction is not only related to
compulsive drug use but also underlines
the dysfunctional behavioral pattern of
drug addicts. Impairment of the PFC
functions is also related to salience
attribution in addiction. “Salience attribution” is ascribing excessive prominence to
the drug and drug related cues, decline in
sensitivity to non-drug reinforcers and less
ability to inhibit maladaptive behaviors15.
This impairment makes drug seeking and
drug use the main motivational drive even
though it leads to long term losses. It leads
to neglecting other activities and the
person can engage in extreme behaviors in
order to obtain drugs16. The process ends
in the weakening of free will.
Administration of drugs of dependence to
drug naïve laboratory animals produces
changes in PFC similar to those in human
drug addicts. PFC impairment seen in drug
addicts is a result of drug use that enables
further use. However, PFC impairment is
also present in several other psychiatric
and neurological conditions such as
borderline personality disorder, attention
deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD),
schizophrenia and bipolar disorder and
traumatic brain injury17. The presence of
PFC impairment makes those patient
groups more vulnerable to drug use and
dependence. Executive functions mediated
by the pre-frontal cortex are gained
through biologi-cal maturation of the brain
during adoles-cence. Therefore adolescent
brain is more vulnerable to the harmful
effects of drug abuse18. Different parts of
the PFC are related to distinct features of
addiction; for example medial orbitofrontal
cortex and ventromedial prefrontal cortex
to craving, orbitofrontal cortex to drug
expectation, anterior cingulate cortex to
attention bias and dorsolateral prefrontal
cortex to drug-related memories15.
Glutamatergic pathway starting from the
PFC and controlling the dopaminergic
neurons in the nucleus accumbens are
associated with addiction19.
Several other neurotransmitter systems
such as endogenous opioid, serotonergic,
cannabinoid and dopaminergic systems are
also involved in prefrontal impair
ment15.Inhibitory control enables to take
appropriate actions to accomplish complex
tasks and provides adaptation to new
environmental conditions by suppressing
immediate or habitual responses.
Impairment in the inhibitory control is a
key element in repetitive substance misuse
and dependence17. Deficit in impulse
control can be demonstrated with neurocognitive tests like color word Stroop task,
continuous performance test and the stopsignal task. In laboratory gambling task
where risky decision making is accessed,
drug addicts tend to take actions associated
with short-term gains although they can
bring long-term losses17.The individuals
with impulsive personality traits are more
prone to try and be addicted to drugs and
drug use puts these individuals into a
vicious cycle of further impulsivity20.
Impairment in impulse control leads to a
weakening in self control (the ability to
postpone or avoid an activity that may not
be appropriate or is perceived as
incorrect)21.
This explains the inability of drug addicts
to inhibit excessive drug use although they
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
5
BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS
are aware of the destructive consequences.
Impairment in impulse control and self
control also underline engagement in
criminal activities and aggression. Young
individuals who already have weak selfcontrol are more prone to substance
dependence21.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Conclusion:
The addicted brain is in a state of chronic
dysregulation (allostasis) where function of
reward circuits are impaired and stress
systems are activated both of which lead to
increased impulses to use drugs. Somatic
withdrawal symptoms as well as emotional
dysregulation also increase the urge for
drug use. On top of these, dysregulation of
the frontal cortex which is supposed to
execute thoughts, impulses and emotions
results in compulsive drug seeking and loss
of control over intake. This is a process
initiated by drug use and can be avoided
primarily by staying away from drugs.
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
6
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Denier N, Schmidt A, Gerber H, et al. Association
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Neuroscientist. 2001; 7:293-302.
Vetulani J. Drug addiction. Part II. Neurobiology of
addiction. Pol J Pharmacol. 2001; 53:303-317.
Naqvi NH, Bechara A. The insula and drug
addiction: an interoceptive view of pleasure, urges,
and decision-making. Brain Struct Funct. 2010;
214:435-450
Roberto M, Gilpin NW, Siggins GR. The central
amygdala and alcohol: role of γ-aminobutyric acid,
glutamate, and neuropeptides. Cold Spring Harb
Perspect Med. 2012; 2:a012195.
Murphy A, Taylor E, Elliott R. The detrimental
effects of emotional process dysregulation on
decision-making in substance dependence. Front
Integr Neurosci. 2012; 6:101
Goldstein RZ, Volkow ND. Dysfunction of the
prefrontal cortex in addiction: neuroimaging
findings and clinical implications. Nat Rev
Neurosci. 2011; 12:652-669.
Volkow ND, Li TK. Drug addiction: the
neurobiology of behaviour gone awry. Nat Rev
Neurosci. 2004; 5:963-970.
Li CS, Sinha R. Inhibitory control and emotional
stress regulation: neuroimaging evidence for frontallimbic dysfunction in psycho-stimulant addiction.
Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2008; 32:581–597.
Selemon LD. A role for synaptic plasticity in the
adolescent development of executive function.
Transl Psychiatry. 2013; 3:e238
Lingford-Hughes A, Nutt D. Neurobiology of
addiction and implications for treatment. Br J
Psychiatry. 2003; 182:97-100.
Dawe S, Loxton NJ. The role of impulsivity in the
development of substance use and eating disorders.
Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2004; 28:343-351.
Moffitt TE, Arseneault L, Belsky D, et al. A
gradient of childhood self-control predicts health,
wealth, and public safety. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A.
2011; 108:2693-2698.
ALCOHOL USE DISORDER:
SCIENTIFIC HORIZONS AND ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVES
Mohammad Ali Albar*, and Aly A. Misha’l
Abstract:
Alcohol beverages have been used since antiquity. Alcohol dependence is a worldwide
problem, more intense and widespread than all other drugs causing dependence
combined. The tendency has been to manage the dilemma of alcohol dependence leaving
aside the problem of availability and accessibility of alcoholic beverages in most
communities around the world.
Historically, the USA trial to forcibly prohibit alcohol use by law (1919-1933) had failed
miserably. Similar trials in USSR met the same fate.
Multiple terms are used to describe the clinical conditions associated with excessive use
of alcohol. Over the past few years, the terms of alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence
were replaced by a single diagnosis: alcohol use disorder, with the term “alcoholism”
reserved for the more severe manifestations of alcohol use disorder, that could be fatal.
The diagnostic criteria of alcohol use disorder, its epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical
manifestations, adverse consequences, assessments and management are outlined in this
paper, together with the Islamic perspectives and approach in eradication and
prophylaxis.
Keywords: Alcohol, dependence, alcohol use disorders, intoxication, Islam.
Introduction:
The terms alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence were recently replaced by one
diagnosis: alcohol use disorder1. The term
(alcoholism) has been frequently used to
describe the more severe manifestations of
alcohol use disorder. Alcohol use disorder
is a worldwide problem. It is more deleterious and widespread than all other drug
dependencies combined 2. Typical
characteristics of this disorder include:




Impaired control over drinking.
Preoccupation with alcohol.
Use of alcohol despite adverse
consequences.
Distortions in thinking, most notably:
denial.
Definition of various levels of alcohol
intake and the level that is considered
abuse differs between countries3,4.
*Dr. Mohammad Ali Albar (FRCP London)
Director of Medical Ethics
International Medical Center
Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
E-mail: [email protected]
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
7
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A “standard drink” in the US is 14-15 gm
of alcohol (0.5-0.6 fl.oz), equivalent to 12
oz of beer, 5 oz of wine, and 1.5 oz of 80
proof liquor5.
In UK: 19.75 gm of alcohol2,3.
In addition to the amount of alcohol in
“one drink”, cut points to define
”Moderate” and “Heavy” drinking also
varies between countries6:
In the US the following parameters
generally apply:
“Moderate drinking”:
 Women: < 2 drinks per day.
 Men: < 3 drinks per day.
“Heavy drinking”:
 Women: > 7 drinks per week or 3
drinks per occasion.
 Men: > 14 drinks per week or 4
drinks per occasion.
“Binge drinking”:
 Women: 4 or more drinks in one
occasion.
 Men: 5 or more drinks in one
occasion.
No level of alcohol consumption can
reliably be regarded as safe7. No studies
have been published to predict alcohol
abuse, or alcohol use disorder, in individuals who consume “moderate” amounts of
alcohol, or who are described as “social
drinkers”. Any of these individuals, under
certain circumstances, could turn into an
alcohol abuse.
With the free availability and accessibility
of alcoholic beverages in most communities, people of various ages could easily
start as mild “social” or “moderate”
drinkers and later turn into the category of
alcohol use disorder and alcoholism.
Historical trials to curb
alcohol consumption:
In the 20th century, because of the various
hazards of alcohol consumption, there
were trials to ban, or at least to curb it. In
8
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
the USA, a trial to forcibly prohibit alcohol
consumption, was implemented between
1919 and 1933. The Eighteenth Amendment to the USA constitution that was
known as the Prohibition Amendment, was
passed on January 16,1919, by the
Congress, to be fully implemented after
one year from its ratification. This
amendment proclaimed that the manufacture, sale, transportation, importation and
exportation of “intoxicating liquors” shall
be legally prohibited. The Congress was
authorized to enforce this amendment by
appropriate legislation 8.
The alcohol prohibiting legislation did not
change the public attitudes towards alcohol
consumption. The majority of US citizens
were incapable or unwilling to curb their
drinking habit. Illicit production and illegal
smuggling of alcohol continued and there
was no decrease in the availability of
alcoholic beverages. It became clear that
the attempt failed and the amendment was
repealed in December, 1933, by Congress.
The wording of this repeal was very
significant in stating: “The prohibition
amendment, known as the Eighteenth
Amendment, was not repealed on the basis
of whether alcohol is good or bad,
harmless or hazardous. The decision was
made on the very realistic and practical
basis that prohibition was not working” 8,9.
Some measures were adopted to curb
excessive harms, including:
 Legislation prohibiting driving cars
while intoxicated.
 Prohibition of sale of alcoholic
beverages to youngsters.
 Limiting the hours during which the
sale or serving of alcohol is allowed.
Unfortunately these measures proved
fruitless. Even public education about
alcohol hazards proved ineffective in the
face of slick alcohol advertisement, and the
influence of alcohol industry on public life.
This industry generates huge profits
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worldwide, and is ready to fight any real
effort to curb alcohol consumption.
In the former Soviet Union, campaigns to
curb alcohol consumption started at the
time of the first Bolshevik government
after the revolution. But by 1921, this
policy failed. Alcohol consumption had
returned to very high levels, and alcoholrelated deaths escalated to almost 15-folds
in some cities such as Moscow.
Subsequently, a series of campaigns
against alcohol abuse were adopted under
presidents of USSR, Brezhnev, Andropov
and Chernenko under the general heading
of reducing anti-social behavior. By 1984,
there was some evidence that both alcohol
consumption and alcohol-related crimes
were falling. In early 1985, President
Gorbachev pursued this line, and all organs
of government were exhorted to develop
strategies to reduce alcohol consumption.
The All-Union Voluntary Society for the
Struggle for Sobriety was launched in
September 1985. This campaign finally
collapsed in 1988. The collapse was
ascribed to various factors, including major
increases in illegal alcohol production and
trade, as well as marked reduction of
public finances, which dwindled by more
than 28 billion roubles between 1985 and
1987.This was followed by an increase of
alcohol-related mortality and a decline in
life expectancy, especially among the
young and middle aged. Changes on this
scale were unprecedented anywhere in the
world in peacetime 10,11.
These alcohol-related deaths were mainly
due to injuries and cardiovascular diseases.
Epidemiology:
In all countries where the consumption of
alcohol is legally permitted, the majority of
the adult population drink. A National
Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and
Related Conditions was conducted in USA
from the year 2001 to 2002. The
prevalence of alcohol abuse and
dependence over a life time and over the
last 12 months was 17.8% and 3.8%12.
According to the 2008 National Survey on
Drug Use and Health, 51.6% of Americans
aged 12 years or older, reported being
current drinkers of alcohol. This translates
to around 129 million people. More than
58 million of them reported binge drinking
in the 30 days prior to the survey, and
more than 17 million reported heavy
drinking13.Increased rates of alcohol
dependence have been found to be
associated with male sex, younger age,
being single, lower income and White or
Native American ethnicity12. Middle-aged
adults (30-64 years) have been found to be
at the highest risk for alcohol abuse. In
children and adolescents, statistics are very
worrisome. According to the "Monitoring
the Future Study", 16% of eighth graders
had consumed five or more drinks at one
occasion within the last two weeks
preceding the study14. Alcohol is by far the
most commonly used drug among high
school students. Seventy two percent of the
students have consumed alcohol by the end
of high school, and 39% have done so by
the 8th grade. In 2008, 55% of the 12th
graders and 18% of the 8th graders reported
having been drunk at least once. This
compares with 10- 20% of high school
seniors reporting use of cocaine, and 4050% reporting marijuana use14.
Statistics from other parts of the world are
not less alarming. Binge drinking
(consuming five or more drinks in a single
occasion) is a significant component of
drinking behaviors in teens and individuals
in their twenties. In a cross-sectional study
from Britain, 56% reported binge drinking
at least once in a seven day period15.
Compared with individuals who begin
drinking at or after 21 year of age, early
drinkers have been found to be four times
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
9
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more likely to develop alcohol dependence
and more likely to be involved in alcoholrelated violence16,17.
Evidence suggests that high doses of
alcohol at an early age may result in lasting
effects on neurophysiological function18,
and addiction.
Economic costs:
Literature is full with staggering economic
burdens on the individual, family and state.
In the US, the total cost to national
economy from alcohol abuse and
dependence was estimated to be 185
billion USD for 199819-21.
This includes costs of treatment, associated
diseases, crime, loss of work time and
other expenses. There are other costs that
are difficult to quantify including; domestic violence, child abuse and loss of a
promising future.
Approximately 27% of heavy alcohol
drinkers miss one or more days of work
every month, 15% due to an injury or
illness.
Alcohol problems in many parts of the
world constitute a serious impediment to
socio-economic development and threaten
to overwhelm their healthcare systems.
Alcohol and overall health:
Alcohol use represents an unusual
challenge for clinicians, social workers and
healthcare policy makers.
Medical literature is replete with discussions and debate about risks and benefits,
related to various levels of alcohol consumption. There is general agreement that
problem drinking reduces the quality of
life for individuals, their families and
societies. However, only few studies have
properly evaluated how “social” and
“moderate” alcohol consumption affect the
quality of life, and health parameters.
10 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
Some studies made conclusions dependant
on self-reported health, sick leave
relationship with alcohol consumption and
other parameters.
In 1987, the Royal College of Physicians
(RCP) published a series of seminal reports
on the topic of UK government policy on
alcohol. The main report was significantly
titled: “The medical consequences of
alcohol abuse, a great and growing evil”22.
The evidence on the risks of alcohol
consumption is complex. Most systems of
the body can be damaged by alcohol consumption, but the rate at which harm
increases in relation to the amount of
alcohol consumed varies between different
systems. For example, liver disease has an
exponential relationship with alcohol
consumption, whereas the risk of cancers
shows a dose dependent relationship.
The risk to which an individual is exposed
to is related to both the amount and the
frequency of drinking, in addition to
genetics and age.
All alcohol consumption carries a level of
risk. There is no data to indicate how much
alcohol is safe. But, given the fact that
alcohol consumption is widespread and
enjoyed by many, there was a judgment
about what an acceptable level of risk was.
RCP published certain guidelines, based on
this very difficult judgment.
It recommends “sensible limits of
drinking”. These limits have been argued
about for years and in different countries.
They include variations in the numbers and
amounts of drinks per week, which are
different between males and females. To
minimize hazards of alcohol consumption,
RCP recommended that people should
have three alcohol-free days per week.
In December 1995 these governmentadopted guidelines were reviewed and
changed following some circulated
evidence indicating that alcohol drinking
might give protection from coronary heart
ALCOHOL
disease. These changes were not
recommended by RCP. In fact they were
adopted by an interdepartmental group,
comprising of civil servants 23. They made
two extremely significant changes to the
RCP guidelines.
Firstly, they substituted the weekly limit
with a daily one. This, in effect appeared to
sanction daily drinking, which is
considered one of the key risk factors for
alcohol dependency (addiction) and also
for alcohol-related harms. Secondly, the
daily drink limits led to a 30% increase in
the RCP’s adopted guidelines.
These government guidelines were never
supported by a review of evidence carried
out by the RCP, Royal College of General
Practitioners and Royal College of
Psychiatrists. As a matter of fact, RCP
disputed these guidelines, and reported that
daily drinking is an important risk factor
for the development of alcohol dependence
and for alcoholic liver diseases.
RCP also reported that the majority of
young people confine their drinking to
“binges”, once or twice a week. These
binges are associated with major health
harms, including accidents, violence, self
harm and suicide, and as a result, alcohol is
the leading cause of death in the 16-24 age
group 24. A very large number of young
people develop alcohol dependence, and
become on track to develop physical health
complications as they move into their 30s
and 40s25-26.
On this basis, RCP criticized the UK
governmental guidelines of 1995, and
considered them potentially dangerous.
One aspect of this criticism is that alcohol
dependence is effectively a disease of the
young.
In November 2007, RCP in coordination
with the Alcohol Health Alliance UK
(AHA), pursued diligent activities to
address the escalating harms of alcohol
consumption. These activities were:
Highlighting the rising levels of
alcohol harm.
 Proposing evidence-based solutions to
reduce this harm.
 Influencing decision makers to take
positive action to address the damage
caused by alcohol abuse.
The World Health Organization (WHO)
coordinated many forums, global and
regional studies and publications on the
global alcohol hazards since its inception.
Alcohol consumption was considered
among the top ten causes of mortality
worldwide. In 2002, alcohol was reported
to be the underlying cause of some two
million deaths per year in the world27.
Since then this figure has clearly increased.
The health hazards related to alcohol are
multiple and well documented28. They
come from both acute consequences
(accidents, intoxication…), and chronic
ones (liver disease, cancer, cardiovascular
disease). The harmful effects include
mortality, morbidity and socioeconomic
ills.
WHO repeatedly advocated populationbased global interventions, alcohol
consumption policies and strategies. There
is consensus about effective interventions
reported in the WHO’s “Alcohol and
Policy Group”28 which address reducing
availability of alcohol by all possible
measures.
Controlling advertising and marketing of
alcoholic beverages is a popular public
topic which is attractive to politicians. The
major problem is the ineffectiveness of
“partial” restrictions, and unfeasibility of
total ban. Thus, alcohol-related harm calls
for comprehensive measures and principles29.
Drinking habits are communicated by
global marketing, advertising and media.
The “westernization” of drinking habits
means escalation of alcohol consumption
in many parts of the world. The alcohol

FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
11
ALCOHOL
industry is increasingly globalized, and the
big multinational companies have considerable lobbying power to protect their
commercial interests. Lobbying by the big
alcohol industry has deterred the WHO,
the specialized health agency of the United
Nations, from any stronger actions.
Health-concerned leaders, worldwide, are
continuously seeking international and
global effective collaborations to counteract the alcohol-related problems29.
Medical morbidity:
Alcohol can be a significant contributing
factor to many illnesses, such as hepatitis,
hypertension, tuberculosis, pneumonia,
pancreatitis, and cardiomyopathy30. It is
known that alcohol abuse exposes people
to infections, and hampers their healing.
One half of all cases of liver cirrhosis in
the USA have been attributed to alcohol.
Excess alcohol consumption also contributes to central nervous system disease and
severe psychiatric disorders.
Alcohol and specific illnesses:
 Accidents, trauma and violence:
Alcohol is implicated in the increased
morbidity and mortality from trauma31,
including collisions with greater severity
of injuries in motor vehicle accidents32.
There is an increased risk of injuries due to
falls, burns, and violence. There is also
increased risk of drowning. In addition,
there is an increased incidence of occupational injuries and there is no identified
safe level of alcohol consumption for the
use of potentially dangerous equipment.
Suicide, homicide, serious assaults and
rape are significantly increased with
alcohol intake33,34.
Alcohol and injury has been addressed
extensively in the world literature.
12 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
WHO publications provided significant
information in areas of alcohol drinkingadverse effects, alcohol intoxication, injuries and the role of alcohol in emergency
departments visits / hospitalizations.
Globally, alcohol causes 3.2% of all deaths
(1.8 million deaths annually). It is
estimated that about half of the deaths
attributable to alcohol are from injuries.
Alcohol also accounts for 4.0% of all
disease burden worldwide.
The problem of alcohol-related injuries is
particularly alarming in many low-and
middle- income countries, where alcohol
consumption is increasing. Consequently,
injury rates are extremely high, where
there is lack of appropriate public health
facilities and policies to deal with this
increase.
Emergency rooms are the most important
sites to collect information about alcohol
involvement in injuries. Unfortunately, few
hospitals collect this information routinely35. In view of unlikelihood of majority of
involved subjects to access health care
apart from emergency departments, the
collection of pertinent data from these
patients regarding their drinking patterns is
lacking, which significantly hinders proper
interventions in this hard-to-reach population group.
Some of the conclusions of the WHO
Collaborative Study on Alcohol and
Injuries, a cross-sectional study conducted
in 12 countries from various parts of the
world from December 2000 to February
2002, revealed a clear relationship between
alcohol consumption and the risk of injury.
Up to 45% of injured patients reported
consuming alcohol prior to their injuries.
The majority of patients were males, under
35 years of age, with a peak in the late
teens and young adults from low to middle
socioeconomic classes. More than a third
of patients reported that their injury
occurred within 30 minutes of their last
ALCOHOL
drink. The study was a useful tool to
inform health policy-makers of the high
burden of injuries associated with alcohol
use.
Cancer:
Alcohol use has been associated with
increased risk for cancers of multiple
organs36. The following is a brief review of
the literature describing specific cancers:
 Breast Cancer:
There is consistent evidence that breast
cancer risk is higher for women consuming
low (less than one drink /day) to high (3 or
more
drinks/day)
compared
with
abstainers. There appears to be a
significant dose response relationship that
begins with alcohol intakes as low as 3-6
drinks per week37-39. A meta-analysis of
110 epidemiologic studies conducted in
2013, showed a small but significant
association between female breast cancer
and light alcohol intake40. In the largest
cohort study of 105,986 women in the
Nurses’ Health Study, from 1980 until
200839, there was a gradual increase in the
risk of breast cancer at lower levels of
alcohol intake (3-6 drinks per week), with
upward increase of cancer of 10% with
each 10 grams of alcohol intake. Cancer
risk was linearly correlated with cumulitive lifetime alcohol intake. Moreover,
there seems to be greater potential for
invasiveness of breast cancer cells
associated with alcohol intake37.
 Gastrointestinal (GI) Cancer:
Several GI cancers are linked to alcohol
consumption, even at low levels of intake.
In a study of 226,000 men, the combined
mortality rate from cancers of the mouth,
larynx, pharynx, esophagus, and liver was
40% higher in low (less than daily
drinkers) than in abstainers, and rose
progressively with heavier consumption36.
The type of alcoholic beverage, by most
evidence, does not alter this risk41.
There are several studies describing
correlation of GI cancer risk with alcohol
intake, with no clear safe threshold of
consumption identified42. In one of these
studies, as an example, a 2013 metaanalysis of 36 epidemiologic studies
demonstrated that light alcohol intake (< 1
drink per day) was associated with an
increase in risk of oropharyngeal cancer
(RR 1.17, 95% CI 1.06-1.29)40.
Nonmalignant liver disease:
A study of 277,000 men revealed elevated
risk of death from cirrhosis among mild
drinkers as compared to abstainers. The
relative risk of those who had consumed
one or two drinks per day were: 1.21 and
3.15, respectively43. This implies gradually
increased risk of cirrhosis, with increased
levels of alcohol consumption.
Many studies revealed more cirrhosis
prevalence in heavy drinkers. One half of
all cases of liver cirrhosis in the USA have
been attributed to alcohol.
Some of the increased risk associated with
moderate drinking may be due to alcohol
interaction with other hepatotoxic agents,
especially hepatitis viruses44. It is well
established that cirrhosis is associated with
increased risk of hepatocellular cancer.
Cholelithiasis:
In the Nurses’ Health Study, women who
consumed at least 2-3 drinks weekly were
40% less likely to develop symptomatic
gall stones than abstainers45. The
mechanism of this protective effect may be
due to reduction in the biliary cholesterol
saturation index46. This benefit is reversed
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
13
ALCOHOL
in heavier alcohol consumption, especially
with alcoholic cirrhosis47.
Pancreatitis:
Heavy alcohol intake predisposes to both
acute and chronic pancreatitis. Moreover,
mild alcohol consumption may increase
relative risk of chronic pancreatitis 48.
Osteoporosis:
Heavy alcohol use predisposes to hip
fractures by causing both osteoporosis and
falls49. Several studies showed mixed
relationship of “moderate” alcohol intake,
bone mineral density and fractures.
Diabetes Mellitus (DM):
The risk of DM was reported as decreased
in people with moderate alcohol consumption50. A meta-analysis of 15 cohort studies
found a decreased risk of diabetes among
light to moderate, but not heavy
drinkers51.The validity of these studies is
questionable because they are observational studies. In any case, studies suggest
the following mechanisms for the reported
low DM risk:




Improved insulin sensitivity and lower
plasma insulin levels52.
Lower level of oxidative stress and
inflammatory markers53.
Potential effect of alcohol on
postprandial hyperglycemia54.
Effects of “moderate” alcohol intake
on adiponectin (an adipocyte hormone) which improves insulin
sensitivity in animal models55.
On the other hand, alcohol may worsen
diabetic neuropathy56, and my induce
severe hypoglycemia, lactic acidosis,
hypertriglyceridemia and fatty liver57,58.
14 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
Heavy drinking is detrimental to the
management, morbidity and mortality of
diabetic subjects.
 Pregnancy:
Alcohol is known to have teratogenic
effects, and alcohol consumption while
pregnant increases the risk of fetal maldevelopment59,60.
A spectrum of birth defects related to
alcohol has been described and is called
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS). It is
characterized by fetal growth restriction,
central nervous system dysfunction, renal
anomalies and a characteristic facies61.
No safe level of alcohol intake during
pregnancy exists62. A large case-control
study of more than 4,700 babies with
congenital abnormalities found that even
sporadic intake of only 1-2 drinks during
the whole pregnancy was associated with
higher risks of eye abnormalities, particularly microphthalmia 62. Low birth weight
may also be a consequence of mild alcohol
consumption during pregnancy63.
Moderate drinking may raise the risk of
spontaneous abortion64. This risk increases
with the increased alcohol consumption65.
No evidence supports a benefit of alcohol
use during pregnancy to the mother or
fetus. There is consensus that women
should completely abstain from alcohol
during pregnancy66. However, recent data
from Australia indicate that up to 65% of
women drink significant amounts of
alcohol before and during early
pregnancy67.
Cardiovascular disease:
There are conflicting reports related to
“social” or “moderate” alcohol consumption and cardiovascular disorders. Our
knowledge of effects of (moderate) alcohol
consumption is derived primarily either
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from short-term trials analyzing effects of
alcohol on physiological parameters, or
from observational studies that compare
moderate drinkers with abstainers. Both
types of studies suffer from limitations68.
Their validity and reliability is less than
cross sectional or cohort studies. They
could be adversely influenced by various
factors including the lobbying liquor
industry.
Some observational studies in USA
reported that “moderate” alcohol drinking
may have some cardio protective benefits
particularly in regards to coronary heart
disease (CHD)69. These studies were not
supported by similar studies in Europe,
Russia or Australia- New Zealand. In
addition, these observational studies are
usually based on comparison of alcohol
drinkers with abstainers (non-drinkers).
The latter group of individuals is very
heterogeneous. Some of them avoid
alcohol because of medical conditions,
family history of alcoholism, past personal
history of alcohol intake, religious or
cultural factors.
A large systematic review and metaanalysis of 84 studies, conducted in many
countries from nearly all over the world,
reported that light to moderate alcohol
consumption was associated with a 1425% reduction in the risk of multiple
cardiovascular outcomes, compared to
non-drinkers70. Consumption of larger
amounts of alcohol was associated with
higher risk of mortality.
A meta-analysis of 34 studies (comprising
over a million subjects and 94,000 deaths)
found that total mortality was reduced by
18% in women who consumed one drink
daily, and in men who consumed one to
two drinks daily, compared to nondrinkers71. More than the above level of
alcohol drinking was associated with
increased risk for sudden death72. Binge
drinking was associated with increased
cardiovascular disease risk and sudden
cardiac death.
To date, randomized trials in this area have
not been performed.
The risk of heart failure was reportedly
reduced with light to moderate alcohol
consumption73.
Chronic alcohol consumption on the other
hand, may lead to alcohol-induced
cardiomyopathy. The incidence of atrial
fibrillation (AF) was increased by heavy
and binge drinking, while moderate
drinking does not seem to increase AF.
The incidence of hypertension was
increased by 1.5 to 2 folds in those who
consume more than two drinks daily
compared to non-drinkiers74. This effect is
dose dependent.
Problem drinking is clearly related to
excessive mortality75. It is the third leading
preventable cause of death in the US76.
Following the publication of these
observational studies indicating that
drinking alcohol might give some
protection from coronary heart disease, the
Royal college of Physicians (RCP),
together with other Royal Colleges,
published a report in 199577. The report
reviewed these studies alongside data on
all-cause mortality, psychosocial risks and
the possibility that publicizing these
recommendations have led to an overall
increase in alcohol consumption, and an
increase of the number of heavy drinkers.
The RCP report balanced the potential
benefits of alcohol intake against its
harms/ risks. It could be summarized in the
following points:
 For young men: The major causes of
death due to alcohol consumption are
accidents and violent deaths.
 For premenopausal women: Any
assumed protective effects against
coronary heart disease are balanced by
deleterious effects on breast cancer,
and on pregnancy
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
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ALCOHOL
For men aged 55 to 60 years, alcohol
harms outweigh any coronary heart
disease benefits.
 Older people are particularly vulnerable to various harms of alcohol, due to
physiological changes associated with
aging, even at modest levels of alcohol
intake. They are prone to have higher
blood alcohol levels than younger
people on drinking the same amount of
alcohol due to lower body mass to
water ratio, reduced hepatic blood flow
and less efficient hepatic metabolism.
Moreover, older people are prone to
develop more depression, dementia, falls
and physical illness. Recommended limits
for “safe” drinking by older people require
further considerations. Considering the
increasing of aging population, an
increased alcohol-related morbidity and
mortality is expected.
 Defining the boundary between
moderate and hazardous drinking is not
clear cut.
 The possible protective effects on coronary heart disease could be achieved by
lifestyle changes including diet and
exercise, as well as the use of statins.
 Individual factors also contribute to the
risks of alcohol consumption, including
medication use, co-morbidity, frailty
and physiological changes associated
with aging.
In Russia, there was increased mortality
from cardiovascular disease linked to
alcohol consumption, which is contrary to
the view prevailing in some countries in
the West, where alcohol, at least in
moderate amounts, is seen by some as
cardio-protective69. Some of the explanations of this discrepancy include:
 Binge drinking has effects on the heart
which are different from those seen in
regular moderate consumption 79,80.
 This pattern leads to a greatly increased
risk of sudden cardiac death80.

16 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
Excessive drinking, especially of
strong alcoholic drinks, such as
“vodka”, was recently reported, by a
large prospective study, to be a major
cause of premature death in Russian
adults81.
 Moreover, alcohol-related mortality
increased exponentially with the
increased
amounts
of
alcohol
consumed. Death at ages 55-74 years
ranged from around 50% for those
consuming less than a bottle of vodka
per week, to as high as 64% for those
consuming three or more bottles of
vodka per week.
 Excess mortality in this study was from
external causes (accidents, violence,
suicide, homicide …) or from eight
diseases, including cardiovascular
deaths (acute ischemic heart disease
other than myocardial infarction).
Excessive alcohol consumption and binge
drinking are the third leading cause of
preventable death in the United States82,
and most likely in the rest of the Western
world.
From all these studies, including the
observational studies, researchers provide
the following general recommendations:
(1) The reported cardiovascular benefits of
social or moderate alcohol drinking were
not validated by randomized studies.
(2) Social or moderate drinkers could
become “problem” drinkers under various
pressures and circumstances, and the
deleterious sequellae on the cardiovascular
system will escalate.
(3) Binge drinking is associated with
serious cardiovascular complications.
(4) Any apparent advantage of moderate
drinking must be balanced against the
deleterious effects of alcohol on other
disorders, including cancer, liver disease,
central nervous system and psychological
derangements, violence, and socioeconomic problems.

ALCOHOL
(5) The risk-benefit balance may vary in
different age group and ethnicities.
(6) There is no evidence to support
encouraging people, with or without CHD,
to drink alcohol.
In 2001, The American Heart Association
(AHA)
Science
Advisory
Council
concluded:
There is little current justification to
recommend alcohol (wine specifically) as
a cardioprotective strategy83.
In 2006, AHA recommended: In the
absence of randomized trials, the
consumption of alcohol cannot be
recommended for CVS risk reduction86.
Alcohol beverage types were studied in
view of reports that French red wine
produced lower coronary artery disease
mortality85. Red wine contains phenolic
and flavonoid substances that have antithrombotic and antioxidant properties86.
However,
small
human
studies
demonstrated similar protective properties
in using de-alcoholized red wine87. This
material is also present in red grapes.
Resveratol (3,5,4’-trihydroxystilbene) is a
substance produced by plants in response
to stress, and is found in grape skin and
also in red wine. This substance was found
to extend life of non-mammalian
organisms, and to improve the metabolic
profile and lifespan of mice fed high fat
diets90. In man, this substance has to be
used in large amounts to produce enough
concentrations.
Genetic factors have significant implications on alcohol effects on ischemic heart
disease. In a study of 3383 Danish men
found that alcohol consumption was only
protective for men with Lewis blood group
Le(a-b-) who are particularly prone to
ischemic heart disease89.
This observation was also reported from
the Framingham Offspring Study in
individuals carrying the Lewis gene-3
(FUT3) gene90.
Effects of the (alcohol dehydrogenase
gene) were studied in a case-control study
of 396 men with myocardial infarction and
770 men as a control group. This gene has
two forms (alleles), one of which
metabolizes ethanol quickly (reducing the
body’s exposure to alcohol), and the other
allele metabolizes ethanol slowely91. Daily
drinkers with two copies of the faster
alleles had a 38% lower risk of myocardial
infarction, as compared with non or rare
drinkers.
Stroke risk:
A meta-analysis of 19 cohort, and 16 casecontrol studies found the following risks of
stroke in drinkers, compared to nondrinkers92:
 Heavy drinking increases the risk of all
strokes.
 Moderate drinking: no significant
reduction in the risk of all strokes.
 Light drinking: lower risk of all
strokes.
These observations were in contrast to
another meta-analysis93. “The Nurses’
Health Study” which found that even light
drinkers had twice the risk of subarachnoid
hemorrhage compared to nondrinkers. The
study revealed a slightly lower risk of
ischemic stroke, but higher risk for
hemorrhagic stroke93.
Binge drinking was associated with
increased risk for all strokes94.
The effects of alcohol may be modified by
ethnicity. As an example, in Japan,
moderate alcohol use may slightly raise the
risk of dying from stroke95.
Alcohol intoxication:
Two-thirds of American adults consume
alcoholic beverages. Up to 10% of adults
are alcohol abusers. Acute alcohol
intoxication is estimated to be responsible
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
17
ALCOHOL
for over 600,000 emergency department
visits each year96.
Acute alcohol intoxication is associated
with significant increase of traffic
accidents, domestic violence, homicide and
suicide. In one study, ethanol was detected
in 15 to 40% of unselected emergency
department patients97.
Clinical manifestations of intoxication can
include slurred speech, nystagmus, disinhibited behavior, incoordination, unsteady
gait, memory impairment, stupor or coma.
Acute intoxication can also induce
hypotension and tachycardia, secondary to
peripheral vasodilatation or to volume loss.
Multiple metabolic derangements may
occur, including hypoglycemia, lactic
acidosis, hypokalemia, hypomagnesemia
and hypophosphatemia98.
This clinical presentation may be
complicated by ingestion of other
substances such as opioids, sympathomimetic drugs, benzodiazepines, barbiturates, and other drugs. Serum ethanol
concentration, although helpful in confirming the diagnosis, and for legal and
forensic investigations, often does not
correlate closely with the symptommatology of acute intoxication. Taking in
consideration the possibilities of head
trauma, mental status changes, presence of
other disease entities, consumption of other
drugs, the management of moderate to
severe alcohol intoxication represents a
real emergency medical challenge.
Alcohol withdrawal:
Drinkers with heavy, prolonged alcohol
use are at increased risk for alcohol use
disorder, and its consequences.
Excessive alcohol drinking for even one
week can lead to some withdrawal
symptoms, and excessive drinking for over
one month leads to significant withdrawal
symptoms99.
18 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
The characteristic withdrawal syndrome is
manifested within hours or days of
stopping or reducing alcohol use. Two or
more symptoms must be present, such as
sweating, tachycardia, tremulousness,
anxiety,
headache,
nausea
and/or
gastrointestinal problems.
More severe manifestations are generalized
tonic-clonic seizures100, hallucinations and
delirium tremens which could be fatal101.
Alcohol Availability and Accessibility:
In view of legalization of production,
import, export and sale of alcoholic
beverages in most countries, alcohol is
freely available and accessible. The limited
legal measures to control some of the
consequences have proved fruitless.
The worldwide tendency towards treatment
of alcoholic individuals while ignoring the
problems of availability and accessibility
contradicts the diligent global measures to
prevent other dependence-producing drugs,
such as opiate, cannabis…etc. This was
expressed by the WHO Expert Committee
on Drug Dependence2:
“In many parts of the world, problems
associated with the use of alcohol far
exceed those associated with the nonmedical use of less socially accepted
dependence-producing drugs such as those
of amphetamine, cannabis and morphine
types" 2.
The worldwide tendency to treat
alcoholism, while ignoring the problem of
availability and accessibility of alcohol has
proved largely fruitless. There prevails a
striking
disparity
between
public,
governmental and international attitudes
towards alcohol vs other addicting drugs.
The ill effects of alcoholic beverages far
exceed those of opiates, barbiturates and
hallucinogenic drugs, such as cannabis and
LSD put together2.
ALCOHOL
The main factors behind this major
imbalance in approach are:
(1) Alcohol is deeply integrated in many
cultures, especially in Western cultures.
Attempts to prohibit its consumption are
neither desirable nor possible to the
majority of the populace.
(2) Licensing laws have been lax102. In
Australia and New Zealand, as examples, it
has been well established that licensing
premises is associated with a significant
amount of alcohol-related harm103,104. All
governmental efforts to control alcoholic
beverages have failed to produce the
desired effects. Alcohol consumption
continued to increase105.
(3) Alcohol advertising: This is a global
handicap! The experience from AustraliaNew Zealand may be illustrative. The
Royal Australian College of Physicians
(RACP) and the Royal Australian and New
Zealand
College
of
Psychiatrists
(RANZCP) have worked together to
address the problem of the irresponsible
marketing and promotion of alcohol
products. Several recommendations were
adopted to counteract the influences of
alcohol beverage industry and that of the
harmful marketing, promotion and
advertising. It seems that the efforts by
these professional organizations have been
unsuccessful in curbing these dominant
influences 106. Although alcohol industry
published its “DrinkWise Australia”, there
is pessimism among many clinicians and
policy makers about the success of this and
other current strategies to prevent alcoholrelated harm. It is a fact that there are
minimal regulations of alcohol advertising
and promotion. Significantly, the bulk of
advertising is aimed at young people!.
Effective and evidence- based clinical
practice and prevention strategies acceptable at the government level, often face
opposition from the alcohol beverage
industry107. The community continues to
suffer unacceptable burdens of harm from
alcohol-related problems.
In the view of Royal College of Physicians
(RCP), evidence suggests that policy
measures to tackle the price, availability
and promotion of alcoholic drinks are the
most effective way of dealing with alcohol
abuse 108.
Alcohol: Remedy or Malady:
From the previous literature review of
scientific evidence related to alcohol
consumption risk, harms and possible
benefits, the following conclusions could
be derived:
 There are established risks of
morbidity and mortality caused by
alcohol consumption, which include
increased risk of various cancers,
cardiovascular, and neuropsychiatric
diseases and complications, in addition
to
increased
risk
of
fetal
malformations. Added to these are the
increased incidences of violence,
suicide, homicide, family and work
productivity disorders. There is also
established worsening of many preexisting medical disorders of various
systems.
 The reported “observational” reports of
cardiovascular benefits of “social” or
“moderate” alcohol consumption,
could not stand in the face of major
medical, psychosocial and economic
harms. All these reports were not
validated by randomized studies. The
Royal College of Physicians in 1987
submitted to the fact that “alcohol
consumption is widespread and
enjoyed by many” and that was behind
issuing a “judgment about what an
acceptable level of risk was”22.
In addition to this fact, the dominant
influences of profiteering alcohol industry,
marketing and advertising play major roles
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
19
ALCOHOL
in curtailing any meaningful measures to
curb the universal alcohol consumption
problem.
 There are staggering economic
consequences of alcohol consumption.
 Alcohol consumption is frequently
associated with smoking and other
addictive substances.
 Starting alcohol consumption in
younger age groups and frequent binge
drinking are instrumental in increasing
tendency to transit from “moderate”
and “social” drinking to alcohol abuse
disorders or alcoholism under various
personal or social influences. These are
all looming dangers of problematic
alcohol use.
 The current tendency to deal with
alcohol use disorders, while leaving
aside the problem of alcohol
availability and accessibility, have
proved to be fruitless.
 Most countries adopt legalization of
alcohol consumption, with certain
limitations such as on drinking whilst
driving cars, and sale to younger age
groups. Such limitations are without
real effectiveness in the face of alcohol
availability and accessibility.
 Currently, the strong and slick
advertisement, in addition to the
dominant influence of alcohol industry
on policy makers, are strong barriers to
negate any influence of education on
the various dangers of alcohol
consumption on the health, welfare and
safety of individuals and societies.
 Alcohol prohibition by forcible legal
measures was historically attempted in
both the USA and in the previous
Soviet Union, but unfortunately ended
up with disastrous failure.
A multiplicity of factors were believed
to be behind failure of these historical
attempts. They include lack of proper
education, and of moral-religious
20 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
motivation / up-brining, in addition to
the influences of the profiteering
alcohol industry.
Islamic Perspectives:
Why Islamic guidance succeeded and
others failed? :
Fourteen centuries ago, Islam had
completely and successfully eradicated
alcohol consumption, in a society in which
it was deeply entrenched and intertwined
with their daily lifestyle, social occasions,
culture, rituals and rites. A gradual
approach together with nurturing of moral
values in Muslim individuals and societies
were the reasons for this success. In the
pre-Islamic era, and even during the early
Islamic years, alcohol consumption was a
deeply entrenched, widespread and
indispensible tradition. It was considered a
source of joy, nutrition and promotion of
good health. Islam did not primarily attack
alcohol intoxication. Islam, rather dealt
with the deep-rooted false belief and value
system upon which many habits and
behaviors were based. When Islam
addressed established habits and traditions,
Islamic guidance tended towards gradual
approaches that went hand in hand with
nurturing of values and faith of individuals
and societies. Over three years, Qura’nic
verses addressed the issue of alcohol, and
other deep-rooted traditions, by first
outlining risks and dangers that outweigh
any limited benefits. The first Quranic
verse in this regard was:
ِ ‫ﻚ َﻋ ِﻦ اﻟْ َﺨ ْﻤ ِﺮ َواﻟ َْﻤ ْﻴ ِﺴ ِﺮ ﻗُ ْﻞ ﻓِﻴ ِﻬ َﻤﺎ إِﺛْ ٌﻢ َﻛﺒِ ٌﻴﺮ َوَﻣﻨَ ِﺎﻓ ُﻊ ﻟِﻠﻨ‬
‫ﺎس‬
َ َ‫"ﻳَ ْﺴﺄَﻟُﻮﻧ‬
."... ‫ـ ْﻔ ِﻌ ِﻬ َﻤﺎ‬‫َوإِﺛْ ُﻤ ُﻬ َﻤﺎ أَ ْﻛﺒَـ ُﺮ ِﻣﻦ ﻧ‬
"They ask you about khamr (alcohol,
intoxicants) and gambling. Say: In them is
a great sin, and benefits for mankind, but
their sin is greater than their benefits” 109.
ALCOHOL
The verse points out that there are grave
sins and some benefits involved in alcohol
consumption, with greater preponderance
of major and versified harms, that exceed
their benefits.
This risk-benefit imbalance was later
established by contemporary scientific
evidence as shown in the literature review
cited above. Muslim commentators that
time, at their level of scientific-medical
knowledge, had explanations of the word
(sins). They defined (sins) as harms and
risks including religious wrong- doing, and
harmful clouding of thinking that
precludes proper attention and performance of worship and other functions110.
Another Tafsir (explanation) referred to
the harmful effects of wasting of wealth
(mal) and clouding of thinking (aql)111.
They were not aware of the grave physical
and mental consequences of alcohol
consumption, as recently revealed by
scientific evidence.
Muslim commentators explained the word
“benefits” in terms of some general
prevailing impressions at that time, such as
improvement of digestion, getting rid of
excretions, joyous feelings, in addition to
sale profiteering110.
This initial Qura’nic verse was enough for
many devout Muslims to turn away from
khamr and gambling, seeking purity and
blessings of their Creator.
Subsequently, the next Quranic verse was
revealed:
ِ
 ‫آﻣﻨُﻮاْ ﻻَ ﺗَـ ْﻘ َﺮﺑُﻮاْ اﻟ‬
ْ‫َﻤﻮا‬
َ ‫ﻳﻦ‬
ُ ‫ﻰ ﺗَـ ْﻌﻠ‬
َ ‫ـ َﻬﺎ اﻟﺬ‬‫"ﻳَﺎ أَﻳ‬
َ ‫ﺼﻼةَ َوأَﻧﺘُ ْﻢ ُﺳ َﻜ َﺎرى َﺣﺘ‬
"...‫َﻣﺎ ﺗَـ ُﻘﻮﻟُﻮ َن‬
“O believers, do not perform prayers when
you are drunken (intoxicated), so that you
know (understand) what you are
saying”112.
This verse was revealed when a sahabi
(companion) of the Prophet (‫)ﷺ‬
performed prayer while inebriated, and
made hideous mistakes in reciting the
Glorious Qur’an in his prayer.
This restriction was very significant in two
ways:
(1) Alcohol consumption was placed, for
the first time, face to face against the
cardinal worship of the 5 ritual prayers
(salah) that are distributed thoughtout the
day, starting with dawn (fajr) prayer and
ending with the night (isha) prayer.
(2) This partial restriction was very
pertinent in the process of breaking the
basis of alcoholism (addiction). The Arabs
at that time had established drinking
traditions of morning drinking (Sabouh), as
well
as
early
evening
drinking
(Ghabough). The new restriction was
instrumental in reducing and wide -spacing
of drinking episodes. In fact, there would
be limited time left for drinking, if one has
to attend to these collective prayers in the
mosque, or at home, five times a day.
Breaking the habitual drinking for longer
hours every day is effective in minimizing
tendency to alcohol addiction.
The final and most decisive step of total
prohibition was delivered in the wake of a
major feast that included both Muhajirin
(from Makkah) and Ansar (from Madinah)
at which hard liquour was served. Once
intoxicated, there insued a state of tribal
boasting, shouting and hand fighting. As
they were restored to their senses, and the
effects of liquor had worn off, they intered
into a state of depression, and deep
feelings of sinfulness and guilt.
At this point the decisive Qur’anic verse
was revealed.
ِ
ِ
‫ﻻم‬
ُ ‫ﺎب َواﻷَ ْز‬
َ ‫ َﻤﺎ اﻟْ َﺨ ْﻤ ُﺮ َواﻟ َْﻤ ْﻴﺴ ُﺮ َواﻷ‬‫آﻣﻨُﻮاْ إِﻧ‬
ُ ‫َﻧﺼ‬
َ ‫ﻳﻦ‬
َ ‫ـ َﻬﺎ اﻟﺬ‬‫"ﻳَﺎ أَﻳ‬
ِ  ‫ﻣﻦ َﻋﻤ ِﻞ اﻟ‬ ‫ِرﺟﺲ‬
‫ َﻤﺎ ﻳُ ِﺮﻳ ُﺪ‬‫ إِﻧ‬،‫ ُﻜ ْﻢ ﺗُـ ْﻔﻠِ ُﺤﻮ َن‬‫ﺎﺟﺘَﻨِﺒُﻮﻩُ ﻟ ََﻌﻠ‬
ْ َ‫ﺸ ْﻴﻄَﺎن ﻓ‬
َ ْ ٌ ْ
ِ
ِ
ِ
 ‫اﻟ‬
‫ْﺨ ْﻤ ِﺮ َواﻟ َْﻤْﻴﺴ ِﺮ‬
َ ‫ﻀﺎء ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬
َ ‫ﺸ ْﻴﻄَﺎ ُن أَن ﻳُﻮﻗ َﻊ ﺑَـ ْﻴـﻨَ ُﻜ ُﻢ اﻟ َْﻌ َﺪ َاوَة َواﻟْﺒَـ ْﻐ‬
ِ ‫ﺼ‬
" ‫ﻣﻨﺘَـ ُﻬﻮ َن‬ ‫ﻼة ﻓَـ َﻬ ْﻞ أَﻧﺘُﻢ‬
 ‫ ِﻪ َو َﻋ ِﻦ اﻟ‬‫ﺪ ُﻛ ْﻢ َﻋﻦ ِذ ْﻛ ِﺮ اﻟﻠ‬ ‫ﺼ‬
ُ َ‫َوﻳ‬
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
21
ALCOHOL
“….Satan wants only to cast enmity and
hatred among you, by means of khamr
(alcohol, intoxicants) and Maysir (games
of chance), and to turn you away from the
remembrance of Allah and prayer. Will
you not then desist?”113.
At the final stage of this historical event,
Prophet Muhammad (‫ )ﷺ‬proclaimed his
famous Hadith, whereby he cursed Khamr
(alcohol, intoxicants), the one who drinks
it, brews, sells or even serves it114.
Following this Hadith, in a matter of a day
or two, the Muslim community in Madinah
got rid of all their stored alcoholic
beverages, and became abstinent, in the
most successful campaign that had ever
been launched by man against alcohol
consumption. Ever since these fateful days,
Muslims all over the world, from various
ethnicities and cultures, became liberated
from alcohol, or are the least affected
among world populations. Islamic spirit
and religious conviction were able to
accomplish what could never be achieved
by external sanctions of man-made laws.
The use of alcohol as medicine
The issue of using alcohol as a medicine in
certain ailments, was addressed by several
prophetic Ahadith.
The Prophet (‫ )ﷺ‬was asked: We use
khamr (alcohol) as a medicament. His
answer was: “It is no cure. It is itself a
disease”115.
Abdullah bin Masoud narrated: The
Prophet (‫ )ﷺ‬said: “ Allah never made
cure in things He prohibited”116.
Abu Hurairah narrated that the Prophet
(‫ )ﷺ‬said: “ That who tries to get cure
through drinking khamr (alcohol), Allah
will not cure his ailment”117.
A Sahabi (companion) asked the Prophet
(‫ )ﷺ‬about wine as a medicament. The
22 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
prophet (‫ )ﷺ‬said: “Never. It is a disease
and not a cure”118.
In another more comprehensive Hadith,
the Prophet (‫ )ﷺ‬said: “Allah has sent
down both the disease and the cure, and He
has appointed a cure for every ailment. So
get your cure through lawful medications,
and never use prohibited things”119.
Concluding Remarks
For the past 14 centuries, Muslim
communities all over the world are either
free or are the least affected by alcohol and
its consequences. The vast majority of
Muslims, from different cultures, ethnicities and geographic locations, kept their
abstinence throughout the ages, together
with dominant and deep-rooted intellectual, social, moral and ethical conviction.
Arnold Toynbee in his book “Civilization
on Trial” said: “Islamic spirit… may be
expected to manifest itself in … a
liberation from alcohol which was inspired
by religious conviction and which was
therefore able to accomplish what could
never be enforced by the external sanction
of an alien law….Here, then, in the
foreground of the future, we can remark
…valuable influences which Islam may
exert upon the cosmopolitan proletariat of
a Western society that has cast its net
round the world”120.
Even in the U.S.A where proscription of
alcohol failed (1919-1933), Islam has
proved capable of solving this intricate
problem. James Baldwin, a well-known
Afro-American writer, who himself converted to Islam, wrote in his book: “The Fire
Next Time”, the following passage to his
fellow American blacks120:
“I remembered my buddies of years ago, in
the hallways with their wine and their
whisky and their tears, in hallways still
frozen on the needle, and my brother
saying to me once, if Harlem didn’t have
ALCOHOL
so many churches and junkies, there would
be blood flowing in the streets”.
“And now suddenly people who have
never before been able to hear this
message (of Islam) hear it, and believe it,
and are changed ….(Islam) has been able
to do what generations of welfare workers,
committees, resolutions, reports, housing
projects and playgrounds have failed to do:
to heal and redeem drunkards and junkies,
to convert people who have come out of
prisons and keep them out, to make men
chaste and women virtuous, and to invest
both male and female with pride and
serenity that hang about them like
unfailing light”121.
The miracle had taken place and these
harassed drunkards and junkies were
completely changed by Islamic teachings.
The emphasis which has so far been laid
on tackling the problem of alcoholism on a
personal level should change, as it has
proved fruitless. The WHO report on the
problem of alcoholism emphasized the
failure of the present day approach of
Western nations towards the problem of
alcoholism. The following passage is
quoted from this Technical Report 122:
“Problems related to alcohol and
particularly to its excessive consumption,
rank among the world’s major public
health problems and constitute serious
hazards for human health, welfare, and
life".
“With problems of such magnitude, it is
clear that even the most effective treatment
programs for alcohol dependence cannot
possibly constitute an adequate response.
Moreover, treatment approaches have had
only limited success in this field, and there
is much concern at present about their cost
effectiveness even when they are
successful. In the light of all these
considerations, it appears inescapable that
the major focus of efforts to reduce
alcohol-related problems must be on the
area of primary prevention”.
Islam provides such a successful measure.
Humanity has to study seriously Islam and
how did it manage to solve such a difficult
and intricate problem both in the past and
present.
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Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition
(DSM-5), American Psychiatric Association, Arlington,
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2. Report of a WHO Expert Committee: Problems related
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WHO, Geneva, 1980: 7-13.
3. Kloner RA, Rezkalla SH. To drink or not to drink?
That is the question. Circulation 2007, 116:1306.
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drink is a drink? Variation in the amount of alcohol
contained in beer, wine and spirits drinks in a US
methodological sample. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2005,
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ciansGuide2005/clinicans_guide.htm
(accessed
on
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The physicians’ guide to helping patients with alcohol
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23
ALCOHOL
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24 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
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85. Renaud S, de Lorgeri M. Wine, alcohol, platelets, and
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26 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
104. Ibid, P. 36
105. Ibid, P. 41.
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115. Sahih Muslim , kitab al-Salah, Hadith #1984.
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122. WHO Technical Report No. 650, P. 13.
TOBACCO DEPENDENCE:
THE WHOLE STORY
Feras I. Hawari*
Abstract:
The use of tobacco dates back to hundreds of years and is considered highly addictive. Nicotine
is the predominant substance that causes tobacco dependence. Nicotine exerts its effect via
similar neurological pathways used by other recreational drugs resulting in high level of
dependence. All forms of exposure to tobacco including active use of tobacco, second-hand as
well as third-hand exposure to tobacco smoke are known to be harmful. Tobacco is the only risk
factor that is common between all non-communicable diseases including cardiovascular diseases,
respiratory illnesses, cancer and diabetes mellitus. International consensus regarding the harms
of tobacco is now evident. Many international organizations are mapping the way for the end of
tobacco. Until then, aggressive treatment for those subjects interested in quitting must be
provided in order to prevent a significant surge in non-communicable diseases especially in low
income countries. Tobacco dependence is a chronic relapsing disorder that requires a
multidisciplinary approach using psychological and pharmacological techniques.
Keywords: Tobacco dependence, tobacco harms, tobacco control, tobacco dependence
treatment.
The history of tobacco1,2:
Tobacco is a naturally deadly plant that
initially was grown only in North and South
America. It belongs to the same family as
potatoes and pepper. Following the discovery
of America, sailors brought tobacco with them
to Europe and then to the rest of the world. In
the 1500’s it was thought that tobacco can cure
all diseases and was promoted as such by
physicians and recommended to be taken
daily. Later in the 1600’s, tobacco became so
popular and was used instead of money to
complete business transactions. During those
times the first hints that tobacco might be
harmful began to surface.
In 1610 the first evidence that tobacco might
be addictive and that smokers might be
interested in quitting was concluded by a
statement made by Sir Francis Bacon who
noted that ” trying to quit the bad habit was
really hard”. By mid-1600’s it became morally
unacceptable to smoke in certain states of the
United States of America such as Massachusetts due to the fact the tobacco may be
harmful. In 1760, Pierre Lorillard established a
company in New York City to process
tobacco, cigars, and snuff and became the
oldest tobacco company. The tobacco industry
became well established since then and played
a role in financing governmental actions
including military operations. Following that
and in 1826 specifically, nicotine was isolated
in its pure format and was declared few years
later poisonous and that it can be used as an
insecticide.
*Dr. Feras Hawari, MD, FCCP
Consultant Pulmonologist
Cancer Control Office
King Hussein Cancer Center (KHCC)
Amman-Jordan
E-mail: [email protected]
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
27
TOBACCO
In 1836 the first statement was made regarding the lethal effects of nicotine as a chemical
that might be able to kill a human being.
Cigarettes were first manufactured in 1847. By
the year 1900 cigarettes be-came the major
tobacco product made and sold. In 1901 for
example, 3.5 billion cigarettes and 6 billion
cigars were sold. Cigarettes continued to
spread after that to a point that they were part
of soldiers’ rations during World War II.
Finally, in 1964 the first USA Surgeon General report came out carrying the title “Smoking
and Health” focusing on health effects of
tobacco and providing the first document for
governments to start regulating and controlling
the spread of tobacco. Later, more Surgeon
General reports began to shed the light on the
harmful effects of tobacco till the year 1982
when second hand smoke exposure was
declared a risk factor for the development of
lung cancer resulting in the gradual banning on
smoking in public places. Throughout the
years, all efforts by governments to curb the
spread of tobacco were constantly faced by
counter novel and misleading tactics by the
tobacco industry that encouraged the use of
tobacco through marketing to teenagers and
females using products designed specifically
to attract such consumers. In addition, they
started diversifying their products to include
food and clothing. Lately, the tobacco industry
moved into a new line of production, electronic cigarettes in order to face global efforts
aiming at putting an end to this industry and
reducing tobacco prevalence to less than 5%
by 2040. Worldwide, 3.8 million hectares of
agricultural land are used in tobacco agriculture distributed over 124 countries. China
grows 43% of the world’s tobacco cigarettes
accounting for 92% of the value of all tobacco
products sold globally.
Forms of tobacco
And tobacco smoke exposure:
Tobacco is used either by burning dry or
processed leaves of the tobacco plant and
28 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
inhaling the smoke or as smokeless tobacco
which is usually consumed either orally or
nasally, without burning or combustion. Both
forms of tobacco consumption increase the
risk of cancer and lead to nicotine addiction.
Combustion, however, uses heat to create new
chemicals that are not found in unburned
tobacco such as carbon monoxide, tobaccospecific nitrosamines (TSNAs) and benzopyrene, and allows them to be absorbed through
the lungs1.
Manufactured cigarettes are the most
commonly consumed tobacco products
worldwide. They consist of tobacco that is
processed with chemicals and flavors such as
menthol and rolled into a paper-wrapped
cylinder. As it burns from one end, smoke is
inhaled from the other end through a cellulose
acetate filter. Cigars are made of air-cured and
fermented tobacco rolled in tobacco-leaf
wrappers. This process of aging and fermentation results in high concentrations of carcinogenic compounds inhaled by smokers that are
higher than in cigarettes. Waterpipe, also
known as shisha, hookah, narghile, or hubblebubble constitutes now a world-wide
epidemic3. The additional use of charcoal in
waterpipe smoking to indirectly heat and burn
tobacco represents a significant added risk that
contributes to the carcinogenicity of this
method of smoking. When smoking waterpipe,
smoke is drawn through the water to be
partially cooled and inhaled into the lungs
through a hose. Flavored tobacco maybe used
too. Kreteks, another form of smoking
tobacco, are usually clove-flavored and contain
eugenol which has an anesthetic effect4.
Flavoring in general usually allows for deeper
and thus more harmful smoke inhalation. This
form of smoking tobacco is commonly used in
countries in Southeast Asia such as Indonesia.
Contrary to the belief of the general public,
roll-your-own cigarettes which are hand-filled
by the smoker using cigarette paper and finecut loose tobacco contain high concentrations
of tobacco particulates, tar, nicotine, and
TOBACCO
TSNAs resulting in increased risk for
developing cancers of the head and neck,
lungs, and esophagus. It is most prevalent in
Europe and New Zealand. Bidis on the other
hand, consist of a small amount of crushed
tobacco, hand-wrapped in dried temburni or
tendu leaves, and tied with string. Bidis deliver
more tar and carbon monoxide than manufactured cigarettes due to the fact that users need
to puff harder to keep them lit. Bidis are most
prevalent in South Asia and India. Pipes are
made of briar, slate, clay, or other substances.
After placing tobacco in a special bowl, it is
burned and smoke is inhaled through the stem.
Pipes are prevalent worldwide. Sticks are
made from sun-cured tobacco and wrapped in
cigarette paper.
Smokeless tobacco forms include chewing
tobacco, moist tobacco and dissolvable
tobacco. All these forms deliver nicotine
through the buccal mucous membranes. Dry
snuff is inhaled through the nose or taken
orally.
Second-hand smoking (passive smoking) is
another form of exposure to tobacco smoke.
This type of exposure does not only contribute
to the initiation of smoking, development of
tobacco dependence5 and significant irritation
to those who are exposed to it, but it also
contributes to significant mortality and
morbidity in the community6. Passive smoking
can significantly elevate the level of carbon
monoxide, increase risk of lung cancer, coronary artery disease and sudden cardiac arrests in
those expose to it7. In the 1960s the adverse
effects of maternal smoking on the developing
fetus and on children exposed to second hand
smoke in smoking households were
reported8,9. Those fetuses who were exposed to
environmental tobacco smoke suffered from
decreased lung function10. All that led to a
conclusion by the US Department of Health
and Human Services (USDHHS) in 1986, that
“Simple separation of smokers and nonsmokers within the same air space may reduce,
but does not eliminate, exposure of non-
smokers to environmental tobacco smoke”.
Such conclusion was then the basis for strict
implementation of banning the exposure to
second hand smoke in public places11.Another
form of exposure to tobacco smoke is the
newly described third-hand smoking. This
refers to the chemicals and products that
precipitate on the surfaces after second hand
smoke is cleared12.
Third-hand smoke contaminate surfaces,
furniture and clothing with carcinogenic
chemicals such as radioactive polonium-210
and tobacco-specific nitrosamines13,14.
These chemical could potentially pose great
deal of danger to infants and young children
who are more likely to crawl and eat with their
hands without washing them. Research is
underway to expose the real health risks
associated with third-hand smoking15.
Epidemiology, expected health tolls
and finance:
Despite efforts to control the spread of
tobacco, currently 20% of the world’s
population, that is approximately one billion,
are active smokers. Eighty percent of smokers
are males. Such large number of smokers is
not only causing a rise in morbidity and
mortality due to various diseases that result
directly from smoking, but also contributing
significantly to death resulting from second
hand smoking especially in women and
children While current death toll from second
hand smoking is estimated to be at 600,000
individuals annually1, it is also estimated that
75% of these deaths are among women and
children. More than half the countries of the
world have a female smoking prevalence rate
of less than 10%. Smoking rates among boys
and girls are more comparable and differ by
less than five percentage points in almost half
of the world’s countries. Smokers consumed
nearly 5.9 trillion cigarettes in 2009. Tobacco
taxation is considered a significant source of
revenue income for most countries. Despite
the fact that governments collect nearly $133
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
29
TOBACCO
billion in tobacco tax revenues each year, they
spend less than $1 billion on tobacco control.
Further increase in revenue is expected if illicit
trade were to be eliminated with reports
reaching up to USD 31.3 billion in immediate
gains upon the elimination of such trade16. The
World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that at least 70% of the retail price of
tobacco products come from excise taxes. At
least 86% of WHO member states imposed a
tobacco excise tax, and at least 14% use a
portion of tobacco tax revenue for health
purposes. Some countries are now envisioning
an end game for tobacco, with prevalence
targets of under 5%. The WHO Frame Work
Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC) treaty
covers 87.4% of the world population.
Approximately 3.8 billion people are covered
by at least one of the six MPOWER strategies
that will be discussed below at the highest
level of achievement. The number of people
protected by comprehensive smoke-free laws
has doubled from 2008 to 20101.
Tobacco initiation and dependence:
Tobacco initiation typically occurs during
childhood or adolescence. It is an acquired
social behavior16. Social learning occurs in
children as they adopt behaviors in part
through observation of parents, peers, and
other role models. During the teenage years,
peer pressure becomes the dominant social
influence16. Media plays an important role in
promoting and normalizing the appearance and
the behavior of smokers through projecting
famous figures smoking in public. Initially,
initiation is mostly voluntary, however, upon
the development of addiction, self-control can
become seriously difficult and impaired. The
cycle of nicotine addiction starts when nicotine
containing products are used for pleasure and
for enhancing mood and perform-ance. As
tolerance and physical dependence develop
over time continuous use of nicotine products
is used to self-medicate withdrawal symptoms
in addition to the above sought after effects17.
Tobacco dependence and withdrawal syndro30 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
mes have been classified as substance abuse
disorders under WHO International Statistical
Classification of Diseases and Related Health
Problems (ICD 10)18, an important step in
justifying and encouraging governments to
offer treatment to smokers. In general,
dependence develops when the neurons adapt
to the repeated drug exposure and only
function normally in the presence of the
drug19. Tobacco dependence is driven by the
highly addictive nature of nicotine. As a
psychoactive drug, nicotine induces euphoria,
serves as a reinforcer of its use and acts both
as a stimulant and a depressant. Strong and
overwhelming withdrawal symptoms develop
in its absence. Tobacco dependence fulfils all
the criteria for substance abuse as outlined in
the ”Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders, 4th Edition”20. It is ranked
third after heroin and cocaine and higher than
alcohol and cannabis in its ability to cause
dependence21. The combination of its highly
addictive property as well as the severe
adverse effects that it inflicts on its active
users as well as the severe detrimental health
effects second and third hand smoking have on
the population, caused religious Islamic
leaders in many Muslim countries such as
Jordan, Egypt, many countries in Gulf
Cooperation Council as well as Islamic
countries in southeast Asia to issue a Fatwa
that using tobacco products is forbidden
according to Islamic rules (Haram)22-25. It is
important to note that nicotine mechanism of
action and the targeted areas in the brain are
similar to other recreational drugs such as
cocaine. The principle mechanism of action is
thought to be targeting areas in the brain such
as the nucleus accumbens and increasing
levels of dopamine which in return result in
the desirable effects and inhibit the withdrawal
symptoms that may result from abstinence
from the drug26. Nicotine reaches the brain
through either the lungs when smoked or
mucous membranes when smokeless tobacco
forms are used. Although the levels of many
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substances are reported to increase in the brain
upon exposure to tobacco smoking such as
serotonin and endogenous opiates, dopamine
remains the main chemical involved in the
process of positive reinforcing aspects of
nicotine addiction and the desired feelings
sought by those who use tobacco. As nicotine
reaches the brain it binds to a special receptor
known as α4β2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor
(nAChR)located in the ventral tegmental
region which results in the release of
dopamine27,28. As nicotine binds to α4β2
nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR)
occupancy on glutamatergic terminals, glutamate, an excitatory neurotransmitter, is released
which results in an increased release of
dopamine in the nucleus accumbens and the
frontal cortex29,30. In addition Nicotine binds
to α4β2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor
(nAChR) occupancy on gamma-aminobutyric
acid (GABA)-releasing terminals31.
This binding causes an increase in the levels of
GABA, an inhibitory neurotransmitter.
Furthermore, nicotine binds to a specific
receptor in regions of the brain such as the
nucleus accumbens and result in the production of dopamine32.
These chain reactions start in 10-20 seconds
after inhalation mainly due to the large surface
area in the lung available for absorption33. In
general, nicotine dependence follows a similar
pattern that occurs with other substances and
that is characterized by both the persistence of
a drug-seeking behavior and the emergence of
withdrawal symptoms upon the abrupt
cessation of nicotine administration32. In the
end, chronic nicotine exposure result in a
neurobiologic adaptation and desensitization
of the receptors with the need to increase those
receptors through further increase in the
quantities of tobacco consumed. However, not
all forms of nicotine delivery pose an equal
risk in establishing or maintaining nicotine
addiction. Nicotine replacement therapy used
in treating tobacco dependence for example, is
less likely to cause dependence and easier to
discontinue once the treatment goals are
achieved. Although it has been always
emphasized that nicotine is the most important
chemical in cigarettes that contributes to its
highly addictive properties, other compounds
such as acetaldehyde, ammonia compounds,
and menthol also make cigarettes more
addictive through increasing free-base
nicotine, making it easier to produce larger
puffs (filter-tip ventilation) and other factors
that reduce the concerns for smokers and
increase the attractiveness of the products34.
Nicotine is metabolized primarily by the liver
enzymes CYP2A6, UDP-glucuronosyltransfease (UGT), and flavin-containing monooxygenase (FMO). Many factors influence the
metabolism of nicotine such as genetic factors,
diet, age, sex, use of estrogen-containing
hormone preparations, pregnancy,
kidney
disease, other medications, and smoking
itself35. Nicotine is further metaboli-zed to
cotinine, which may be measured in blood,
urine, saliva, hair, or nails. Cotinine levels are
used to distinguish smokers from nonsmokers. Levels exceeding 3 ng/ml indicate
active smoking status in countries with low
exposure to second hand tobacco smoke.
Second hand smoke exposure is believed to
play an important role in the occupancy of
α4β2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor. Recent
evidence36 utilizing Positron emission tomography scanning measured whether moderate
second hand smoke (SHS) exposure results in
brain α4β2* nicotinic acetylcholine receptor
occupancy in smokers and non-smokers. The
study concluded that nicotine from SHS
exposure results in substantial brain α4β2*
nAChR occupancy in smokers and nonsmokers. In addition, the finding suggested
that such occupancy would be sufficient to
deliver a priming dose of nicotine to the brain
that contributes to continued cigarette use in
smokers. It was also important to note that
while moderate exposure tested in this study
was sufficient to cause an increase in plasma
nicotine concentration of approximately 0.2
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
31
TOBACCO
ng/mL and a mean 19% brain α4β2* nAChR
occupancy in young adults, heavy SHS
exposure (in enclosed rooms with multiple
smokers) demonstrated increases in plasma
nicotine levels greater than 2 ng/mL and
greater than 70% α4β2* nAChR occupancy37.
These alarming findings have greater
implications in countries where second hand
exposure control are not implemented resulting in significant exposure in nonsmokers
especially prepubescent children and infants
who have a 1-minute ventilation per kilogram
of bodyweight that is approximately 2 to 3
times higher than adults. Because of that
increases in plasma nicotine concentration and
occupancy of brain α4β2* nAChRs from
similar levels of SHS exposure may be even
greater for children than for adults, thus setting
them up to be dependent on nicotine during
early childhood. Such studies that link SHS
exposure and craving in smokers as well as
priming nonsmokers especially children is
highly relevant to public policy and laws that
aim at limiting SHS exposure in closed public
places38,39.
Health effects of tobacco:
Every year more than 5 million people die
from tobacco-related diseases. By the year
2030, this number is expected to near 10
million40. With high income countries making
efforts to limit the spread of tobacco in their
areas and consequently succeeding in
decreasing the prevalence of smoking, it is
expected that more than 80% of these tobaccorelated deaths will occur in low income
countries1. Tobacco is currently the most
easily preventable cause of death and is the
only risk factor that is common among all noncommunicable diseases (NCDs), namely
cardiovascular disease, cancer, respiratory
illnesses and diabetes mellitus. However, the
World Economic Forum estimates that the cost
of these diseases in low income countries is
expected to exceed USD 20 trillion over the
next 15 years, thus exerting enormous
32 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
pressures on countries with limited resources
to enforce their tobacco control regulations41.
NCDs related deaths are expected to increase
by more than 25% in low income countries
over the next 15 years42. Cardiovascular
diseases (CVDs) occupy the number one spot
among all NCDs that cause death in humans.
The relation between tobacco use and
cardiovascular diseases was recognized in the
first US surgeon general report in 196443.
Cigarette smoking accelerates atherosclerosis
and contributes to cardiovascular diseases
through many mechanisms that precipitate
thrombosis, hemorrhage, or vasoconstriction
resulting in the end in vascular occlusion and
ischemia. Cigarette smoking affects blood
lipids profile and hemostasis. Smokers have
lower concentrations of high density lipoproteins, a risk factor for coronary artery diseases.
Carbon monoxide resulting from the
combustion of tobacco is significantly elevated
in the blood of smokers. It is known to have
more than 200 times higher affinity for
hemoglobin than that of oxygen, thus directly
reducing oxygen delivery to the tissues.
Overall, smoking causes CVD through
multiple mechanisms including: endothelial
dysfunction, increasing prothrombotic effect,
enhanced platelet activation in response to
different stimuli, inflammation through
activation of NF-κB pathway44, altered lipid
metabolism, and increased demand for
myocardial oxygen. All these proposed
mechanisms would result in a decreased
supply of myocardial blood and oxygen either
directly through narrowing of the lumen (due
to atherogenesis plaque formation and vasoconstriction) or through the increased demand
(due to nicotine mediated sympathetic
stimulation and increased heart rate, blood
pressure and myocardial contractility). The
2010 Surgeon General’s report45 reported an
increase in coronary heart disease risk with
more cigarettes smoked per day only up to
about 25 cigarettes. Others showed such
relation to continue up to 40 cigarettes per
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day46. These effects are not exclusive for
active tobacco smoking, In fact, second- hand
smoke is also associated with chronic
inflammation and a non-linear dose-response
relationship between such exposure and
cardiovascular effects47. Jefferis et al showed
that serum cotinine in nonsmokers was
positively associated with white blood cell
count and with levels of C-reactive protein
(CRP), Interleukin-6 (IL-6), fibrinogen, and
matrix metalloproteinase 9. The CRP levels of
nonsmokers were about one-third lower than
the levels of active smokers, but CRP levels
increased more sharply among nonsmokers at
higher exposure levels48. These findings
emphasize again the benefits of banning
smoking in public places. In addition to
coronary heart disease, a growing body of
evidence indicates that smoking causes sudden
death49, aortic aneurysms50, and peripheral
vascular disease51,52. There is a dose-response
relationship between smoking and cerebrovascular disease53,54 and a new strong evidence
demonstrates a causal relationship between
exposure to second hand smoke and increased
risk of stroke up to 30%55,56.
Smoking and cancer:
It has been established that smoking increases
the risk for certain cancers such as those of the
head and neck, lung, urinary bladder and
leukemia. Tobacco smoke contains more than
7,000 chemicals, and at least 69 of these can
cause cancer57.
Examples of these chemicals include aromatic
amines, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAHs), tobacco-specific nitrosamines; formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, 1,3-butadiene, and
benzene. When inhaled, these substances
cause DNA damage, inflammation and mutations in oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes
leading to loss of normal growth controlled
mechanisms54. Recently, new evidence
concluded a causal relationship between smoking and colon and liver cancers33. In addition,
evidence is suggestive that both active
smoking and exposure to second-hand tobacco
smoke might predispose to breast cancer. In
general, smoking has been associated with
decreased survival in patients with a variety of
cancers such as those of the head and neck,
breast, colon, rectum, prostate and others58.
This negative effect on survival is
multifactorial. For example, smoking has been
associated with poor nutrition, co-morbidities,
impaired immune function and accelerated
carcinogenesis and disease progression59,60.
Second, patients who continue to smoke while
they are receiving chemo and radiotherapy are
at risk of receiving suboptimal therapy for
their cancer61 and have a higher chance of
developing adverse events related to these
modalities of treatment62,63. Third, the
development of a second primary cancer and
the negative impact of smoking on the life of
cancer survivors are other significant risks that
cancer patients who continue to smoke must
deal with64,65.
Smoking and pulmonary diseases:
Smoking is known to cause and affect many
respiratory illnesses such as Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD), asthma,
tuberculosis and pulmonary fibrosis. Smoking
causes all elements of the COPD phenotypes
including emphysema and damage to the
airways of the lung. Smoke recruits inflammatory cells such as macrophages and liberates
proteases from viable lung cells which in
return disrupt the function of protease
inhibitors like α1-antitrypsin. This results in
facilitating the effect of proteases and the
destruction of extracellular matrix. Evidence is
suggestive that women who smoke are more
susceptible to develop severe COPD at
younger ages33.
Similarly, asthma is impacted by smoking
through many mechanisms. Chronic airway
inflammation, impaired mucociliary clearance,
impaired growth of the lungs during childhood, and increased bronchial hyper-responsiveness are all enhanced by smok-ing54,66.
Immunologic mechanisms include effects on T
cell function and a higher ratio of Th2/Th1,
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
33
TOBACCO
increased production of IgE, and greater
allergic sensitization. Cigarette smoke may
increase neurogenic inflammation in the
bronchial airway67,68 resulting in further
inflammation of the airway.
In summary, the evidence is suggestive of a
causal relationship between active smoking
and the incidence of asthma in adults as well
as exacerbation of asthma among children,
adolescents, and adults. Serious lung infections can also be promoted by smoking. For
example, the risk of mycobacterium
tuberculosis disease, mortality from the
disease and disease recurrence are all higher in
smokers69. Lastly, some evidence suggests a
possible relationship between cigarette smoking and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis70.
Cigarette smoking and diabetes mellitus: The
risk of developing diabetes is 30–40% higher
for active smokers than nonsmokers42. There is
a positive dose-response relationship between
the number of cigarettes smoked and the risk
of developing diabetes. Furthermore, smoking
aggravates insulin resistance in persons with
diabetes resulting in suboptimal control of the
blood glucose42. Recently, smoking was
implicated in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid
arthritis. The mechanism appears to involve
both the effects of oxidizing chemicals in the
smoke and the sympathomimetic effects of
nicotine42. The incidence of neovascular and
atrophic forms of age-related macular
degeneration are also increased by smoking.
Multiple pathways are likely responsible for
the degenerative changes in the macula. In
genetically susceptible persons, smoking
causes changes in retinal pigment epithelium,
Bruch’s membrane, and choroidal endothelium
and generate a local inflammatory response71.
Oxidative stress and vascular insufficiency are
proposed mechanisms for smoking-related
damage to retinal structures72,73.
Additional evidence is sufficiently conclusive
that smoking is associated with many other
conditions such as erectile dysfunction, ectopic
pregnancy74 and contributes significantly to
34 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
infertility in both males and females. Maternal
active smoking might be also linked to
spontaneous abortion and fetal anomalies such
as orofacial clefts, clubfoot, gastroschisis, and
atrial septal heart defects42.
Tobacco control strategies:
The WHO through its international treaty the
“Frame Work Convention on Tobacco Control
(FCTC)” lists six evidence-based strategies
that aim to address the various articles in this
treaty including policy, regulatory and
economic interventions75. Summarized in the
word MPOWER, the components stand for the
following:
Monitor tobacco use and prevention policies:
National data are collected periodically to
track tobacco use and consumption. The
Global Adult Tobacco and the Global Youth
Tobacco surveys are examples. Unfortunately,
many countries in the world are not capable of
conducting these surveys due to their high
cost.
Protect people from tobacco smoke:
Implementing bans on smoking in public
places is the cornerstone of this strategy.
While this has been a very successful strategy
in high-income countries to reduce the spread
and harms of tobacco, it has been very
challenging to implement in low income
countries due to the significant lack of
governmental commitment and a strong
tobacco lobby that has been transferring its
markets to those vulnerable regions.
Offer help to quit tobacco use:
This strategy will be discussed in details in the
following section.
Warn about the dangers of tobacco:
Mass media campaigns as well as the use of
pictorial warnings are known successful
methods to attract public attention, deliver
necessary health messages and drive up the
intention to quit among smokers. Pictorial
warnings on cigarette packs are usually
graphic and occupy at least 50% of the surface
TOBACCO
area of the cigarette pack. In the Eastern
Mediterranean Region (EMR), Jordan, Egypt
and Iran introduced those warnings and in the
process of upgrading them.
Unfortunately, Enforcement is generally
lacking in Eastern Mediterranean Region,
despite evidence that such intervention would
help in reducing the prevalence of smoking,
tobacco consumption as well as burden and
death from various diseases76,77.
Raise taxes on tobacco:
This strategy is considered by far the most
effective strategy for tobacco control.
Typically, national governments would impose
high taxes on tobacco products in order to
increase the price and making cigarettes less
accessible to the public especially children.
Revenues from these taxes are then invested in
strengthening tobacco control measures,
improving customs and border controls, and
curbing tobacco illicit trade. Furthermore, such
revenues can be invested in building health
care systems and train health care providers.
Currently, worldwide variation in successful
implementation of this strategy exists. High
income countries took steady steps in
implementing this strategy while low income
countries continue to fall for the tobacco
industry promises of guaranteed short term
profits and discouraged from taking aggressive
moves by the misleading evidence provided by
the tobacco industry to governments that such
profits might be hindered should higher taxes
were implemented due to the increase in
smuggled tobacco, an action typically
promoted and supported by the tobacco
industry.
Tobacco dependence treatment and the
gains of quitting:
The benefits of quitting occur simultaneously
with the cessation of smoking. For example,
normalization of the heart rate, blood pressure
and decrease in coughing and production of
phlegm occurs within hours to days from
quitting78.
In the long-term, quitting tobacco reduces
premature death by 90% for those who quit
before the age of 30 and by 50% for those who
quit before the age of 5078. In five years, the
risk of stroke falls to that of a non-smoker, and
the risk of head, neck and bladder cancers is
reduced by half79. Better control of respiratory
diseases like asthma and COPD including
symptoms, exacerbations of the disease,
hospital admissions and finally mortality form
COPD has been clearly demonstrated in the
However,
despite
these
literature80.
documented short and long-term benefits of
quitting smoking, and despite listing O – offer
help to quit as one of the recommended WHO
strategies for tobacco control, tobacco
dependence treatment (TDT) services continue
to be scarce and inconsistent across the world.
Many factors contribute to this shortage of
TDT, including the lack of training
opportunities for health care providers in basic
skills needed to deliver TDT services. Tobacco
dependence treatment is an integral component
of any comprehensive tobacco control effort.
Comprehensive TDT services include the
techniques of brief advice, motivational
interviewing and counseling, establishing
effective quit lines, and availing low-cost
pharmacotherapy. In 1999, the World Bank,
building on data published by Peto et al.
estimated that if adult consumption of tobacco
is halved by 2020 the world can prevent about
200 million deaths by 2050. In comparison,
the short-term effect on mortality of halving
the number of young people who take up
smoking was negligible. Accordingly, the
report urged governments seeking health and
economic gain to encourage smokers to quit81.
Likewise, WHO -through Article 14 of the
FCTC- mandates parties to design and
implement effective programs to promote
cessation of tobacco use and provide adequate
treatment for tobacco dependence82. The WHO
recommends inclusion of cessation advice in
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
35
TOBACCO
primary healthcare services, establishing
accessible and free quit lines, and availing
low-cost pharmacotherapy83. Inclusion of
cessation advice in primary healthcare settings
proves to be a low-cost strategy where the
major investment is in training of providers
and in providing informational materials to
tobacco users83.
Pharmacotherapy, while more expensive than
offering cessation advice, has been shown to
double or triple quit rates83. Overall, TDT
interventions are extremely cost effective
when compared to treatment of other chronic
diseases such as hypertension. While a
specialist may average two hours for treatment
of one tobacco dependence case, treatment of
hypertension over the lifetime of the patient
consumes more time84. In general the costeffectiveness of TDT exceeds that of other
commonly provided clinical preventive
services, including Pap tests, mammography,
colon cancer screening, treatment of mild to
moderate hypertension, and treatment of high
levels of serum cholesterol85.
The American College of Chest Physicians
recommends dealing with tobacco dependence
as a chronic relapsing condition similar to
asthma. Various forms of treatments are used
in a controller and reliever fashion86.
In most subjects combination pharmacotherapy is used for better outcome. A long
acting nicotine replacement therapy (NRT)
such as the nicotine patch is usually combined
with as needed doses of a short acting NRT
such as nicotine gum, lozenges, inhaler or
nasal spray. All NRT doses are titrated to
control subjects’ withdrawal and craving
symptoms. Bupropion, an antidepressant
and/or varenicline (α4β2 nicotinic acetylcholine
receptor partial agonist) are combined with
NRT for better control of symptoms and
enhanced cessation rates87. In both choices,
doses are titrated up over few days to avoid
side effects. Treatment is usually continued for
at least three months or as long as it is needed.
Safety data are now available for the chronic
36 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
use of all these medications. Relapse is very
common in subjects trying to quit smoking and
must be addressed early on in the course of
treatment. Behavioral and cognitive techniques are key in TDT and in preventing relapse.
Many challenges face establishing effective
tobacco dependence treatment programs.
Tobacco education and training in healthcare
disciplines continues to be lacking. A 2009
survey of 171 countries indicated that only
27% of medical schools taught a specific
module on tobacco88.
However, progress is being made via
international collaborations through training
health care providers (HCPs) on delivering
effective TDT. The East Mediterranean
Region (EMR) countries continue to face other
challenges that hinder service expansion. King
Hussein Cancer Center (KHCC), a comprehensive cancer care facility in Jordan that has
been offering TDT services to cancer patients
and the general public since 2008, recognized
early on that such gaps in capacity and
competence limit the reach of services and
patients’ access to help. Realizing the
importance of training HCPs in evidencebased treatment, KHCC started in 2011 to
offer TDT training to countries of the EMR
through collaboration with Global Bridges; an
international healthcare alliance for tobacco
dependence treatment that was founded by
Mayo Clinic, the American Cancer Society,
and the University of Arizona. Global Bridges
seeks to create opportunities to share treatment
and advocacy expertise and to provide stateof-the-art training to help countries fulfill
FCTC’s Article 14. While other organizations
represent Global Bridges throughout Latin
America, Africa, and Europe, KHCC is the
regional host and partner for Global Bridges in
the EMR. To date, KHCC has trained over
1500 HCPs and advocates from EMR on
tobacco control and TDT through more than
20 workshops and conferences spanning the
region from Morocco to United Arab
Emirates. Political commitment to tobacco
TOBACCO
control is not uniform across the region, and
the tobacco industry (TI) has been gaining
traction in some countries. As developed
nations tighten their regulations on the tobacco
industry, the developing nations of the EMR with their relaxed tobacco control regulationspresent themselves as a safe haven to the TI.
While tobacco companies are state-owned in
eight EMR countries, multi-nationals are
establishing their operations in other countries
such as in Jordan89.
Another challenge that may hinder expansion
of TDT services in the region is tobacco use
among physicians and other healthcare
workers. The prevalence of ever smoking
cigarettes among medical students in 2010 in
the region ranged between 24% and 42%90.
This undermines the role that healthcare
providers should play in reducing the social
acceptability of tobacco use and their
credibility in promoting TDT services91. It is
thus imperative that teaching and training
programs for HCPs address tobacco control
and TDT early on, and that special attention is
given to helping these professionals quit
tobacco use as an initial step. Furthermore, the
lack of insurance coverage by national or
private health care plans as well as the
inconsistency in the availability of necessary
pharmacological drugs used in TDT and the
prices of these drugs are all considered real
obstacles facing smokers who are trying to
quit.
In conclusion, tobacco is highly addictive and
poses great danger to those who consume it,
and societies at large.
Dependence and harms of tobacco as well as
the benefits of quitting are clearly documented
in the literature. International strategies for
tobacco control must be implemented globally
in an effort to lower the prevalence by the year
2040 to less than 5% worldwide.
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Accessed: Feb 2014.
OPIATE ADDICTION
M. Basheer Ahmed*
Abstract:
Drug addiction is rapidly increasing in most parts of the world resulting in escalating healthcare
cost, fatalities and serious negative familial and social consequences. The opiate addiction is the
most serious form of drug addiction and it is extremely difficult to treat and keep the patient
sober.
The article covers the historical perspective, genetic and environmental factors contributing to
the addiction behavior and the brain mechanisms for addiction. It will discuss the diagnostic
criteria and the current methods of treatment available including use of opiate agonists, opiate
partial agonists, opiate antagonists and psychosocial treatments.
The article also includes a brief discussion about the current situation related to drug use in the
Muslim World and proposes some guidelines for treatment and control of the spread of drug use
in the Muslim World.
Keywords: Drug addiction, Opiate use disorders, neurologic mechanisms, causes of addiction,
treatment of addiction, history, Islamic perspective.
Introduction:
The death of Philip Seymour Hoffman, the
brilliant Oscar winning actor, created headline
news about mortality due to overdosing on
opiates. One of the statements he made created
this renewed interest in this subject when he
stated, “if one of us dies of an overdose
probably 10 people who were about to
won’t”1. Opiate dependence is a significant
worldwide public health issue. Globally,
between 24 and 35 million adults between the
ages 15 and 64 years used an illicit opiate in
20102. Alcohol and illicit drugs are harming
millions of people in many countries around
the world. Alcohol and drug use account for
5.4% of the world’s annual disease burden. In
some Eastern European countries, 16% of the
population suffers from “Alcohol use
disorder”3. Some of the most common drugs
of abuse are opiates and opioids.
Opiates are derived from the poppy seeds and
is known as heroin. Opioids are semi synthetic
products such as Morphine, Oxycodone,
Percocet, Tylox, Oxycontin, Hydrocodone,
Vicodin, Tramadol, Ultram, Pentazocine,
Talwin and Fentanyl. The heroin is used
intravenously, as a smoke or as an inhalant and
all opioids are used orally.
According to the USA Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention (CDC), 12 million
Americans used opiates in 2010 and that every
day 100 people die from drug overdoses, 75%
of which are caused by prescription opiates.
The rate has tripled in the last two decades.
*Dr. Basheer Ahmed MD
Professor of Psychiatry (Retired)
South Western Medical School, Dallas, Texas, USA
Medical Director Texas Treatment Services, Fort Worth, Texas, USA
E-mail: [email protected]
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
41
OPIATE
There have been more than 17 deaths linked to
the possible use of Fentanyl- contaminated
heroin in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania alone from
January 24, till March 23, 2014. In the first
two weeks of January, there were 22 such
deaths reported in the state of Rhode Island
due to heroin overdose. Heroin is always an
extremely intoxicating drug of abuse with a
wide array of risks including overdose and
increased exposure to Hepatitis C, HIV/AIDS
and other infectious diseases. It often contains
other ingredients which render it potentially
more harmful or in some cases deadly4.
Opiates become more dangerous when mixed
with benzodiazepines and can be fatal. In
2009, slightly over 120 million visits were
made to the emergency departments in general
hospitals in the United States and at least 4.5
million of these visits were drug-related. Drugrelated emergency department visits have
increased by over 80 percent since 2004. This
increase primarily reflects greater numbers of
medical emergencies associated with adverse
reactions, accidental drug ingestions, and
misuse or abuse of prescription drugs and
over-the-counter medications 5.
Countries around the world spend billions of
dollars fighting drugs and treating and
rehabilitating those addicted. In addition to
personal and social problems, alcohol, drug
use and other addictions lead to criminal
behavior. Hundreds of thousands of
individuals are arrested for possession and /or
sales of drugs, or for committing crime to
obtain them. Drug intoxication results in
traffic accidents which may cause fatalities.
One-third of AIDS cases occur in IV drug
users and children are born with AIDS to the
female drug users.
What is Addiction?
Addiction is an obsessive and compulsive
behavior which includes taking drugs (alcohol,
opiates and other drugs), engaging in
42 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
gambling, computers and being pre-occupied
with persistent sexual thoughts and
pornography inspite of negative consequences,
which influence health, relationships and
work. In other words, addiction has many
forms; some of them are related to substances
while the others are related to psychological
dependence on behaviors.
The addiction alters the brain’s function and
structures affecting mood, perception and
consciousness
leading
to
physical,
psychological and psycho-social problems.
Addiction is a primary, chronic disease of
brain’s reward, motivation, memory and
related circuitry. Addiction affects neurotransmission and interactions within reward
structures of the brain, including the nucleus
accumbens, anterior cingulate cortex, basal
forebrain and amygdala, such that motivational
hierarchies are altered and addictive behaviors,
which may or may not include alcohol and
other drug use, supplant healthy, self-care
related behaviors.
Addiction also affects neurotransmission and
interactions between cortical and hippocampal
circuits and brain reward structures, such that
the memory of previous exposures to rewards
(such as food, sex, alcohol and other drugs)
leads to biological and behavioral responses
to external cues, in turn triggering craving
and/or engagement in addictive behaviors6.
Historical Perspective
Contrary to common belief, the contemporary
drug problems are not new. In fact, the use of
psychotropic substances seems to be an almost
universal phenomenon which has long been a
great social concern. Today, there are only a
few isolated societies in which psychoactive
substances are not used. It is stated that the
very desire to alter consciousness, whether by
drugs or some other means “is an innate,
normal drive analogous to hunger or the sexual
drive.” Blum identified only four out of 247
OPIATE
cultures where people do not use any
substance which alters the mind. The only
people without a traditional intoxicant are the
Eskimos, “who had the misfortune to be
unable to grow anything and had to wait for
white men to bring them alcohol” 7-9.
Human beings have always had a desire to
consume substances that make them feel
relaxed, stimulated, or euphoric. People started
chewing leaves, herbs and other natural
products, and they cultivated plants which they
used for food, for alleviating pain or
recreational purposes. Some of these
preparations produced euphoria, and many of
these were used in religious rites. The later
discovery of fermentation of fruits or juices
was closely followed by the production of
alcohol. One of the oldest drinks was a juice
extracted from Palm trees (Palm toddy) (an
incision is made on top of the stem of the tree
during the night and the juice is collected early
morning)10, after being left in the sunshine for
a few hours, it becomes fermented and gives
the same effect as alcohol. It is still commonly
used in South Asia.
Initially, these drugs
were used as natural products and were less
harmful. As their potency is increased by
distillation and other mechanisms, they
become more intoxicating and harmful.
In the recorded history from ancient times,
alcohol was the only drug mentioned causing
problems in the Greek and Roman periods. I
am sure there were other drugs used which
alter mental conditions causing stimulation,
relaxation and euphoria but alcohol was
mentioned as causing significant social
problems. The earliest recorded example of
concern related to alcohol use is the
prohibition of its use in the7th century under
the Islamic law based on the commandment of
God recorded in the Glorious Qur’an. Muslims
are strictly forbidden from using alcohol and
other intoxicants which alter consciousness
and from an addictive behavior that is
gambling11. In the 11th century, the technique
of distillation became known in Europe,
making it possible to produce more potent
alcoholic beverages. In the 16th century,
drunkenness was mentioned in England for the
first time as a crime, and laws were passed
against its use. In European colonies,
drunkenness was prominent, but it was not
considered a major problem or stigmatized
behavior. In England, the consumption of
beers and wines, particularly home-brews, was
integrated into every aspect of family life7.
In the 12th century the chewing of coca leaves
was common in the Inca Empire (South
America), mostly in religious and special
social functions. The coca plant was also
viewed as a divine gift of the Sun God giving
energy and euphoria.
In the 14th century, coffee was initially used in
Ethiopia for medicinal purposes. The
technique of roasting made coffee cheaper and
more pleasant to consume. Cultivation and use
of coffee expanded into Arabia.
In the 15th century, Arabs spread the use of
coffee to the Muslim countries. Use of coffee
became predominant because wine is
prohibited according to Islamic law. Initially,
coffee was prohibited in Turkey (Middle East)
and the coffee houses were closed but the ban
was lifted some time later when it was realized
that people did not stop drinking coffee.
Coffee became a popular drink throughout the
Middle East. When coffee was introduced in
Europe from Muslim Turkey, it was banned on
religious grounds as it was regarded as
“infidel’s drink.” Later during the 16th century,
its use was sanctioned.
Tobacco chewing and smoking were first
observed by Europeans when they landed in
America. Later, they cultivated and
transported tobacco to Europe due to great
financial rewards. Tobacco seeds were
transported from Brazil to France and England
for cultivation. Within a century, tobacco use
became widespread in most European
countries7.
In 7th century, the opium poppy was
introduced in India and China by Arabs, and
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
43
OPIATE
its use was limited to medicinal purposes.
However, its use increased significantly
especially in China. Later, British opium
traders from India established depots at Canton
and Macao and its trade became very
profitable. As opium smoking spread and the
number of Chinese addicts significantly
increased compromising their productivity, the
emperor of China prohibited its sale. The
effort was initially successful with the
destruction of all British opium stock in 1839.
However, to protect this trade, Britain declared
war on China. The first opium war was from
1839 to 1842 and the second opium war was
from 1856 to 1860. China was defeated and
the war ended with the Treaty of Nanking,
which protected foreign opium traders from
Chinese law. It is ironic to see how far the
imperialist governments will go to destroy
humanity for financial gains. The Maoist
revolution ended drug addiction quickly. By
1952, there were no more addicts, no more
pushers, and no more drugs smuggled. In only
three short years, China went from 70 million
drug addicts to none12.
Cocaine and opiate addiction in the United
States became increasingly identified with the
underworld and organized crime. In 1914,
Congress passed the Harrison Act which
regulated and taxed the production,
importation and distribution of opiates and
coca products. It required all persons
authorized to handle or manufacture narcotic
drugs to register, pay a fee, and keep a record
of the drugs in their possession. The act did
not prohibit the supply of opiates to users by
registered physicians. Temperance movements
for alcohol use have been active since 1840s
by religious organizations and finally the 18th
amendment to the USA constitution was
passed as “the national prohibition act of
1919” which required licensures for businesses
that brew, distill and wholesale alcoholic
beverages. The prohibition act and the
religious movement of temperance were hoped
to curtail the sale and use of alcohol.
44 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
Unfortunately, underground breweries and
distilleries became very popular throughout
the country to supply the demand for alcohol.
The sale of alcohol in the black market and
importation of alcohol from other countries by
illegal means became widespread. This
resulted in forcing Congress to repeal the 18th
amendment by the 21st amendment (the 18th
amendment is the only constitutional amendment that was repealed by another amendment
– the 21st amendment) 7.
Cannabis, opium, coca, tea, coffee, tobacco,
and alcohol became the most commonly used
substances in the world. Tobacco, alcohol, and
caffeine became the major three drugs of
addiction in Europe and America. There was
an initial opposition for their use but due to
their widespread use, these substances were
not regarded as drugs of addiction. The use of
alcohol in Western countries is well accepted,
and no criminal sanctions are imposed on
alcohol use. In Muslim countries alcohol is
prohibited, however its use along with other
drugs has increased considerably during the
last decade. Alcohol and tobacco are now
recognized as highly addictive drugs causing
severe detrimental effects on health.
What causes addiction?
Most addictions with drugs such as alcohol
and opiates or pleasurable behaviors such as
gambling and pornography start as pleasurable
or recreational activities, but continued use or
engagement in such behavior results in dire
consequences. Many addicts do not recognize
this at the early stages. Only when the
behavior becomes out of control and causes
problems to themselves and others that it is
recognized. There are some controversies
about which of the behavioral addictions are
validated as true addictions. There has been no
agreement among professionals on this
controversial issue and more research is
needed to have a clear definition and to
establish the criteria for diagnosis.
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The gambling disorder is included in the
DSM-V, and requires five criteria to diagnose
patients with clinically significant gambling
related disorders13.
Most people exhibiting addictive behaviors are
emotionally stressed and or unstable and thus
psychologically vulnerable to develop
dependence on drugs. Research also showed
that there are some genetic predispositions for
drug dependence. Recent studies of twin
families with history of drug abuse indicate
that drug abuse is substantially heritable14,15.
Genes of the dopamine system are likely
candidates to harbor risk variants, as dopamine
neurotransmission is involved in mediating the
rewarding effects of drugs of abuse.
These data demonstrate the importance of
dopamine gene variants in the risk for opioid
dependence and highlight a functional
polymorphism that warrants further study16.
While genetics plays a role in drug addiction,
it is important to recognize that environmental
factors also play a significant role in the
transmission of this disease. Recent research
confirms the role of environmental factors
such as the influence of parents and siblings on
adolescent drug use. When one member of the
family household is using a drug, it places the
other members of the family at risk. Socioeconomic conditions of the family,
neighborhood level of social deprivation also
affects the risk for drug abuse, beyond family
socio-economic status17,18.
How drugs influence brain and behavior
Most drugs of abuse directly or indirectly
affect the brain’s reward system through the
neurotransmitter dopamine. The limbic system
contains the brain’s reward circuit and through
the complex neuronal system links with
cerebral cortex and mid brain structures
including the hypothalamus, amygdale and
other areas which process information
resulting in perception of anger, fear,
happiness and other emotions. The limbic
system is activated by drugs, which results in
mood-altering behavior. These parts of the
brain are also responsible for executive
functions and decision making.Thus, excessive
drug use influences decision making behavior.
Amphetamine and cocaine stimulate the
neurons to release large quantities of the
neurotransmitter dopamine, resulting in
excessive stimulation leading to excitement,
pleasurable feelings and euphoria. This
pleasurable experience is remembered which
results in continuous use of drugs and
dependence on drugs. Brain imaging studies
have provided information on the drugs’
neurobiological effects, explained the causes
and mechanisms of vulnerability to drug
abuse, and yielded important insights into
abusers’ subjective experiences and behaviors,
including their struggles in recovery. Recent
neuroimaging studies suggest that people
living with a drug addiction have considerable
decreases in dopamine D2 receptors and in
dopamine release, which may contribute to
both the rewarding properties of substances
and difficulties in abstaining despite adverse
consequences. Brain areas such as the
prefrontal cortex have been identified as being
directly involved in assessing the reward
potential of decision-making and vulnerability
for relapse. Abnormal hippocampus and
anterior cingulate functioning are associated
with challenges in the ability to cope with
stress, in addition to problems in cognition19.
Structural MRI provides information on the
location, shapes, and sizes of the brain’s
various regions.
Sagital sections of human brain showing Orbitofrontal
cortex (OFC) and Ventral tegmental area (VTA)
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
45
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A structural MRI study found that individuals
with a history of abusing drugs have smaller
prefrontal lobes. It also showed that chronic
substance abusers’ frontal lobe tissues
contained a lower proportion of white matter
than those of matched controls 20.
Researchers have used functional MRI to
obtain detailed information about the roles of
different brain areas in producing cocaineinduced euphoria and subsequent craving. An
influx of cocaine described as a drug rush
occurs during a brief period when a set of
areas, including the caudate (an area of the
basal ganglia), cingulate, and most of the
lateral prefrontal cortex showed higher levels
of activity. The participants’ reports of craving
commenced when the euphoria subsided and
persisted as long as a different set of brain
areas-including the nucleus accumbens (NAc)remained activated. Positron Emission
Tomography (PET) and single-photon
emission computerized tomography (SPECT)
have also shown the presence and actions of
drugs of abuse in the brain’s reward system
with their euphoric properties and their ability
to preoccupy addicted individuals. Dopamine
flow in these areas is a main determinant of
how much pleasure is derived. A PET study
also revealed that while methamphetamine
temporarily hyper-activates the dopamine
system, chronic exposure to the drug reduces
the availability of dopamine transporters,
which may indicate a loss of dopamine cells21 .
Opiate dependence
Opiate dependence is a major public health
problem, and the illicit use of opiates
contributes to the global burden of disease and
can result in premature disability and death.
Incidence and prevalence of blood borne
viruses (e.g., HIV, hepatitis B, and hepatitis C)
are higher in injection drug users22.
The United States has seen a significant
increase in the illicit use of prescription
46 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
opiates. Prescriptions for opioid analgesics
increased from about 75.5 million to 209.5
million in 10 years. Admissions for opiate
drug dependence have increased from
approximately 280,000 to 421,000 during a 10
year period (1999-2009) 23. In a study of
Jordanian opiate dependent patients, the major
cause of premature death was accidental
overdose, along with infectious disease.
Moreover, a high prevalence of criminal
activity and psychosocial difficulties are also
found among Jordanian heroin users24.
Addiction to opiates can be caused either by
the recreational use of opiate based drugs, or it
may be caused by prescribed use of the drugs.
Opiates create a feeling of euphoria. The initial
feeling of euphoria wears off in a short period
and a user starts feeling withdrawal symptoms.
They then use larger doses to reduce
withdrawal
symptoms
and
experience
pleasure.
Often times, opiates such as Oxycontin,
Oxycodone or morphine are prescribed for the
treatment of chronic pain associated with
degeneration of bones, arthritis, post surgical
pain, cancer and other diseases. Unfortunately,
many people who are prescribed opiate pain
killers do not realize the risk of opiate
addiction and believe that they are under no
danger if they take the medication as
prescribed by their doctor. Seventy five per
cent of high school seniors perceive using
heroin once or twice as dangerous, but only
40% perceive similar use of prescription
opiates as dangerous25.
Unfortunately,
indiscriminate
use
of
prescription opiates creates a major problem in
the USA. Physicians are prescribing narcotic
analgesics without proper justification.
Patients are becoming addicted and in some
cases they sell the drugs on the streets. While
pain management clinics help patients with
chronic pain, they are also the major
contributors in creating prescription drug
dependence. Iatrogenic drug addiction has
become a major problem. No strict guidelines
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have been developed for the use of these
highly addictive drugs. Many physicians do
not have a protocol about stopping drug use
until it is too late. The new regulations and
law enforcement efforts have curtailed the
supply of prescription drugs and the cost of
these drugs in the open market has increased
considerably. This has resulted in many users
switching to a cheaper drug – heroin.
Environmental factors such as availability of
opiates, psychosocial stresses and lack of
coping strategies also influence the risk of
developing opiate addiction. Traumatic
lifetime experiences such as post-traumatic
stress disorder may increase the risk for opiate
addiction. Weak parental bonds also increase
the risk for illicit drug use during adulthood26.
The risk for developing opiate addiction is a
complex interaction between genetics,
environmental factors, and the pharmacological effects of opiates. Genetic loci
associated with opiate self-administration have
been identified; and selective disruption of the
gene encoding the mu opioid receptor, the
principal target of opiates, can eliminate opiate
self-administration and conditioned place
preference27. Prolonged opiate use leads to
changes in neuronal connections that result in
an inability of the body to cope with or stop
pain. Once in the brain, the primary target for
abused opiates is the mu opioid receptor.
Located throughout the brain, the highest
density of this receptor occurs in areas
modulating pain and reward (e.g., thalamus,
amygdala, anterior cingulated cortex, and
striatum). Activation of mu opioid receptors
inhibits
GABA-mediated
dopaminergic
neurons in the ventral tegmental area28.
Human imaging studies have identified
ongoing reductions in dopamine D2 receptor
binding potential in opiate addicts and that this
reduction correlates with the duration of opiate
use29. The details of how the interaction
between genes, environment, and drugs
contributes to the development, persistence,
and relapse to addiction have yet to be
elucidated. This interaction forms the
hypothesized foundation for the persistence of
addiction vulnerability even in those who have
discontinued drug use and indicates that long
term relapse prevention strategies need to
include
both
environmental
and
pharmacological interventions beyond the
immediate period of withdrawal.
Diagnostic criteria
for opioid dependence
DSM-5 Opioid Use Disorder - Diagnostic
Criteria, American Psychiatric Association
In the DSM-5, Substance Use Disorder is the
singular diagnosis which combines substance
abuse and substance dependence. It is defined
as such:
A problematic pattern of opioid use leading to
clinically significant impairment or distress, as
manifested by at least two of the following,
occurring within a 12-month period:
1) Opioids are often taken in larger amounts or
over a longer period than was intended.
2) There is a persistent desire or unsuccessful
efforts to cut down or control opioid use.
3) A great deal of time is spent in activities
necessary to obtain the opioid, use the opioid,
or recover from its effects.
4) Craving, or a strong desire or urge to use
opioids.
5) Recurrent opioid use resulting in a failure to
fulfill major role obligations at work, school,
or home.
6) Continued opioid use despite having
persistent or recurrent social or interpersonal
problems caused or exacerbated by the effects
of opioids.
7) Important social, occupational, or
recreational activities are given up or reduced
because of opioid use.
8) Recurrent opioid use in situations in which
it is physically hazardous.
9) Opioid use is continued despite knowledge
of having a persistent or recurrent physical or
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
47
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psychological problem that is likely to have
been caused or exacerbated by the substance.
10) Tolerance, as defined by either of the
following:
a) A need for markedly increased
amounts of opioids to achieve
intoxication or desired effect.
b) A markedly diminished effect with
the continued use of the same amount
of an opioid.
11) Withdrawal, as manifested by either of the
following:
a) The characteristic opioid withdrawal
syndrome.
b) Presence of either of the following:


Cessation of (or reduction in) opioid use
that has been heavy and prolonged (i.e.,
several weeks or longer).
Administration of an opioid antagonist
after a period of opioid use.
Three (or more) of the following developing
within a minute to several days after the
cessation of (or reduction in) opioid use:
Dysphoric mood, nausea or vomiting, muscle
aches, lacrimation or rhinorrhea, pupillary
dilation, piloerection, sweating, diarrhea,
yawning, fever, and insomnia 30.
Side effects of opiates
Opiate side effects include sedation, dizziness,
nausea or vomiting, constipation, and
respiratory depression which may lead to death
in cases of overdose. People receiving
prescriptions from several different providers,
and take high daily doses of opiates are more
prone to have an overdose.
Treating opiate intoxication
Mild to moderate opiate intoxication does not
require treatment. Overdose of opioids results
in respiratory depression. It requires treatment
in an emergency department. Naloxone is
usually used to reverse the respiratory
depression.
48 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
Initial signs of dependence: Dependence is
indicated by extreme fatigue, sleeping more
than usual, or episodes of “nodding off” during
normal activities. Other manifestations
include: pinpoint and fixed pupils that are
unresponsive to changes of light as well as
changes in appetite and weight (both will often
decrease drastically), loss of interest in usual
activities, and constipation.
Common features of opiate addiction: lack
of control over drug consumption, exhausting
all financial resources, spending more and
more time using drugs, denial or thinking that
there is no problem and lying or hiding the
drug use, using drugs despite known negative
consequences such as financial breakdown,
effects on physical health, family problems,
occupational and legal problems, inability to
maintain social relationships, and multiple
failed attempts to quit.
Withdrawal symptoms:
The main features of opioid withdrawal are
nausea, vomiting, diaphoresis, yawning,
fatigue, aches and pain, muscle cramps,
diarrhea, mydriasis, and piloerection. Other
symptoms include chills, irregular heartbeat,
itching, restless leg syndrome, flu-like
symptoms, diarrhea and weakness. As
tolerance goes up, susceptibility to withdrawal
becomes marked. Withdrawal symptoms can
be excruciating and include muscle aches,
anxiety, sweating and insomnia. Subjective
symptoms are much greater than objective
signs. Cravings begin 4 to 6 hours after the last
dose of short-acting opioids, leading to active
drug-seeking behavior. This is followed by
anxiety, diaphoresis, and agitation after 8 to 12
hours. Peak withdrawal discomfort is usually
experienced after 36 to 72 hours and decreases
thereafter31.
Treatment of opiate use disorder
The main objective of treatment is to reduce
dependence and issues associated with use. It
is important to realize that treatment for opiate
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addiction requires long-term management.
Discontinuing opiates without medical
supervision is not only difficult but it is also
dangerous. Opiates cause physical changes
within the body and the brain that can make
quitting cold turkey almost impossible except
in prisons or in hospitals under medical
supervision. Generally, it is not advisable to
quit opiates without at least tapering the drugs
off or being under the direct care of a
healthcare professional because there is a risk
of opiate withdrawal symptoms leading to
deadly consequences. Behavioral interventions
alone have extremely poor outcomes, with
more than 80% of patients returning to drug
use. Most often, a combination of medical
intervention and psychological counseling is
needed in order to effectively help an individual overcome opiate addiction. Because this
addiction is medically recognized as a central
nervous system disorder, much attention has
been placed on medical intervention and
treatment of opiate addiction through
medication replacement therapies. The
cravings and withdrawal symptoms associated
with quitting opiate use are very strong and
difficult to overcome. It is for this reason that
medication-assisted treatments are often
recommended. These therapies address the
changes that drugs have caused in a user’s
brain. The pharmacotherapy with methadone,
buprenorphine and naltrexone combined with
psycho-social services are effective in
reducing opiate use, dangerous behavior, and
criminal activity, while improving the mental
health of patients32. Medication-assisted
therapies are safe in that they are administered
by trained physicians in measured daily doses.
They are not taken intravenously and thus
eliminate the risk of HIV and other IV-related
diseases; when taken correctly they eliminate
the risk of overdose.
Pharmacological treatments
for opiate disorder
The three medications approved by the USA
Federal drug Administration (FDA) for long-
term treatment of opiate dependence are: the
opioid agonist methadone, the opioid partial
agonist buprenorphine, and the opioid
antagonist naltrexone. Oral naltrexone is
effective in treating opiate addiction but recent
studies using extended release naltrexone
injections have shown good results in patients
who lack strong motivation. For many years,
methadone, an opioid agonist, was the main
pharmacologic treatment option for opioid
dependence, but its availability in the United
States was limited to licensed programs. The
introduction of another opioid agonist in the
form of sublingual bupre-norphine, which can
be prescribed in office-based practices, has
greatly expanded access to treatment for
individuals with opioid dependence. The
opioid antagonist naltrexone has been
available as a treatment for opioid dependence
for many years, but its use has been limited,
particularly in countries where agonist
treatment is available.
Sometimes, opiate addiction treatment takes
place in hospitals or residential treatment
centers. Because of the severity of withdrawal
symptoms that are associated with opiate
dependence and addiction, opiate addiction
requires a longer stay in a residential treatment
setting before safely integrating into an
outpatient treatment setting.
Methadone and methadone maintenance
clinics:
Methadone is the oldest of these kinds of
treatments and has been used since the 1960s.
It must be taken in certified, specialized
methadone clinics. Methadone is given each
day in sufficient quantity to counteract the
withdrawal symptoms.
Methadone is a synthetic mu opioid receptor
agonist, administered orally in liquid or tablet
form. Following oral administration, peak
plasma levels are reached within 2–4 hours
and the elimination half-life at the steady state
is approximately 28 hours, allowing for once
daily dosing. Methadone safety is well
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
49
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established. Like other opiate agonists,
methadone has the potential to induce
respiratory suppression. Recent increases in
methadone-associated deaths are primarily
related to its minimally regulated use in the
treatment of pain and not due to its use in the
treatment of opiate dependence 33, 34.
Methadone response appears to be doserelated with most patients stabilizing at doses
between 60 and 120 mg daily. Response is
most frequently measured in terms of retention
in treatment and discontinuation of opiates,
other drugs and improvement of psycho-social
functioning. At our clinic, all patients with
opiate dependence are initially evaluated by
the physician and have a physical examination
and laboratory work. Once the diagnosis is
established, they receive an initial oral dose of
methadone 20-30 mg daily in either tablet or
liquid form. The dose is increased between 5 10 mg daily until it reaches 50 mg. During the
initial evaluation, patients are instructed to
stop use of opiates, benzodiazepines, and other
drugs due to serious side effects. Patients who
are using benzodiazepines are required to
discontinue
the
benzodiazepines
after
consulting with the prescribing physician or
gradually discontinuing them in 4 to 6 weeks.
All patients are required to consult with a
physician to increase the dose of methadone.
All patients are seen weekly by a trained
counselor
who
assesses
psycho-social
functioning and develops a treatment plan to
help the patient as needed. The treatment
approach is problem-oriented and focuses on
achieving well-defined goals. Providing
intensive psychosocial services and counseling
may improve treatment outcomes.
Methadone maintenance for patients with
opiate disorders is effective in decreasing
opiate use, psychological and medical
morbidity associated with opiates, improving
social functioning, reducing the spread of HIV
infection and decreasing criminal activity. The
most common side effects of methadone are
constipation, increased sweating and sexual
50 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
difficulties35,36. Retention in methadone
treatment clinics and adherence to the
treatment regimen are similar to or exceed
results for other medically managed diseases
such as hypertension, dyslipidemia, and
diabetes mellitus37. When the patient is well
stabilized on a specific dose and does not
experience any side effects and shows
improvement in psychosocial functioning,
gradual detoxification can be started.
Detoxification period varies from patient to
patient depending on the patient's selfconfidence, social circumstances, marital
stability, occupational stability and coping
capabilities. Methadone is an effective means
for an addict to discontinue opiates and move
forward with a more productive life. It is much
safer and cleaner than opiates and allows
people to successfully hold a job and manage
other aspects of their lives. A small percentage
of patients will continue to use opiates.
Buprenorphine
Buprenorphine is a semi-synthetic mu opioid
with weak partial agonist effects. It has less
abuse potential than other opioids because the
intensity of the rewarding effect is milder and
plateaus at higher doses38. It produces a
normalizing effect in individuals with opioid
addiction already in withdrawal. Sublingual
buprenorphine has a long half-life (24 to 60
hours, mean 37 hours). Suboxone contains 2
active
ingredients;
buprenorphine
and
naloxone at the ratio of 4:1. Naloxone is
intended to deter individuals from abusing the
medication. Naloxone blocks the effect of
opiates. While a patient is on Buprenorphine
(which contains Naloxone) takes opiates he
will not feel any euphoric effect of opiates and
therefore it acts as a deterrent for relapse. The
intravenous use of opiate gives a surge to the
individual and he will not experience this
when taking. Therefore, Suboxone must be
given after the total discontinuation of the
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opiate, and the patient is already in
withdrawal.
The literature on safety evaluation of
buprenorphine maintenance is less developed
than that of methadone, but is considered to be
quite safe. During maintenance treatment,
patients have reduced illicit opiate use but
following buprenorphine taper, some patients
return to illicit opiate use. In one study
comparing heroin addicts to prescriptionopiate addicts, the heroin addicted patients had
more severe addiction and did not do as well
with buprenorphine treatment as the less ill
prescription opiate dependents. Buprenorphine
is a safe treatment with expected side effects
of sedation, constipation, headache, nausea or
vomiting, and dizziness, and it carries a lower
risk of respiratory depression than full opioid
agonists.
There are rare reports of hepatoxicity, in
addition to a few reports of death when
combined with benzodiazepines 39, 40.
Buprenorphine, was approved by the FDA in
2002 and can be prescribed by physicians and
can be taken in physicians’ offices rather than
solely in specialized clinics like methadone. It
is taken as a tablet or sublingually once a day.
For the induction phase, patients can be started
on buprenorphine (maximum 8 mg on day 1,
as per the drug monograph, in single or
divided doses) 12 to 24 hours after the last
opioid dose. Dosage can then be adjusted
based on clinical symptoms. Patients should be
observed medically for at least two hours after
the initial dose41. It is well established that
moderate to high doses (8 to 16 mg) have
significantly higher efficacy. Although the
maximum dose recommended by the
manufacturer is 24 mg, doses of up to 32 mg
have been used in some trials.
Buprenorphine’s long half-life and slow
dissociation from opioid receptors allows for
the possibility of less-than-daily dosing42.
Buprenorphine is an effective detoxification
agent for opioid dependence. Although
methadone remains a slightly superior
substitution treatment, bupreno rphine’s lower
abuse potential and good safety profile make it
particularly appealing for family physicians.
Those patients that fail to respond are then
referred for methadone maintenance. Moderate
to high doses (8 to 24 mg) of buprenorphine
are usually required. Use of buprenorphinenaloxone in primary care settings is
efficacious, safe, and feasible within reasonable time constraints 43.
Naltrexone: Naltrexone is an opioid receptor
antagonist used in treatment of opioid
dependence. It helps patients overcome opioid
addiction by blocking the drug’s euphoric
effects. Naltrexone should not be confused
with Naloxone (which is used in emergency
cases of opioid overdose) as it can cause acute
opioid withdrawal symptoms. Return to opiate
use following detoxification is caused by
negative reinforcement of environmental
stimuli (e.g., cues and social stressors) and if
an antagonist prevented the addict from
relieving this negative state through opiate use,
then the behavior of turning to opiates in these
situations would eventually cease. Naltrexone
can block the effect of opiates for
approximately 24–48 hours after oral dosing.
Naltrexone is a useful non-addictive pharmacotherapy for opioid addiction. Naltrexone is
non narcotic and non addictive drug. Therefore
there is no chance of a patient becoming
addicted to Naltrexone whereas Methadone
and Suboxone contain opiates which are
narcotics and has potential for abuse. In Russia
and some Muslim countries (like Jordan)
opiate agonists such as Methadone or
Suboxone are not approved to be used for
treatment of opiate addiction.
While some patients do well with oral
Naltrexone, it must be taken daily and a
patient whose cravings become overwhelming
can take opioids simply by skipping the dose
before taking the opioids. A monthly injection
of long acting depot naltrexone can be used for
patients to motivate themselves to stick to a
treatment regime which is very useful. The
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
51
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plasma levels sufficient to block 25 mg of
heroin are approximately 1–2 ng/ml, a level
maintained for 21–28 days following 380 mg
of the intramuscular extended release
formulation 44. In 2010, the FDA approved
extended-release injectable naltrexone for the
treatment of opioid dependence. This approval
was partly based on the results of a trial
conducted at 13 addiction treatment centers in
Russia where opioid agonist treatment is
prohibited. Extended release naltrexone may
improve treatment outcomes because nonadherence to daily oral regimens is reduced by
delivery of a once monthly injection.
Currently, there is limited data regarding the
extended release intramuscular injection. A
larger trial in Russia retained 53% of patients
at 6 months compared to 38% for placebo.
Patients receiving extended release naltrexone
also had significantly fewer days of illicit
opiate use45. Naltrexone should be given after
a week of abstinence from opioids due to risk
of acute withdrawal. Common side effects are
diarrhea and abdominal cramps. High doses
may cause liver damage.
Research studies recently showed that a higher
retention rate can be achieved with Naltrexone
implants. The implants are not currently
approved and are not available in USA46.
Tramadol versus methadone
for treatment of opiate withdrawal
Tramadol may be as effective as methadone in
the control of withdrawal and could be
considered as a potential substitute for
methadone to manage opioid withdrawal.
Seventy patients randomly assigned to two
groups received either prescribed methadone
(60 mg/day) or tramadol (600 mg/day). The
withdrawal symptoms of patients were
evaluated before and after rapid opiate
detoxification. No significant differences
existed between the two groups. Drop out rates
were similar in both groups. Side effects in the
tramadol group were as or less common than
52 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
in the methadone group except for increased
perspiration with Tramadol47.
Treatment of opiate dependence
in pregnant patients
Opioid use may result in poor nourishment,
general medical complications, miscarriage
and preterm birth. Fifty percent of the infants
born to women with opiate dependence are
physiologically dependent on opioids and may
experience withdrawal symptoms. The
placenta is metabolically active and can
increase clearance of both methadone and
buprenorphine. Methadone is the standard of
care for pregnant women and has been shown
to reduce illicit opioid use, enhance
compliance with obstetric care, and improve
neonatal outcomes. Since methadone does not
have active metabolites, patients may
experience early withdrawal and may require
increases in or splitting of methadone dose
during the second and third trimesters. It is
recommended that neither naloxone nor
naltrexone be administered during pregnancy,
thus buprenorphine should be administered as
the mono product and naltrexone should be
avoided.
In a small Cochrane meta-analysis of
maintenance treatment in pregnancy, there
were no differences in maternal or fetal
outcomes between groups taking buprenorphine or methadone. Recent trials have
suggested buprenorphine to be superior in
terms of fetal outcomes, with less severe
neonatal abstinence syndrome48-50.
Psychosocial treatment of opiate
use disorder
Individuals with substance use disorder are
often ambivalent about giving up their habit.
They deny and minimize the negative
consequences of their behavior. They struggle
with the emergence of cravings and thoughts
about using the drugs. Other stresses such as
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influence of friends and family members who
are using drugs, unemployment, hopelessness,
despair and persistent pain make the individual
more vulnerable to relapse. They need
supportive therapy and guidance to strengthen
their coping mechanism. Psychosocial
treatment for opiate use disorder helps in
bringing about better patients' behavior,
thought process and social functioning. The
primary goal of this treatment is enhancing
motivation to stop drugs, teaching coping with
stress, changing reinforcement contingencies,
fostering management of pain effects and
enhancing social support and inter-personal
functioning. Sustaining motivation is required
to forgo the rewards of substance use, to
tolerate the discomfort of withdrawal
symptoms and to cope with the cravings.
Coping skills are required to manage and
avoid situations that place the individual at
risk of relapse. It is reported that successful
improvement occurred in patients receiving
both opiate agonists (methadone or subsoxone)
treatments as well as psychosocial treatment
services35.
Drug rehabilitation:
Some people do not want to go with
medication-assisted therapy and therefore, do
not wish to take part in a methadone
maintenance program. For those who decide
not to quit cold turkey but also not to take part
in a medication replacement program, drug
rehab is an option. Drug rehab involves a
combination
of
medical
intervention,
monitoring, peer support and counseling to
effectively help patients overcome opiate
addiction. Many drug rehabilitation programs
do utilize methadone maintenance or
Suboxone for a short period but most provide
alternatives that are also effective at helping
patients get past the strongholds of opiate
addiction and move on with their lives.
There are several different kinds of drug
rehabilitation facilities, and the one that works
for a certain individual may not work for
another. The main difference in programs is
that in some facilities housing is provided.
These facilities are called residential centers,
and they provide around the clock care, daily
counseling in either one-on-one, group settings
or both. They are usually more costly than the
alternative outpatient programs and usually
require people to leave their job, family, and
other parts of their lives for the duration of
treatment.
Is addiction primarily a brain disease??
There is no single theory or approach that can
offer a complete explanation for the existence
of any social problem. The view of addiction
as primarily a brain disease disregards the
extensive body of research that suggests
neurogenetic explanations of mental illness
contribute to negative perceptions towards
people with mental illness, and substance use
problems. The brain disease model implies
that addicted individuals are unable to exercise
any degree of control over their substance use.
This focus on a biological model may bring
about unintentional consequences on a
person’s sense of identity, responsibility,
notions of autonomy, illness, and treatment
preference.
Addiction consists of interacting biological
and psychosocial mechanisms because the
mechanism (e.g., the behavior) contributing to
addiction involves action within a social
system. Every learned action, whether prosocial or anti-social, may be prompted by
social conditions such as a lack of resources,
conflicts, social norms, peer pressure, an
underlying drive (cravings similar to hunger
and sex drive) or a combination of these
factors. Factors such as drug availability
within the environment can increase craving
and consequently, the vulnerability for relapse.
It is believed that laws and policies that are
lenient to substance use are linked with greater
prevalence of use and criminal activity.
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
53
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However, research findings have not
confirmed this claim. In one study comparing
cannabis use in San Francisco (where cannabis
is criminalized) and Amsterdam (de-facto
decriminalization), there was no evidence to
support claims that criminalization laws
reduce use or that decriminalization increases
use. In fact, San Francisco reported a higher
cannabis use rate than Amsterdam51. Similarly
tobacco smoking has become less acceptable
as a normative method of social interaction
due to the medical interventions for smoking
cessation as well as social and public health
efforts to curtail smoking behavior. It shows
that social and public health efforts in
curtailing the smoking behavior are more
effective than laws prohibiting the smoking.
Drug use is a pleasure-oriented desire and
continued medicalization of addiction will
obviate all responsibility for behaviors
associated with drug use. The opinion that
people with addictions lack decision-making
capacity is supported by research in both
addiction neuroscience and the neuroscience
of decision-making. Substance use influences
voluntary brain mechanisms and renders
individuals incapable of making rational
decisions.
The brain responds to particular social cues
that may provide instant pleasure. Brain
systems that moderate feeling, memory,
cognition, and engage the individual with the
world influence the decision to consume or not
consume a drug, or participate in a specific
behavior or series of actions. The degrees in
which self-control is exerted, free choice is
realized and desired outcomes achieved are
dependent on these complex interacting biopsycho-social
systems.
The
complex
combination of biological, psycho-social and
systemic factors may explain why it is so
difficult for some individuals to refuse or stop
consuming illicit drugs in the face of
increasingly negative consequences52. There is
no question that the addictive behavior is
genetically determined and mediated by
54 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
neurotransmitters which promotes “reward
behavior”.
However in my opinion the humans are
capable of resisting genetic predispositions
which may lead to negative consequences. Our
experience with treatment of alcohol addiction
shows that psychosocial interventions,
including spirituality, play a significant role in
overcoming this problem.
The current situation of drug use in the
Muslim world
Alcohol is forbidden in the Muslim world, but
the alcohol consumption has nearly doubled
across the Islamic world in the last decade.
The French newspaper Le Monde reported that
between 2005 and 2010, the average
consumption of alcohol by the French dropped
from 104.2 liters of alcohol per year to 96.7,
while in the same period in the Middle East
and Africa it increased by 25%, In countries
like Iran, Saudi Arabia, Libya and Pakistan
where alcohol is legally banned, drinking is
still commonplace53, 54.
Contrary to the Islamic teaching, unfortunately
Muslims are heavily involved in planting,
harvesting, refinement, smuggling and
distributing heroin and cannabis to the
Western countries. Morocco is the largest
cannabis exporter to Europe through Spain.
Afghanistan, Pakistan and Iran are the major
producers and exporters of heroin. In 2007,
Afghanistan produced an extraordinary 8,200
tons of opium (34% more than in 2006),
becoming practically the exclusive supplier of
the world’s deadliest drug (93% of the global
opiates' market)55. Taliban initially opposed
the production of heroin, but they realized that
these narcotics provided an invaluable source
of income, and they supported its production.
They argued that it is permissible because it is
consumed by non-believers in the West. Islam
does not permit the production and sale of
narcotics for Muslims or non-Muslims.
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According to United Nations Office on Drugs
and Crime (UNODC) in 2009, Afghanistan
has around one million heroin and opium
addicts aged between 15 and 64 years out of a
population of 30 million, making it the world's
top user per capita. Sixty thousand women in
Afghanistan regularly take illegal drugs. HIV
epidemic among injection drug users increased
from 3% (2005), to 7% average in three main
cities (2009). Iran has 1.2 million "drug users,"
and 2.26 percent of the population aged
between 15 and 64 are addicted to opiate. In
1979, Pakistan has no heroin addicts but 20
years later, there were 5 million addicts. In
2011, nearly six percent - or 6.4 million adults
used drugs. Most of the heroin in Europe is
transported via Turkey. British Muslims are
also heavily involved in drug use and the sale
of the drugs. These young men were seldom
educated in understanding and respecting the
Islamic values or the dangers of drug use.
In United Arab Emirates, alcohol and
prescription-drug use has been on the rise for
the past 10 years and Tramadol, a painkiller
similar to opiates such as morphine, has been a
commonly prescribed drug of addiction.
Community surveys conducted in Dubai and
al-Ain, United Arab Emirates have further
confirmed a high prevalence of drug
disorders56-59.
In Saudi Arabia, amphetamine abuse is most
prevalent. Saudi authorities confiscated 12
metric tons of amphetamine (the world drug
report in 2010 UNODC). Professor Jallal
Toufiq, founder of the Middle East and North
Africa “Harm Reduction Association," told the
USA Cable News Network (CNN): There is a
worsening of the drug situation in the whole
region. However, there is a void in terms of
data and information. In many Muslim
countries, there is a lack of political
willingness to accept that a drug problem
exists. People just do not want to deal with this
problem. Peer pressure is a significant factor
influencing the young people to use the drugs.
Saudi Arabia has strict laws for drug
importation and sale (death penalty). However,
so far, not enough attention is given to
education or treatment60. The incidence of
alcohol and drug use among Muslims is
gradually increasing in USA, but it has not
reached the same level as among nonMuslims. Strict religious prohibition against
the drugs plays a major role in curtailing the
drug seeking and using behavior. The exact
data about the Muslim minorities' drug use is
not available as data is not collected based on
religious preferences. The actual incidence
may be much higher than observed as there is
denial by addicts and their family members.
They tend to minimize the issue until it is too
late. Even if the family members are aware of
the problem they do not talk about it. They do
not seek help due to shame and guilt, and the
fear that the problem will become known in
the community. Alcohol use is relatively more
common than the use of other drugs.
Islamic Perspective
Shari`ah (Islamic Law) was established in the
7th century based on Qur’anic commandment.
The warning against using intoxicants was
revealed by Allah (‫ )ﷻ‬and was gradually
introduced to the people until the total
prohibition was declared. Allah (‫ )ﷻ‬says,
“They ask you (O’ Muhammad) about khamr
(alcohol) and gambling. Say: “In them there is
great sin, and some profit, for men, but sin is
greater than the profit”61.
The Prophet Muhammad (‫ )ﷺ‬said: Every
intoxicant is Khamr and every intoxicant is
forbidden62.
Islam stops the wrong behavior before its
inception so that it will not become a major
problem. By declaring that Khamr is
prohibited, taking intoxicants became a major
sin and for a strong believer, this
commandment serves as a preventive measure.
People who are addicted to alcohol, opioid and
other substances must seek medical and
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
55
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psychological treatment, but they can also get
the benefit from spiritual guidance. It is a
responsibility of the Muslim community to
support and help persons who need treatment
for addiction rather than stigmatizing or
outcasting them. These patients also require
guidance
in
improving
their
social
relationships, getting employment and gaining
respect in the community.
As discussed earlier, there are multiple factors,
which may cause addictive behavior. Current
research points out that there is a genetic
predisposition for addiction. However, an
individual has a capacity to control these
tendencies. Sexual desire is genetically
determined and controlled by neuronal and
hormonal discharges. In spite of this, an
individual should have full control on the
expression and fulfillment of the sexual
desires. Similarly, an individual can control
the desire to take drugs, although there may be
genetic predisposition.
According to Islamic beliefs, the human soul is
composed of three elements:
1) Al-Nafs al-Ammarah (soul commanding of
evil or evil-inciting soul)
2) Al-Nafs al-Lawwamah (self–reproaching
soul)
3) Al-Nafs al-Mutma’innah (tranquil, peaceful
soul)
The goal of every Muslim is to be aware of the
stage of the development of his or her own
soul and discipline himself in obedience of
God. He / She must strive to control al-Nafs
al-Ammarah and achieve al-Nafs alMutma’innah63.
Freud described human's basic instinctual
drives (id), human’s perceptual, intellectualcognitive, and executive functions (ego) and
human’s capability of controlling self desires,
reflecting social standards learned from
parents, culture and religion (super ego) as
parts of the personality structure. ‘id’ is
primarily an instinctual desire, and the ‘ego’
represents the self, and it mediates between the
demands of primitive instinctual drives (id)
56 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
and internalized parental and social
prohibitions (super ego). Super ego is
associated with ethics, values and self-critical
assessment. It is influenced by parents,
teachers and the religious beliefs. This is the
part of conscience development. The hunger,
sexual derives, etc. are genetically determined
and influenced by id. However, the super ego
controls or directs its appropriate expression.
There is no question that the desire to use a
drug is genetically determined and mediated
through the brain’s neuronal system. However,
humans have the capacity to control and
restrain its use. This capacity of restraining is
influenced by parenting and religious
guidance. The Glorious Qur’an has described
these psychological interactions in 6th century
in terms of al-Nafs al- Ammarah, al-Nafs alLawwamah, and al-Nafs al-Mutma’innah.
Allah (‫ )ﷻ‬says in the Qur’an: "O you who
believe, intoxicants, gambling, the altars of
idols and game of chance are admonitions of
the devil; you shall avoid, that you may
succeed”11.
In overcoming addiction, one needs to feel
guilty for allowing one self to be controlled by
the lower desires and seek help from Allah
(‫ )ﷻ‬to give him strength to overcome the
habit. Allah (‫ )ﷻ‬says:
“And be you not like those who forgot Allah.
He made them forget their own souls. Such are
the rebellious transgressors”64.
The solution to the drug problem is not simple.
It must be recognized that environment plays a
significant role in causing drug addiction.
Affluence, easy access to the drugs, permissive
environment, and peer pressure are major
contributing factors. The Muslim community
must be educated about the importance of
early upbringing, parental guidance and
developing strong religious beliefs, which will
help in building a super ego or consciousness
(al-Nafs al-Lawwamah, the self-reproaching
soul). This is necessary to develop a strong
ego which will resist temptation (al-Nafs al-
OPIATE
Ammarah) for drug use and to achieve al-Nafs
al-Mutma’innah. A strong belief in Allah (‫)ﷻ‬
and the respect for Shari`ah law as well as use
of consciousness in decision making is
necessary. A Muslim addict must be
encouraged to adopt the Islamic way of life.
Educational programs must be developed for
middle and high school children informing
them about negative consequences of drug use,
resisting peer pressure and adopting Islamic
way of life. The most effective strategy is
prevention but unfortunately in most countries
of the world this strategy is not implemented.
Islam provides clear direction for every aspect
of life. The Qur’anic legislation concerning the
prohibition of using intoxicants gives Islam a
distinct place in comparison to other religions.
The treatment of drug addiction must be
regarded as a medical treatment and all addicts
must be encouraged to seek medical and
psychosocial treatment. Islam does not
"shame" its believers when they seek
treatment, and Allah (‫ )ﷻ‬forgives the
shortcomings. The community has the
responsibility to support and assist in recovery
whenever possible.
The prescription and the dispensing of the
narcotics must be reviewed, as the prescription
opioid abuse became the most serious problem
in the world today. Many young men do not
realize that prescription opiates are potentially
dangerous drugs.
Abstinence-oriented treatment programs are
preferable in Muslim majority countries. The
recently introduced anti-opiod medication
naltrexone (by injection and possibly as an
implant) is effective in blocking the euphoric
effects of opioid. The effects of long acting
naltrexone last 3-4 weeks and this will be a
useful deterrent for opioid use. This
medication along with psychosocial support
system, guidance to improve the family life
and occupation may be the best options of
treatment in Muslim majority countries. There
is no risk of abuse, dependence and diversion
of this drug. The opioid agonists such as
methadone and buprenorphine have a risk of
abuse, dependence and diversion. Many
Muslim governments do consider the use of
opioid agonists as haram (forbidden) and this
must be respected. However, the use of
methadone and buprenorphine for opioid drug
addiction must be acceptable in Muslim
countries
where
their dispensing is
permissible.
For Muslim patients, psychotherapy and
counseling should focus on spirituality, strong
belief in God, asking for forgiveness and
mercy. These will increase the hope and give
strength to the coping mechanisms. The
positive affective status of spiritual experience
may affect the brain reward system, and the
patient may recognize the new cues for
pleasure, redirecting the pleasure reward
system to the new religious experiences65.
Religious guidance can also direct the patient
to adopt a healthy lifestyle.
Various Islamic countries have instituted
support groups of Alcoholic Anonymous (AA)
and Narcotic Anonymous (NA) for patients
with addiction. They have modified the
‘twelve steps’ and replaced the word ‘higher
power’ with Allah ‫)ﷻ‬. These support groups
are also helpful in the recovery of Muslim
patients when presented with Islamic spiritual
beliefs. Prayers and Dhikr (remembrance of
Allah (‫ )ﷻ‬should be incorporated in the
treatment regime.
Strict control of drug trafficking, and
manufacturing of narcotics and pharmaceutical
products containing opioids are absolutely
necessary. Close monitoring of prescriptions
can avoid iatrogenic dependence. Stigma
should be removed, and addicts should be
treated as victims and patients rather than
criminals. Legal statue should be applied
equally to affluent and non-affluent residents
of the country.
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60 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
CANNABIS
Adnan Y. Takriti*
Abstract
Cannabis, The most commonly used illegal drug, is produced from dried leaves, flowers,
stems, and seeds of the weed Cannabis Sativa. Various patterns of usage are explained.
The main cannabinoid receptor is anandamide. Cannabis contains at least 60
psychoactive cannabinoids, the most important of which is 9-8 tetrahydrocannabinol
(THC). The drug is metabolized to active and inactive metabolites and their absorption
into fat means that urine tests remain positive for up to 4 weeks after regular use has
ceased. Acute intoxication, general and chronic ill-health effects including psychiatric
and organic syndromes is explored. The immediate effects include mild euphoria, a
sense of enhanced well-being, subjective sense of enhanced sensation, relaxation, altered
time sense, and increased appetite. Physically there is mild tachycardia, variable
dysarthria and ataxia. Acute harmful effects include mild paranoia, panic attacks, and
accidents associated with delayed reaction time... Chronic harmful effects include
dysthymia, anxiety/depressive illnesses, and the disputed amotivational syndrome.
Cannabis use can precipitate an episode of or relapse of schizophrenia. In addition, in
regular users it is associated with dose-related paranoid ideation and other psychotic
features. Historical background, safety, drug testing, gateway theory and legal status are
discussed.
Keywords: Addiction, cannabis, marijuana.
Introduction:
Cannabis is also known as marijuana1,
and by neumerous other names is a
preparation of the cannabis plant intended
for use as a psychoactive drug and as
medicine. Pharmacologically, the principal
psychoactive constituent of cannabis is
tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), one of 483
known compounds in the plant, including
at least 84 other cannabinoids, such as
cannabidiol (CBD), Cannabinol (CBN),
tetrahydrocanna bivarin (THCV) and
cannabigerol (CBG)2. Cannabis is often
consumed for its psychoactive and
physiological effects, which can include
heightened mood or euphoria, relaxation,
and increase in appetite3. Unwanted side
effects can sometimes include a decrease
in short-term memory, dry mouth,
impaired motor skills, reddening of the
eyes, and feelings of paranoia or anxiety4.
Contemporarily, cannabis is used as
a recreational or medicinal drug, and as
part of religious or spiritual rites; the
earliest recorded uses date from the 3rd
millennium BC5. Since the early 20th
century cannabis has been subject to legal
restrictions with its possession, use, and
sale.
*Dr. Adnan Y. Takriti, MD, FRCP Psych.
Consultant Psychiatrist
Founder and Editor-in-Chief
The Arab Journal of Psychiatry, 1989-2011
Amman- Jordan
E-mail: [email protected]
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
61
CANNABIS
Preparations containing psychoactive
cannabinoids are currently illegal in most
countries of the world. According to the
United Nations cannabis is considered the
most used illicit drug in the world. In 2004,
the United Nations estimated that global
consumption of cannabis indicated that
approximately 4% of the adult world
population (162 million people) used
cannabis annually, and that approximately
0.6% (22.5 million) of people used
cannabis daily6.
History
Cannabis is indigenous to Central and
South Asia7. Evidence of the inhalation of
cannabis smoke can be found in the 3rd
millennium BC, as indicated by charred
cannabis seeds found in a ritual brazier at
an ancient burial site in present day
Romania8.
In 2003, a leather basket filled with
cannabis leaf fragments and seeds was
found next to a 2,500 - to 2,800- year old
mummified shaman in the northwestern Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region
of China9,10. Evidence for the consumption
of cannabis has also been found in
Egyptian mummies dated about 950
BC11,12.
Cannabis is also known to have been used
by the ancient Hindus of India and Nepal
thousands of years ago. The herb was
called ganjika in Sanskrit (गांजा, ganja in
modern Indo-Aryan languages)13,14.
Cannabis was also known to the ancient
Assyrians, who discovered its psychoactive properties through the Aryans15. Using
it in some religious ceremonies, they called
it qunubu (meaning "way to produce
smoke"), a probable origin of the modern
word "cannabis"16. Cannabis has an
ancient history of ritual use and is found
in pharmacological cults around the world.
Cannabis was used as a religious
62 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
sacrament by ancient Jews and early
Christians17,18 due to the similarity
between the Hebrew word "qannabbos"
("cannabis") and the Hebrew phrase
"qenébósem" ("aromatic cane"). It was
used by Muslims in various Sufi orders as
early as the Mamluk period, for example
by the Qalandars19.
A study published in the South African
Journal of Science showed that "pipes dug
up from the garden of Shakespeare's home
in Stratford-upon-Avon contain traces of
cannabis"20. The chemical analysis was
carried out after researchers hypothesized
that the "noted weed" mentioned in Sonnet
76 and the "journey in my head"
from Sonnet 27 could be references to
cannabis and the use thereof21.
Cannabis was criminalized in various
countries beginning in the early 20th
century. In the United States, the first
restrictions for sale of cannabis came in
1906 (in District of Columbia)22. It was
outlawed in South Africa in 1911,
in Jamaica (then a British colony) in 1913,
and in the United Kingdom and New
Zealand in the 1920s23. In 1925 a
compromise was made at an international
conference in The Hague about the International Opium Convention that banned
exportation of "Indian hemp" to countries
that had prohibited its use, and requiring
importing countries to issue certificates
approving the importation and stating that
the shipment was required "exclusively for
medical or scientific purposes". It also
required parties to "exercise an effective
control of such a nature as to prevent the
illicit international traffic in Indian hemp
and especially in the resin"24,25. In the
United States in 1937, the Marihuana Tax
Act was passed, and prohibited the
production of hemp in addition to
cannabis. The reasons that hemp was also
included in this law are disputed. Several
scholars have claimed that the act was
CANNABIS
passed in order to destroy the US hemp
United
Nations'
industry26,27.28. The
2012 Global Drug Report stated that
cannabis "was the world's most widely
produced, trafficked, and consumed drug
in the world in 2010", identifying that
between 119 million and 224 million users
existed in the world's adult (18 or older)
population29.
Preparations
Whole flower and leaf
The terms cannabis and marijuana generally refer to the dried flowers and
subtending leaves and stems of the female
cannabis plant30. This is the most widely
consumed form, containing 3% to 22%
THC31.32. In contrast, cannabis varieties
used to produce industrial hemp contain
less than 1% THC and are thus not valued
for recreational use33.
This is the stock material from which all
other preparations are derived. It is noted
that cannabis or its extracts must be
sufficiently heated or dehydrated to
cause decarboxylation of its most abundant
cannabinoid, tetrahydrocannabinolic acid
(THCA), into psychoactive THC34.
Kief
Kief is a powder, rich in trichomes35, which can be shifted from the
leaves and flowers of cannabis plants and
either consumed in powder form or
compressed to produce cakes of hashish36.
The word "kif" derives from Arabic ()
(Kayf), meaning well-being or pleasure37.
Hashish
Hashish (also spelled hasheesh, hashisha,
or simply hash) is a concentrateed resin cake or ball produced from
pressed kief, the detached trichomes and
fine material that falls off cannabis flowers
and leaves38. It varies in color from black
to golden brown depending upon purity
and variety of cultivar it was obtained
from39. It can be consumed orally or
smked40.
Tincture
Cannabinoids
can
be extracted from
cannabis plant matter using highproof spirits (often grain alcohol) to create
a tincture, often referred to as "green
dragon"41.
Nabiximols is a branded product name
from a tincture manufacturing pharmaceutical company42.
Hash oil
Hash oil is obtained from the cannabis
plant by solvent extraction, and contains
the cannabinoids present in the natural oils
of cannabis flowers and leaves43. The
solvents are evaporated to leave behind a
very concentrated oil.
Hemp oil is very different from both hemp
seed oil and cannabis flower essential oil44.
Owing to its purity, these products are
consumed by smoking, vaporizing, eating,
or topical application.
Infusions
There are many varieties of cannabis
infusions owing to the variety of nonvolatile solvents used. The plant material is
mixed with the solvent and then pressed
and filtered to express the oils of the plant
into the solvent. Examples of solvents used
in this process are cocoa butter, dairy
butter, cooking oil, glycerine, and skin
moisturizers. Depending on the solvent,
these may be used in cannabis foods or
applied topically45.
Methods of consumption
Cannabis is consumed in many different
ways46: Smoking, which typically involves
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
63
CANNABIS
inhaling vaporized cannabinoids ("smoke")
from small pipes, bongs (portable versions
of hookahs with water chamber), paperwrapped joints or tobacco-leaf-wrapped blunts, roach clips, and other items47.
Vaporizer, which heats herbal cannabis to
165–190 °C (329–374 °F)48, causing the
active ingredients to evaporate into
a vapor without burning the plant material
(the boiling point of THC is 157 °C
(315 °F) at 760 mmHg pressure)49.
Cannabis tea contains relatively small
concentrations of THC, because THC is an
oil (lipophilic) and is only slightly watersoluble (with a solubility of 2.8 mg per
liter)50. Cannabis tea is made by first
adding a saturated fat to hot water (e.g.
cream or any milk except skim) with a
small amount of cannabis51. Edibles, where
cannabis is added as an ingredient to one
of a variety of foods. Marijuana vending
machines for selling or dispensing
cannabis are in use in the United States and
are planned to be used in Canada52.
Pharmacology
53
The genus Cannabis contains two species
which produce useful amounts of psychoctive cannabinoids: Cannabis indica and
Cannabis sativa, which are listed as
Schedule I medicinal plants in the US. A
third species, Cannabis ruderalis, has few
psychogenic properties. Cannabis contains
more than 460 compounds, at least 80 of
these
are
cannabinoids–
chemical
compounds that interact with cannabinoid
receptors in the brain. As of 2012, more
than 20 cannabinoids were being studied
by the U.S. FDA. The most psychoactive
cannabinoid found in the cannabis plant is
tetrahydrocannabinol (or delta-9-tetrahydro
-cannabinol, commonly known as THC).
Other cannabinoids include delta-8tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiol (CBD),
cannabinol (CBN), cannabicyclol (CBL),
64 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
cannabichromene (CBC) and cannabigerol
(CBG), they have less (THC).
Cannabis indica may have a CBD:
THC ratio four to five times that
of Cannabis sativa. Cannabis strains with
relatively high CBD: THC ratios are less
likely to induce anxiety than those with a
lower ratio. This may be due to
CBD's antagonistic effects at the cannabinoid receptors, compared to THC's partial
agonist effect. CBD is also a 5HT1A receptor agonist, which may also
contribute to an anxiolytic effect. This
likely means the high concentrations of
CBD found in Cannabis indica mitigate the
anxiogenic effect of THC significantly. The effects of sativa are well known for
their cerebral high, hence its daytime use
as medical cannabis, while indica is well
known for its sedative effects and preferred
night time use as medical cannabis.
Mechanism of action
The high lipid-solubility of cannabinoids
results in their persisting in the body for
long periods of time54. Even after a single
administration of THC, detectable levels of
THC can be found in the body for weeks
or longer (depending on the amount
administered and the sensitivity of the
assessment method)54.
A number of investigators have suggested
that this is an important factor in
marijuana's effects, perhaps because
cannabinoids may accumulate in the body,
particularly in the lipid membranes of
neurons55. Not until the end of the 20th
century was the specific mechanisms of
action of THC at the neuronal level
studied. Researchers have subsequently
confirmed that THC exerts its most
prominent effects via its actions on two
types
of cannabinoid
receptors,
the CB1 receptor and the CB2 receptor,
CANNABIS
both of which are G-protein coupled
receptors56.
The CB1 receptor is found primarily in the
brain as well as in some peripheral tissues,
and the CB2 receptor is found primarily in
peripheral tissues, but is also expressed
in neuroglial cells57. THC appears to alter
mood and cognition through its agonist
actions on the CB1 receptors, which inhibit
a secondary messenger system (adenylatecyclase) in a dose dependent manner.
These actions can be blocked by the
receptor
antagonist
selective
CB1
SR141716A (rimonabant), which has been
shown in clinical trials to be an effective
treatment for smoking cessation, weight
loss, and as a means of controlling or
reducing
metabolic
syndrome
risk
factors58. However, due to the dysphoric
effect of CB1 antagonists, this drug is
often discontinued due to these side
effects59.
Via CB1 activation, THC indirectly
increases dopamine release and produces
psychotropic effects. Cannabidiol also acts
as an allosteric modulator of the mu and
delta opioid receptors60. THC also
potentiates the effects of the glycine
receptors61. The role of these interactions
in the "marijuana high" remains elusive.
Psychoactive effects
The psychoactive effects of cannabis,
known as a "high", are subjective and can
vary based on the person and the method
of use.
When THC enters the blood stream and
reaches the brain, it binds to cannabinoid
receptors. The endogenous ligand of these
receptors is anandamide, the effects of
which THC emulates. This agonism of the
cannabinoid receptors results in changes in
the levels of various neurotransmitters,
especially dopamine and norepinephrine;
neurotransmitters which are closely
associated with the acute effects of
cannabis ingestion, such as euphoria and
anxiety. Some effects may include a
general alteration of conscious perception,
euphoria, feelings of well-being, relaxation
or stress reduction, increased appreciation
of humor, music (especially discerning its
various components/instruments) or the
arts,
joviality,
metacognition
and
introspection,
enhanced
recollection
(episodic memory), increased sensuality,
increased
awareness
of
sensation,
increased libido62, and creativity. Abstract
or philosophical thinking, disruption of
linear memory and paranoia or anxiety are
also typical. Anxiety is the most
commonly reported side effect of smoking
marijuana. Between 20 and 30 percent of
recreational users experience intense
anxiety and/or panic attacks after smoking
cannabis, however, some report anxiety
only after not smoking cannabis for a
prolonged period of time63.
Cannabis also produces many subjective
and highly tangible effects, such as greater
enjoyment of food taste and aroma, an
enhanced enjoyment of music and comedy,
and marked distortions in the perception of
time and space (where experiencing a
"rush" of ideas from the bank of long-term
memory can create the subjective
impression of long elapsed time, while a
clock reveals that only a short time has
passed). At higher doses, effects can
include altered body image, auditory
and/or visual illusions, pseudohallucinatory, and ataxia from selective impairment of
polysynaptic reflexes.
In some cases, cannabis can lead to
dissociative states such as depersonalization64,65 and derealization66, such effects
are most often considered desirable, but
have the potential to induce panic attacks
and paranoia in some unaccustomed
users66. Any episode of acute psychosis
that accompanies cannabis use usually
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
65
CANNABIS
abates after 6 hours, but in rare instances
heavy users may find the symptoms
continuing for many days67. When the
episode is accompanied by aggression,
sedation or physical restraint may be
necessary67.
While many psychoactive drugs clearly
fall into the category of either stimulant,
depressant, or hallucinogen, cannabis
exhibits a mix of all properties, perhaps
leaning the most towards hallucinogenic or
psychedelic properties, though with other
effects quite pronounced as well. THC is
typically considered the primary active
component of the cannabis plant; various
scientific studies have suggested that
certain other cannabinoids, like CBD, may
also play a significant role in its
psychoactive effects68,69,70.
General Effects
Cannabishas psychoactive and physiological effects when consumed71. The
immediate desired effects from consuming
cannabis include relaxation and mild
euphoria (the "high" or "stoned" feeling),
while some immediate undesired sideeffects include a decrease in short-term
memory, dry mouth, impaired motor skills
and reddening of the eyes72. Aside from a
subjective change in perception and mood,
the most common short-term physical and
neurological effects include increased heart
rate, increased appetite and consumption of
food, lowered blood pressure, impairment
of short-term and working memory73,74,
psychomotor coordination, and concentration.
A 2013 literature review reported that
exposure to marijuana had biologicallybased physical, mental, behavioral and
social health consequences and was
"associated with diseases of the liver
(particularly with co-existing hepatitisC),
lungs, heart, and vasculature"75.
66 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
Cannabis has been used to reduce nausea
and vomit-ing in chemotherapy and people
with AIDS, and to treat pain and muscle
spasticity76. According to a 2013 review,
"Safety concerns regarding cannabis
include the increased risk of developing
schizophrenia with adolescent use, impairments in memory and cognition, accidental
pediatric ingestions, and lack of safety
packaging for medical cannabis formulations"77. The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) maintains that the herb
cannabis is associated with numerous
harmful health effects, and that significant
aspects such as content, production, and
supply are unregulated.
Chronic health effects of cannabis use78







Selective impairment of cognitive
functioning which include the
organization and integration of
complex information involving various mechanisms of attention and
memory processes.
Prolonged use may lead to greater
impairment, which may not recover
with cessation of use, and which
could affect daily life functions;
Development of a cannabis dependence syndrome characterized by a
loss of control over cannabis use is
likely in chronic users.
Cannabis use can exacerbate
schizophrenia in affected individuals.
Epithelial injury of the trachea and
major bronchi is caused by longterm cannabis smoking.
Airway injury, lung inflammation,
and impaired pulmonary defence
against infection from persistent
cannabis consumption over prolonged periods.
Heavy cannabis consumption is
associated with a higher prevalence
CANNABIS


of symptoms of chronic bronchitis
and a higher incidence of acute
bronchitis than in the non-smoking
cohort.
Cannabis used during pregnancy is
associated with impairment in fetal
development leading to a reduction
in birth weight.
Cannabis use during pregnancy may
lead to postnatal risk of rare forms
of cancer although more research is
needed in this area. The health
consequences of cannabis use in
developing countries are largely
unknown because of limited and
non-systematic research, but there is
no reason a priori to expect that
biological effects on individuals in
these populations
would be
substantially different to what has
been observed in developed countries. However, other consequences
might be different given the cultural
and social differences between
countries.
Marijuana acute intoxication79
Symptoms:
The intoxicating effects of marijuana
include relaxation, sleepiness, and mild
euphoria (getting high).
Smoking marijuana leads to fast and
predictable signs and symptoms. Eating
marijuana can cause slower, and
sometimes less predictable effects.
Marijuana can cause undesirable side
effects, which increase with higher
doses. These side effects include:
 Decreased short-term memory
 Dry mouth
 Impaired perception and motor skills
 Red eyes
More serious side effects include panic,
paranoia, or acute psychosis, which may be
more common with new users or in those
who already have a psychiatric disease.
The amount and effect of these side effects
varies from person to person, as well as
with the amount of marijuana used.
Marijuana is often cut with hallucinogens
and other, more dangerous drugs that have
more serious side effects than marijuana.
These side effects may include:
 Sudden high
blood pressure with
headache.
 Chest pain and heart rhythm disturbances.
 Extreme hyperactivity and physical
violence.
 Heart attack.
 Seizures.
 Stroke.
 Sudden collapse (cardiac arrest).
Treatment
Treatment and care involves:
 Preventing injury.
 Reassuring those who have panic
reactions due to the drug.
Benzodiazepines, such as diazepam
(Valium) or lorazepam (Ativan) may be
given. Children who have more serious
symptoms or those with serious side
effects may need to stay in the hospital for
treatment. Treatment may include heart
and brain monitoring.
Prognosis
Uncomplicated marijuana intoxication
rarely needs medical advice or treatment.
Occasionally, serious symptoms occur.
However, these symptoms are rare and
usually associated with other drugs or
compounds mixed in with marijuana.
Safety
Fatal overdose associated with cannabis
use have not been reported as of 200880.
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
67
CANNABIS
There has been too little research to
determine whether cannabis users die at a
higher rate as compared to the general
population, though some studies suggest
that fatal motor vehicle accidents and death
from respiratory and brain cancers may be
more frequent among heavy cannabis
users. Many studies have looked at
the effects of smoking cannabis on the
respiratory system. Cannabis smoke
contains thousands of organic and
inorganic chemical compounds. This tar is
chemically similar to that found in tobacco
smoke81, and over fifty known carcinogens have been identified in cannabis
smoke82, including; nitrosamines, reactive
aldehydes, and polycylic hydrocarbons,
including benz[a]pyrene83.
There is serious suspicion among cardiologists, spurring research but falling short
of definitive proof, that cannabis use has
the potential to contribute to cardiovascular disease. Cannabis is believed to be an
aggravating factor in rare cases of arteritis,
a serious condition that, in some cases
leads to amputation. Because 97% of
subjects in case-reports also smoked
tobacco, a formal association with cannabis could not be made.
If cannabis arteritis turns out to be a
distinct clinical entity, it might be the
consequence of vasoconstrictor activity observed from delta- 8- THC and delta-9THC84.
Other serious cardiovascular events
including myocardial
Infarction, stroke, sudden cardiac death,
and cardiomyopathy have been reported to
be temporally associated with cannabis
use. Research in these events is
complicated because cannabis is often used
in conjunction with tobacco, and drugs
such as alcohol and cocaine85.
These putative effects can be taken in
context of a wide range of cardiovascular
phenomena regulated by the endocanna68 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
binoid system and an overall role of
cannabis in causing decreased peripheral
resistance and increased cardiac output,
which potentially could pose a threat to
those with cardiovascular disease86.
Detection of cannabis-consumption drug
testing
THC and its major (inactive) metabolite,
THC-COOH, can be measured in blood,
urine, hair, oral fluid or sweat using
chromato-graphic techniques as part of a
drug use testing program or a forensic
investigation of a traffic or other criminal
offense87. The concentrations obtained
from such analyses can often be helpful in
distinguishing active use from passive
exposure, elapsed time since use, and
extent or duration of use. These tests
cannot, however, distinguish authorized
cannabis smoking for medical purposes
from unauthorized recreational smoking88.
Commercial cannabinoid immuno-assays,
often employed as the initial screening
method when testing physiological
specimens for marijuana presence, have
different degrees of cross-reactivity with
THC and its metabolites89. Urine contains
pre-dominantly THC-COOH, while hair,
oral fluid and sweat contain primarily
THC87. Blood may contain both
substances, with the relative amounts
dependent on the recency and extent of
usage87.
The Duquenois-Levine test is commonly
used as a screening test in the field, but it
cannot definitively confirm the presence of
cannabis, as a large range of substances
have been shown to give false positives.
Despite this, it is common in the United
States for prosecutors to seek plea
bargains on the basis of positive D-L tests,
claiming them definitive, or even to seek
conviction without the use of gas
chromatography confirmation, which can
CANNABIS
only be done in the lab90. In 2011,
researchers at John Jay College of
Criminal Justice reported that dietary zinc
supplements can mask the presence of
THC and other drugs in urine. Similar
claims have been made in web forums on
that topic91.
Gateway drug Theory
Since the 1950s, United States drug policy
has been guided by the assertion that
cannabis use increases the probability of
trying "harder" drugs92. The hypothesis has
endured as one of the central pillars of
anti-cannabis drug policy in the United
States93, and as such the validity and
implications of the hypothesis are hotly
debated92. Almost two-thirds of the polydrug users in the "2009/10 Scottish Crime
and Justice Survey" used cannabis94.
Some studies state that while there is no
proof for the gateway hypothesis95, young
cannabis users should still be considered as
a risk group for intervention programs96,
while other findings indicate that hard drug
users are likely to be poly-drug users, and
that interventions must address the use of
multiple drugs instead of a single hard
drug97.
Another gateway hypothesis covers that a
gateway effect may be caused by the
"common factors" involved in using any
illegal drug. Through the illegal status of
cannabis, users are more likely to be
subjected to situations allowing them to
acquaint with individuals using or selling
various illegal drugs98,99. Utilizing this
argument some studies have shown that
alcohol and tobacco may additionally be
regarded as gateway drugs100, however, a
more parsimonious explanation could be
that cannabis is simply more readily
available (and at an earlier age) than illegal
hard drugs. In turn alcohol and tobacco are
easier to obtain at an earlier point than is
cannabis (though the reverse may be true
in some areas), thus leading to the
"gateway sequence" in those individuals
since they are most likely to experiment
with any drug offered63.
"Notice that none of these interpretations
involves a specific pharmacological effect
of the sort drug warriors seem to have in
mind when they suggest that pot smoking
primes the brain for cocaine or heroin. As
a National Academy of Sciences panel
observed in a 1999 report, 'There is no
evidence that marijuana serves as a
stepping stone on the basis of its particular
drug effect.' Last year the Canadian
Senate's Special Committee on Illegal
Drugs likewise concluded that 'cannabis
itself is not a cause of other drug use. In
this sense, we reject the gateway theory'101.
Legal status
Since the beginning of the 20th century,
most countries have enacted laws against
the cultivation, possession or transfer of
cannabis102.
These laws have impacted adversely on the
cannabis plant's cultiva-tion for nonrecreational purposes, but there are many
regions where, under certain circumstances, handling of cannabis is legal or
licensed. Many jurisdictions have lessened
the penalties for possession of small
quantities of cannabis, so that it is punished by confiscation and sometimes a fine,
rather than imprisonment, focusing more
on those who traffic the drug on the black
market. In some areas where cannabis use
has been historically tolerated, some new
restrictions have been put in place, such as
the closing of cannabis coffee shops near
the borders of the Netherlands103, closing
of coffee shops near secondary schools in
the Netherlands and crackdowns on
“Pusher Street” in Christiania, Copenhagen
in 2004104,105.
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69
CANNABIS
Some jurisdictions use free voluntary
treatment programs and/or mandatory
treatment programs for known frequent
users. Simple possession can carry long
prison terms in some countries, particularly
in East Asia, where the sale of cannabis
may lead to a sentence of life in prison or
even execution. More recently however,
many political parties and non-profit
organizations are working on the
legalization of medical cannabis and/or
legalizing the plant entirely, with some
restrictions have emerged.
In December 2012, the U.S. state
of Washington became the first state to
officially legalize cannabis in a state law
(Washington Initiative 502) (but still
illegal by federal law)106, with the state
of Colorado following
close
behind
107
(Colorado Amendment 64) . On January
1, 2013, the first marijuana "club" for
private marijuana smoking (no buying or
selling, however) was allowed for the first
time in Colorado107. The California
Supreme Court decided in May 2013 that
local governments can ban medical
marijuana dispensaries despite a state law
in California that permits the use of
cannabis for medical purposes. At least
180 cities across California have enacted
bans in recent years108.
In December 2013, Uruguay became the
first country to legalize growing, sale and
use of cannabis109.
was jurists’ consensus, from all schools of
Islamic thought, to classify cannabis as an
intoxicant (khamr)110-113, and to apply the
rulings of alcohol on cannabis, i.e.
prohibition (tahrim), and punishment (by
flogging).
Ibn Taymiyah110, Ibn al-Qayyim111, Badr
al- Din al-Zarkashy112 and Imam alNawawi113 wrote in detail about the
problem, and its rulings.
Several ahadith were cited, including the
following:
"‫ام‬  ‫ و‬  "
“Every intoxicant is khamr (alcohol-like)
and every khamr is haram (prohibited)114.
"‫ ا‬  ‫"ا‬
“Khamr is whatever clouds the mind”115.
   (‫ل )ﷺ‬‫ ا‬": ‫ أم‬‫و‬
"‫و‬
The Prophet (‫ )ﷺ‬prohibited any
intoxicant and languid-causing material116.
Al-Sayyid Sabiq, in his book: Fiqh alSunnah, elaborated on the opinion of the
above scholars, and added a fatwa
(religious decree) issued by the Grand
Mufti of Egypt (Mufti al-Diyar alMisriyyah), Shaikh Abdul Majid Salim,
that cannabis (hashish) is haram117.
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70 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
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74 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
QAT ABUSE IN YEMEN:
SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND HEALTH PERSPECTIVES
Husni Al-Goshae*
Abstract:
Qat (or Khat) is an evergreen shrub named Catha Edulis which belongs to the family:
Gelastraceae. The plant grows in Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, South Africa, Madagascar,
and was imported to Yemen from East Africa approximately 700 years ago. Over the past
several decades, the plant became widely grown in Yemen and occupied the fertile land
that was traditionally cultivated by life sustaining crops for Yemeni people.
Approximately 58.5% of agricultural lands are currently planted by Qat, leaving the rest
for grains, vegetables, fruits …etc. What makes the matter more serious is the amount of
water needed to grow this plant. In a country with limited water resources, like Yemen,
more than 60% of this water is consumed for Qat plantation, drawing the country into
major economic and social problems.
In this presentation, various Qat-related problems with their pathophysiolgoic basis are
discussed, with special attention to the various health hazards that affect many body
systems. Available Islamic Jurisprudence opinion will be outlined.
Keywords: Qat, Qat-induced medical problems, Catha Edulis, Yemen, addiction.
Introduction:
Qat (Khat) belongs to the Catha Edulis
plant family. The active ingredients are
three main alkaloids, namely: cathinone,
cathine and ephedrine1. Cathinone is an
amphetamine-like substance that induces
release of catecholamines in the peripheral
and central nervous systems. The main
metabolites of cathinone are norpseudoephedrine and ephedrine.
Both substances have sympathomimetic
activities, and stimulant properties on the
central nervous system (CNS), while
cathinone has the predominantly peripheral
effects1. Cathinone is present in the fresh
leaves of the plant, especially when
consumed within 24 hours after harvesting.
Both cathinone and cathine have strong
CNS stimulant affects2. However, cathine
has much less stimulant effect on the CNS
than cathinone. The World Health
Organization (WHO) categorized Qat as a
drug in 1973. The concentration of the Qat
alkaloids vary according to the region in
which Qat is grown. Cathinone concentration is 3.3% in Yemeni Qat, and 14% in
Kenyan Qat. The effects of cathine on the
CNS as a stimulant are much less than that
of cathinone.
*Prof. Dr. Husni Ahmed Al-Goshae
Ph.D in Neuroscience- Dundee University- UK
President of the High Council For Medical Education
University of Science and Technology
Sana’a- Yemen
Ex-Chairman, Consortium of FIMA Islamic Medical Colleges (CIMCO)
E-mail: [email protected]
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
75
QAT
The Qat shrub is an evergreen plant grown
on a wide scale in Yemen, the East African
countries: Kenya, Ethiopia, Somalia and
Djibouti. Qat is primarily consumed in
these countries but in addition, Qat is also
consumed in some European countries,
such as Britain and some states in USA,
where migrants from these countries
reside3,4.
In Yemen, Qat plantation occupies 58.5%
of the total cultivated land, which leaves
only 41.5% of land to other crops that
represent essential food items such as
grains, vegetables, and fruits. Moreover,
Qat consumes around 60% of water, in a
country that suffers from scarcity of water.
Almost 70-80% of the Yemeni population
of 25 million chew Qat on daily basis, with
exacerbation of consumption on holidays
and special occasions. The fresh leaves of
the shrub are usually chewed, especially
during social and cultural gatherings, and
held in the lower buccal pouch as a bolus
for long hours, to enjoy its pleasurable
stimulant properties. The majority of Qat
chewers are16 to 60 years old but some
chewers are as young as 7-15 years.
In Yemen, which is considered among the
world poorest countries, 2-3 billion dollars
are spent yearly on Qat consumption5.
Over the past 2-3 decades, Qat cultivation
escalated exponentially. Almost 20% of
the Yemeni work force is involved in the
Qat business. As a locally produced and
consumed crop, Qat generates no national
income from export, and therefore it
represents economic waste. Qat consumes
most of the families' income, with
significant socio-economic consequences,
including, but not limited to family
fragmentation and devious means to secure
the financial burdens of Qat consumption.
The Yemeni government sought to undertake measures to deal with the escalating
Qat phenomena since 1975. Qat chewing
was banned in all governmental institu76 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
tions and during working hours. Taxes
were levied against various Qat-related
businesses. Unfortunately such measures
proved ineffective and fruitless to curtail
this deep-rooted social habit and its
consequences.
Medical consequences of Qat:
Over the years, Qat consumption was
shown to cause many health problems.
Most body systems are adversely affected,
including the central nervous system
(CNS), cardiovascular (CVS), gastrointestinal (GIT), and genitor-urinary (GUT)
systems. As Qat is mostly consumed by
chewing, periodontal health is adversely
affected.
Moreover, there are added toxic sequelae
of the frequently uncontrolled and unregulated practices of farmers in using
fertilizers, insecticides and other chemicals
to increase Qat production and to hasten
marketing of the fresh plant. Such
practices increase various damaging effects
on various body systems.
Effects of Qat on the CNS
These follow 5 stages:
Stage 1: Starts within 30 minutes
following chewing Qat leaves. It is
characterized by hyperactivity, alertness,
talkativeness, sense of euphoria and
wellbeing. This stage lasts 60-90 minutes.
These effects are similar to the effects of
amphetamines on the CNS2.
Such temporary effects are the cause for
the prevailing beliefs that Qat improves
work performance, counteracts fatigue and
helps
students
in
preparing
for
examinations4.
Stage 2: Also called: the imagination and
problem-solving stage. During this stage
Qat chewers feel they are able to solve
most problems, whether personal, social or
business-related. This stage lasts about 2-3
hours.
QAT
Stage 3: The stage of silence. This starts 56 hours from the beginning of Qat
chewing. Talking stops, silence prevails
with excessive smoking, feelings of lack of
safety, sense of fear, anxiety accompanied
by auditory and visual hallucinations.
Frequently, the individual starts talking to
himself.
Stage 4: Stage of depression. This stage is
characterized by headache, feelings of
loneliness, doubt towards surrounding
people, aggressiveness and insomnia. This
stage starts after the Qat chewer throws
away the long-chewed Qat bolus from his
mouth.
Stage 5: The final stage starts few hours
prior to dawn. It is characterized by
generalized weakness, relaxation, laziness,
desire to sleep, which is uncomfortable,
with bad dreams, morning depression and
aggressiveness2.
Qat and psychosis:
Excessive and prolonged Qat chewing may
cause psychosis and schizophrenia which
could be severe6.
Two types of psychosis were described in
the literature:
1.Schizophrenic psychosis, described in
heavy Qat chewers, with paranoid delusions, sense of fear (phobia), lack of
adaptation to environment, isolation tendency, hearing hallucinations, and aggressive
behavior. These symptoms may disappear
on stopping Qat consumption, but tend to
recur if the habit is resumed7.
2. Manic psychosis, with hyperactivity,
loud shouting, speech difficulty, delusions,
flight of ideas, euphoria and anger. These
symptoms usually subside spontaneously
when Qat is discontinued 7,8.
Qat effects on CVS:
Clinical studies showed cathinone to cause
CVS complications. Norepinephrine, the
neurotransmitter of cathinone, has sympathomimetic effects, with vasoconstriction
that is dose-dependent9,10,11. Elevation of
blood pressure and palpitation, cold
extremities and sweating, are frequently
encountered during and after sessions of
Qat chewing, and were ascribed to
vasoconstrictive effects of cathinone.
These effects were documented in animal
experiments11,12.
Acute myocardial infarction (MI) was
linked to Qat consumption. Qat is
considered an independent, dose-related
risk factor for MI13.
Qat effects on GIT:
Several effects of Qat were reported on the
GIT. Large doses could cause hyperaciddity, GI mucosal injuries and aggravation
of gastric and duodenal ulcerations14.
Other GIT complications include esophagiititis, gastritis, delay of intestinal
absorption, and development of oral
keratotic white lesions at the site of
chewing (tachzeen). Cytotoxic effects on
the hepatic and renal cells were observed15.
The Advisory Council on the Misuse of
Drugs (ACMD) report, 201316 revealed
proven incidence of acute hepatitis. As
mentioned previously, these complications
of Qat consumption on GIT and other body
systems, are greatly enhanced by the toxic
effects of chemicals used as insecticides
and fertilizers to promote Qat productivity
as farmers believe. Some of these effects
may be carcinogenic17.
Effects of Qat on GUT:
The early stages (1 and 2) of Qat chewing,
are usually accompanied by great increase
in sexual desire. Although this increase in
libido persists to the subsequent stages of
Qat chewing (stages 3-5), the feelings of
depression, headache and impotence
predominate18. The seminal fluid is disFIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
77
QAT
charged of the urethra involuntarily among
most Qat chewers. The effect is ascribed to
inhibitory effects of cathinone on the
sphincters of seminal vesicles18.
There are some reports on the relationship
of Qat chewing to an increase in urinary
bladder dysfunction19. Qat may increase
the possibility of urinary tract stone
formation, but this needs further
investigations.
Periodontitis and oral health:
Heavy, long- term Qat chewing is an
independent risk factor for periodontal
diseases with adverse affects on teeth,
gums, clinical attachment loss and other
aspects of oral hygiene20.
Is there Qat addiction or dependence?
Cathinone, one of the main two constituents of Qat, with its major metabolite:
norpseudoephedrine,
leads
to
the
1
dependence effects of Qat . It was,
however, observed that Qat chewers
experience no significant withdrawal
symptoms when they stop Qat. This is
frequently observed when Qat chewers
travel abroad and stay away from the habit.
This observation led some researchers to
conclude that dependence on Qat is mainly
psychological21, and people are able to
discontinue the habit easily, if intension
and willpower are exercised. Some people,
in such situations may have minor uncomfortable symptoms, such as bad dreams,
feeling hot sensations in extremities, lethargy and sense of missing Qat chewing.
Tolerance to the central amphetamine-like
effects have been frequently described22.
There are no significant withdrawal
symptoms comparable to those related to
alcohol or other narcotics.
Socio-economic consequences:
In Yemen, Qat causes approximately 20
million lost hours in work productivity
every day. It was estimated the Yemeni
78 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
economy suffers about 2-3 billion USD
every year. These estimated statistics were
obtained in 2013 from local NGOs that are
functional in Yemen to combat Qat
growing and consumption. One of those
NGOs is "Erada (willpower) and Yemen
without Qat" Organization.
Similar decreases in economic productivity
were also reported from Ethiopia, Somalia,
Uganda and Kenya23. In some African
countries it was reported that Qat may
push its users to inappropriate behaviors,
such as bribery, cheating, stealing,
prostitution and other criminal behaviors24.
The other significant and alarming
economic problem is the increased water
consumption of Qat agriculture. In Yemen,
with sparse drinking water supplies, more
than 60% of available water, underground
or otherwise, is consumed by Qat cultivation. Farmers prefer Qat cultivation over
other life supporting crops, in view of its
biannual profitable cultivation pattern, and
ease of marketing in local markets. These
individual benefits are in contrast to the
major harms on the national Yemeni
economy in view of lack of income
generation of hard currency as Qat is not
exported.
Islamic perspectives:
Qat consumption was discussed by
Shari’ah scholars and Fatwa forums inside
and outside Yemen.
In view of various significant health,
psychosocial and harmful economic
consequences of Qat consumption, and in
view of scientific stand-points of the
World Health Organization considering
Qat as a narcotic and addicting drug, most
of Yemeni Islamic scholars issued Fatawa
that forbid Qat consumption considering it
as (Haram)5.
These scholars include:
 Sheikh Abdulwahab Al-Dielmy, former minister of justice.
QAT
Sheikh Mohammad Al-Sadak- AlEman University, Sana’a.
 Sheikh Mohammad Al-Imam, and
others.
An official standpoint from the Yemeni
government and the official Fatwa
authorities, however, was not adopted
sofar, in view of lack of determination and
resolve.
In Saudi Arabia, the Fatwa Institution issued Fatwa number 2159 dated 25/10/1398
Hijri (1977), in which the cultivation,
selling, buying and chewing of Qat is
forbidden (Haram)5.
A similar decision was undertaken by the
International Islamic Fiqh Academy held
in Madina-Saudi Arabia in 1402 Hijri.
They recommended to punish Qat chewers
and traffickers on the same basis adopted
by Shari’ah to other narcotics25.

Concluding remarks:
Qat in Yemen, represents a major obstacle
to socio-economic development, in
addition to its significant health
consequences.
It affects physical, mental and psychological health of major population strata,
especially in the age groups that represent
the productive work force of the country.
These combined parameters make it
prohibited “haram” to be consumed by
Muslims.
To date, the proper constructive response
from governmental, political, social, religious and educational leadership has been
ineffective, leading to exacerbation of this
multifaceted problem. All concerned
individuals, societies and organizations,
official or community-based, are called
upon to lay down proper and constructive
planning and collaboration to combat this
problem by all means.
References:
1. Kalix, P. and Braenden, O. (1985), Pharmacological
Aspects of the chewing of khat leaves. Pharmacol. Rev.,
1985;37:149-164.
2. Kalix, P. Cathinone, a natural amphetamine.
Pharmacol. Toxicol. (1992); 70: 77-86.
3. Ethiopia Medical Journal, April 1997, pp 137-139.
4. Hassan N. A. G. M., Gunaid A. A. , and Murray-Lyon
I. M. , “Khat (Catha edulis): health aspects of khat
chewing”. Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal, vol. 13,
no. 3, pp. 15-24, 2007.
5. Al-Goshae, et. al, 2003, Book, Khat Between Medicine
and Shari’ah.
6. Morgan, J. and Perkin, E. 1984, Lancet; Volume 2: p
455.
7. Drake. P. H. (1988). Khat-Chewing in the near East
(letter). Lancet, I, 532-533.
8. Giannini, A. J., &Castellani, S. (1982). A manic-like
psychosis due to Khat (Catha EdulisForsk). Journal of
Clinical Toxicology, 19: 455-459).
9. Brenneisen R, Fish H-U, Koelbing U, Geisshusler S,
Kalix P. Amphetamine-like effects in humans of the khat
alkaloid cathinone. Br. J.Clin. Pharmacol. 1990;30:825828.
10.Kohli JD & Goldberg LI.(1982). Cardiovascular
Effect of (-) Cathinone in The Anesthetized Dogs:
Comparison With (+) Amphetamine. J. Pharma,
Pharmacol, 1982, (34):338-340.
11. Al-Motarreb A, and Kenneth, J., Broadley, K. J.
Coronary and Aortic vasoconstriction by cathinone, the
active constituent of khat. Auton. Autacoid Pharmacol.
2003;23(5-6):319-26.
12. Al-Motarreb, A. Effect of Cathinone on blood
vessels; Proceeding in the 4th Yemeni-Italian conference
2004;18-20 January, Sana'a, Yemen.
13. Al-Motarreb, A. and George, S. J. B.(2004): Khat
Chewing is a risk factor for acute Myocardial Infarction;
Proceedings Second GCC Cardiovascular Conference,
2004;12-15 January; Muscat Oman.
14. Wintana Tadesse, (2011): Addis Ababa University
Libraries Electronic Thesis and Dissertation: School of
Pharmacy – Experimental Pharmacology.
Item:
http://hdl.handle.net/123456789/3065.
15. Molham Al-Habori, (2005): Review, The potential
adverse effects of habitual use of Catha Edulis (Khat);
November 2005, Vol. 4, No 6, P. 1145-1154
(doi:10.1517/14740338.4.6. 1145).
16. The Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs
(ACMD) Report, 2013; Advisory Council on the Misuse
of Drugs; Khat: A review of its potential harms to the
individual and communities in the UK.
17. Al-Goshae, H.A & Al-Karawani, N. (2009), and AlGoshae, H. A., (2012). Book, The Opinion of Scholars in
Khat Chewing, medical, economic, and legal study. The
Universities Publisher House, Sana, Yemen, ISSN
1126/2012.
18. Halbach, H. (1972), Medical aspects of the chewing
Khat leaves. Bulletin of the World Health Organzation,
47: 21-29.
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
79
QAT
19. Nasher, A. A., Qirbi, A. A., Ghafoor, M. A., Catteral,
a., Thompson, A., Ramsay, J. W. A., and Murray-Lyon, I.
M., (2008). British Medical Journal of Urology, VGol.
75, Issue 5. DOI: 10.1111/j. 1464-410x. 1995.
Tb07415.x.
20. Al-Sharbi AK, Shuga-Aldin H., Ghandour I and AlHebshi N. Qat chewing as an Independent Risk Factor for
Periodontitis: A cross-sectional study. International
Journal of Dentistry, 2013, PP. 1-7.
21. Al-Motarreb, A., Baker, K. and Broadley, K. J.,Khat:
Pharmacological and Medical Aspects and its Social Use
In Yemen. Phyto-therapy Research 2002;16:403-413.
22. Kassim S., Islam S. and Croucher r. “Validity and
reliability of a Severity of Dependence Scale for Khat
(SDS-Khat)”. Journal of Ethropharmacology, 2010, vol.
132, No 3, pp 570-577.
23. Giannini, A. J., Burge, H., Shaheen, J. M., (1986),
Khat: Another drug of abuse? Journal of Psychoactive
Drugs, 8:155-158.
24. Elmi, A. S., (1983). The chewing of Khat in Somalia.
Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 8:163-176.
25. The Islamic International Fiqh Academy- Session
held in Madina, Saudi Arabia, 27-30 5, 1402 H.
80 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
BEHAVIORAL ADDICTION
Mehmet Dinc*
Abstract:
Until recent years, the general public have mostly seen behavioral addictions like
innocent habits and mental health professionals have ignored it as they are so focused
on substance abuse problems. This fact makes it difficult to find funding sources for
research or even to take a class at a university on behavioral addiction. Therefore,
behavioral addiction has been underestimated, undertreated and understudied. For
example, gambling addiction was first mentioned in the medical literature in the early
1800s but it could not find a place in the Diagnostic and Standardized Manual of
Mental Disorders (DSM) until 1980 and still it has been put under impulse control
disorder instead of under addiction until DSM-V. However, major changes in all
aspects of life, mostly in the fields of scientific research, have resulted in increased
awareness of behavioral addiction as an entity and made it more visible now. Such
changes have triggered new types of addiction like Internet addiction and new forms
of old addictions such as online gambling and Internet pornography.
General information about addiction will be presented and then information about
what we should know and what we should do about behavioral addiction will be
discussed.
Keywords: Addiction, Behavioral Addiction, Gambling Addiction, Sex Addiction,
Internet Addiction, Shopping Addiction.
Allah (‫ )ﷻ‬says in the Glorious Quran:
"...Make not your own hands contribute
to your destruction..."1.
"...nor kill yourselves..."2.
The Prophet Muhammad (‫ )ﷺ‬said:
"There should be neither harming, nor
reciprocating harm”3.
“To be dependent, even if involuntarily,
is always a personal choice. Nothing and
no one can force you into dependency,
only you can do that to yourself! …
Being dependent is not the effect of a
contract. It is not related to any role nor
is it the result of one’s social class.
Dependency is the consequence of
lowering your self-esteem, abdicating
your dignity. It is what happens when
you allow your being to be crushed…
Dependency is a disease of Being! … It
is the result of one’s incompleteness…to
be dependent means to cease believing in
oneself. To depend means to stop
dreaming”4.
*Mehmet Dinc
Clinical Psychologist
MA, M.Ed(Master of Education)
Hasan Kalyoncu University
Valide-i Atik Mh. Lami Celebi Sk. No:4/2 Uskudar
Istanbul- Turkey
E-mail: [email protected]
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
81
BEHAVIORAL ADDICTION
Definition of Addiction
Defining of addiction, especially from
the perspective of behavioral addiction,
is not easy because there is no clear
distinction between use, abuse and
addiction. Moreover, the differences
between addictions, habits, interest,
obsession, dedication and so on are
mostly blurred. For this reason, some
researchers like Vaillant5 offered that
instead of searching for a ready
definition of addiction, we consider it
like a mountain or season, when
confronted with these situations, we
know these things implicitly. However,
to work on addictions as a doctor,
psychiatrist, psychologist, social worker,
or a researcher, we need a functional
definition of addiction. Following are the
three different definitions of addiction.
“Addiction is a brain disease resulting
from the interaction among salience/
reward, learning/ memory/ conditioning
and a lowering inhibition/control”6.
Addiction is a “Behavior that is
motivated by emotions ranging between
the Craving to Compulsion spectrum;
Continued use in spite of adverse
consequences and Loss of Control” 7.
“All addiction is characterized by a loss
of control, preoccupation, compulsivity,
narrowing of interest, dishonesty, guilt
and chronic relapse”8.
Definition of Behavioral Addiction
According to Griffiths9 who is one of the
most prominent pioneers in behavioral
addiction, any behavior, which fulfills six
components, is an addictive behavior.
The six components are: salience, mood
modification,
tolerance,
withdrawal
symptoms, conflict and relapse. Salience
means the behavior becomes the most
important thing in anyone’s life so that
the person becomes totally preoccupied
with the behavior mentally if not
physically. Mood modification means
some specific behaviors are used for a
82 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
consistent and reliable shift in the mood
state. Sometimes, it might be to get high
or to be aroused but sometimes it might
be the total opposite, i.e. to numb or to
distress. Tolerance means that to get the
same effects on the person's mood
modification, he/she needs to use this
behavior more and more day by day.
Withdrawal symptoms mean experienceing some psychological symptoms, for
example
increased
moodiness
or
storability and physiological problems,
such as sweaty hands, nausea, stomach
cramps, headaches and anxiety attacks,
when the addictive behavior is prevented.
Conflict
means
having
repetitive
problems in his family life or work life
because of the addictive behavior and
even though he wants to cut down and
stop he cannot do it because he lost his
control on the behavior. Relapse means it
does not matter to give up from any
addiction for some time because as soon
as an addictive person starts he does not
start from the beginning but from the
center of addiction circle.
Risk Factors
Before pointing out any factors which
may lead to addiction, I would like to
share a letter which was written by Carl
G. Jung to Bill Wilson who is one of the
founders of Alcoholics Anonymous, just
before Jung’s death. In the letter Jung
describes the need for alcohol (or any
other addiction) as being similar to
spiritual thirst. Meanly, if anyone cannot
reach wholeness with spirituality, he
may look for other ways to feed his thirst
and most of the time he uses addiction to
squinch his thirst. Wallace10 explained
spiritual thirst by these concepts; intense
feelings
of
alienation,
apartness,
emptiness, meaninglessness, and lack of
purpose in living. Therefore, spirituality
might be a prevention and treatment for
any addiction at the same time. Jung
stated his ideas with these words in the
letter:
BEHAVIORAL ADDICTION
“……..
His craving for alcohol was the
equivalent on low level of the spiritual
thirst of our being for completeness,
expressed in medieval language: the
union with God.
How could one formulate such an insight
in a language that I misunderstood in our
days?
The only right and legitimate way to such
an experience is, that it happens to you in
reality and it can only happen to you
when you walk on a path, which leads
you to a higher level of understanding.
You might be led to that goal by an act of
Grace or through a personal and honest
contact with friends, or through a higher
education of the mind beyond the
confines of mere rationalism. I see from
your letter that Roland H. has chosen the
second way, which was, under the
circumstances, obviously the best one.
I am strongly convinced that the evil
principle prevailing in this world, leads
the unrecognized spiritual need into
perdition, if it is not counteracted either
by a real religious insight or by the
protective wall of human community. An
ordinary man, not protected by an action
from above and isolated in society cannot
resist the power of evil, which is called
very aptly the Devil. But the use of such
words arouse so many mistakes that one
can only keep aloof from them as much
as possible……..
You see, Alcohol in Latin is “spiritus”
and you use the same word for the
highest religious experience as well as
for the most depraving poison. The
helpful formula therefore is: spiritus
contra spiritum”11.
Another important reason for being
addicted to any behavior is lack of skill
to cope with life problems. Therefore,
most addicted people use the behavior as
an automatic stress reliever.
Surely
people show some behaviors to calm
down, feel relaxed and add some
pleasure to their lives. However, when it
becomes the only choice to calm down,
addiction is an issue. Moreover, after
some time of addiction an important
question arises that is whether life
problems have caused the addiction or
the addiction has caused the life
problems.
Addicted people mostly use two
techniques about their addictions to
persuade
themselves.
First,
they
underestimate their use even if they
experience so many times that their use
causes major problems in their lives, and
second, they believe that they can stop
whenever they want.
Comparing substance addiction to
behavioral addiction, substance addiction
looks more harmful than behavioral
addiction. Although substance addiction
has stronger effects on the human brain
than behavioral addiction, behavioral
addiction has a big impact on low selfesteem, depression, anxiety, trauma,
distress, conflict in marriage and family,
poor academic and job performance and
it can even lead to suicide and homicide6.
Common
Addiction
Types
of
Behavioral
Allah (‫ )ﷻ‬says:
“Say: Not equal are al-Khab'ith (all that
is evil and bad as regards things, deeds,
beliefs, people, food, etc.) and al-Tayiiyib
(all that is good as regards things, deeds,
beliefs, people, food, etc.), even though
the abundance of al-Khabith (evil) may
please you. So, fear Allah much [(abstain
from all kinds of sins and evil deeds
which He has forbidden) and love Allah
much (perform all kinds of good deeds
which He has ordained)], O men of
understanding in order that you may be
successful”12.
There are many types of behavioral
addiction: From work to exercise and
from love to eating, so many behaviors
have been seen as an addiction. There is
even an alphabetic list in some websites
about types of addiction that name more
than 100 different types of addiction.
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
83
BEHAVIORAL ADDICTION
However, this kind of categorization
received
many
criticisms
with
accusations of creation of false epidemics
and creation of diagnostic inflation.
Therefore, a line has to be drawn
between a personal lifestyle and a
psychiatric pathology to understand and
work on behavioral addiction, even it
might be so difficult. This paper will
focus on Internet addiction as the model
of behavioral addiction, because of three
reasons:
1. It is impossible to cover all behavioral
addiction that are listed in the literature.
2.The most common types of behavioral
addiction are sub-groups of Internet
addiction . Moreover, so many people
become easily addicted to some behavior
on the Internet and so many behavioral
addicted people use Internet to feed their
addiction, whatever they are.
3. Internet addiction has spread like
wildfire all around the world regardless
of religion, nationality and education and
has brought so many devastating results
that have never been seen before. The
following examples may give some idea
about the results:
In 2001, the murder of his own brother
by a middle school student, mimicking a
scene from an internet online game. In
2005, a person jumped off from a
building after being forced to exit the
league by the game manager. In 2007, a
person learned how to commit murder
and conceal the body from computer
games. A middle school student
murdered his grandmother in 2010, and
headed to internet café without a blink,
after murdering the mother for being
annoying”13.
Internet Addiction
People use the Internet for a reason or
without any reason. They use it for a
reason like sex, gambling, game, chat,
shopping etc. They use it without any
reason because they might not have
something better or more exciting to do
84 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
than using the Internet. Internet is
exciting for many people because of its
affordability,
accessibility
and
anonymity. It is cheaper than any other
leisure activity, it can be used anytime
regardless of day or night, and people use
it to become or pretend to be who they
want to be. Furthermore, whatever they
want (sex, gambling, shopping etc.), they
can have access to it without any
limitations. Therefore, Internet usage has
increased enormously in the last years all
around the world. From 1980’s to the
year 2000, technology, mostly the
Internet, was praised and people were
happy about the change that Internet has
made in their lives. However, after 2000,
people have seen some real and
dangerous negative effects of the
Internet, mostly on children. Then
researches have started studying Internet
use, abuse and addiction. Statistics about
Internet addiction can be easily found in
the literature14-17.
In the following part, prevention of
internet abuse and addiction will be
discussed and some possible solutions
will be offered. However, before the
prevention part, some short information
about treatment will be given.
Treatment
Since behavioral addiction has been
ignored for so many years, there are only
few specifically designed treatment
programs for behavioral addiction
relative to the vast number of treatment
programs for substance addiction.
Moreover, there is no medication
approved by any official authority around
the world for treatment of behavioral
addiction. However, some researches
show
that
psychosocial
treatment
methods, like the twelve steps approach
and pharmacological treatment, such as
naltrexone, which are used for substance
abuse and related disorders works for
behavioral addiction as well6,18. The best
BEHAVIORAL ADDICTION
way to deal with behavioral addiction is
surely prevention.
Because behavioral addiction was mostly
neglected until recent years and hence
there
are
no
sufficient
experts,
researches, institutions and treatment
models. Moreover, completion rate of
treatment and treatment success for
addiction are less than most of the other
psychopathologies.
Prevention
First of all, it is possible to prevent
people from behaving in a certain way
as long as the reasons of the behavior are
understood. For behavioral addiction or
Internet addiction 5 possible reasons
have been seen.
1. Psychopathology: There is a strong
link between psycho-pathology and
addiction. People who have genetic
vulnerability to any addiction can
develop behavioral addiction easier
than those who do not have it. On the
other hand, people who suffer from
any psychopathology can develop
behavioral addiction easier than those
who do not have it. Particularly,
children and adolescents who suffer
from Attention Deficit Hyperactivity
Disorder (ADHD), social anxiety and
depression are more vulnerable to
addiction
than
their
peers19.
Therefore, parents and teachers
should be aware of symptoms and
signs of psycho-pathologies and
should not be reluctant to seek
assistance
from
mental
health
professionals if needed. On the other
hand, children and adolescents should
be taught to use Internet with time
limit and responsibility.
2. Physical energy: Everyone,
in
particular, children and adolescents
need to spend their energy into
something. Because of the modern
lifestyle, that was brought by
technology (cars, machines,… etc.),
many people, mainly in cities, cannot
spend their physical energy. For
children and adolescents, they mostly
sit during the way to their school and
they sit during the class time for 5 to
8 hours and they sit in front of TV or
their personal computer when they
are home until bedtime. However,
their bodies need to spend energy in
some way. If they cannot find a
healthy way to spend their physical
energy, they spend it by visiting
pornography websites or online sex
sites or playing violent video or
online games. Therefore, regular
physical activity should be in
everyone’s life especially children
and adolescents’ lives.
3. Expressing himself: Everyone needs
to express himself by saying
something or doing something.
Sometimes he needs to express his
feelings; sometimes he needs to
express his thinking. Most people
cannot motivate themselves by their
jobs and therefore they cannot
express themselves in their works.
Moreover, most people prefer to
watch TV, read newspaper or visit
websites rather than listen to other
people. For this reason, if anyone
needs to express himself by saying or
doing something, it becomes easier to
find a place or person on the virtual
life than real life. However, no virtual
relationship can substitute real life
needs.
4. Socializing: Although the world and
cities have become more crowded
day-by-day, people become lonelier
and socially isolated than ever before.
However, one of the basic needs of
human beings is socializing. Building
a relationship with others, meeting
new people, talking, sharing, smiling
etc. is essential for the psychological
makeup of humans. Un-fortunately, it
is a fact that many people have lived
so many years in the same apartment
house or same neighbourhood but
never know anything more than
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
85
BEHAVIORAL ADDICTION
names or sometimes not even the
names of other residents or
neighbours. In recent years, this
became a reality for families as well.
People have their spouses, children,
father or mother but they do not
know about each other more than
anyone else who follows them on
Facebook or Twitter. Therefore, new
ways to build new relationships or
strengthening the existing ones
should be created to prevent online
socializing.
5. Meaning: Most of online users or
addictive people use the Internet or
any behavior pathologically because
they do not have anything better to do
than surfing on the net, chatting,
gambling, playing games or visiting
porn websites. They do not have any
good reason to stop behaving in that
way. They are bored with their lives
and want to do something joyful
without any effort or risk. Thus,
without meaning in the life or doing
something meaningful, there is no
reason not to become addicted to
something. To prevent addiction, a
number of significant organizations,
works,
gatherings
should
be
increased and people will learn to
make their lives more meaningful.
Then they will have an answer for the
question why they should not become
addicted to something.
References:
1.Glorious Qur’an, Al-Baqarah, 2:195
2.Glorious Qur’an,l Al-Baqarah, 4:29.
3. Ibnu Majah, Hadith #32, Jami’ Al-Ulum wal-Hikam,
p 207.
4. D’Anna, Stefano E. (2004) Tanrılar Okulu, Alteo
Yayıncılık, Bursa.
5. Vaillant, G.E. (1982). On defining alcoholism.
British Journal of Addiction, 77, 143-144.
6. Sun, An-Pyng (2013) Historical Background of
Behavioral Addiction and The Trend Today,
Behavioral Addiction, An-Pyng Sun, Larry Ashley,
Lesley Dickson (ed.) Central Recovery Press, U.S.A.
7. Shaffer, Howard J. (2013) What is Addiction: A
Perspective,
http://www.divisiononaddiction.org/html/whatisaddicti
on.htm#ixzz2tZ4di1J0
86 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
8.Ashley, Larry & Boehlke, Karmen K. (2013)
Gambling Addiction, Behavioral Addiction, An-Pyng
Sun, Larry Ashley, Lesley Dickson (ed.) Central
Recovery Press, U.S.A.
9.Griffiths, Mark (2013) Gambling and Gaming
Addictions: A Cause for Concern?, 1st International
Congress of Technology Addiction Congress Book,
KULT Foundation, Istanbul.
10. Wallace, J. (1996) Theory of 12 Step Oriented
Treatment. In: Rotgers, F. Keller, D.S. & Morgenstern,
J. (eds.) (1996) Treating Substance Abuse: Theory and
Findings. London: Guilford Press
11. Merter, Mustafa (2014) Nefs Psikolojisi, Kaknüs
Yayınları, İstanbul.
12.Glorious Qur’an, Al-Ma’idah, 5:100
13. Kim, Daijin (2013) Internet Addictions and
Cognitive Functions in Korea, 1st International
Congress of Technology Addiction Congress Book,
KULT Foundation, Istanbul.
14. Choi Y.H., (2007), Advancement of IT and
seriousness of youth Internet addiction, International
Symposium on the Counseling and Treatment of Youth
Internet Addiction. Seoul, Korea.
15. Kelleci, M., (2008), İnternet, Cep Telefonu,
Bilgisayar Oyunlarının Çocuk ve Gençlerin Ruh
Sağlığına Etkileri, TAF Preventive Medicine Bulletin,
7.
16. Yılmaz, M.B., (2010) İlköğretim 6. ve 7. Sınıf
Öğrencilerinin
Bilgisayara
Yönelik
Bağımlılık
Gösterme Eğilimlerinin Farklı Değişkenlere Göre
İncelenmesi, Eğitim Teknolojileri Araştırmaları
Dergisi, 1.
17. Bölükbaş, K., Yıldız, M.C., (2003), İnternet
Kullanımında Kadın-Erkek Eşitsizliği, IV.
Ulusal
Sosyoloji Kongresi, Cumhuriyet Üniversitesi, Sivas,
Türkiye, 16-18/10/2003.
18.Arısoy, Ö. (2009) İnternet Bağımlılığı ve
Tedavisinde Güncel Yaklaşımlar, Current Approaches
in Psychiatry, 1:55-67.
19. Dinç, Mehmet (2014) Internet Addiction: What We
Should Know, What We Should Do, Yeşilay Yayınları,
İstanbul.
ADDICTION AND SUBSTANCE ABUSE IN PREGNANCY
Hassan M. Harirah* and Sahar E. Donia
Abstract:
Prevalence of addiction and substance abuse by women of childbearing age has increased
markedly over the past three decades. In the United States, about four percent of women who are
pregnant use some type of illicit drugs. Multiple risk factors exist with maternal addiction and
substance abuse and the risks to the fetus or neonate vary depending on the type of substance
being abused. Prenatal exposure to substances of abuse has been associated with serious harm to
the mother and her fetus, and without intervention, the deleterious effects of these substances
could persist throughout the child’s life. Although substance abuse treatment during pregnancy
improves maternal and neonatal outcomes, identifying addiction and substance abuse in
pregnancy can present a significant clinical challenge and often remains under diagnosed. In this
article, we discuss the major categories of drugs/substances that are commonly abused in
pregnancy and evaluate the adverse effects these substances may have in the preconception time
period, during pregnancy, and the postpartum period.
Keywords: Addiction, pregnancy, illicit drugs, tobacco, marijuana, alcohol, opioids, cocaine,
and amphetamines, barbiturates, benzodiazepines.
Introduction:
The prevalence of addiction and substance
abuse by women of childbearing age has
increased markedly over the past three
decades1. In the United States, about four
percent of women who are pregnant use some
type of illicit drugs, like cocaine or marijuana.
Many more abuse legal intoxicating
substances prior to the birth of the baby, such
as alcohol or tobacco. A recent self-reporting
survey by the National Survey on Drug Use
and Health (NSDUH) from 2002–2010
reported a substantial increase in substance
abuse among pregnant women. The rates in
2010 were 16.2%, 7.4%, and 1.9% in women
aged 15-17, 18-25, and 26-44 respectively2.
Prenatal exposure to substances of abuse has
been associated with serious harm to the fetus,
and without intervention, the deleterious
effects of these substances could persist
throughout a child’s life. Elucidating the
individual effects of in-utero exposure to
substances of abuse during pregnancy is
complicated by multidrug use, including
alcohol and tobacco. Evidently, substance
abuse during pregnancy has been associated
with low birth weight, preterm birth, smaller
head circumference, shorter birth length, poor
neuro-developmental outcomes, and lower
Apgar scores3-6. Such poor neonatal outcomes
also lead to increased health care costs for the
neonate and mother7. In addition, an increased
incidence of developmental, conduct, and
attention deficit disorders, and predisposition
to use drugs in the offspring has been
documentted8,9.
*Hassan M. Harirah, MD, FRCSC,
University of Texas Medical Branch
301 University Boulevard, Galveston, TX 77555 - USA
E-mail: [email protected]
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
87
ADDICTION IN PREGNANCY
Multiple risk factors are associated with
maternal addiction and substance abuse
including young age, low socioeconomic
status, lack of prenatal care, history of psychological or psychotic illness, history of neglect,
history of sexual or physical abuse, peer
pressure, easy access, and lack of knowledge
of the adverse effects abuse substances have
on fetal development10.
Risks to the fetus or neonate vary depending
on the type of substance being abused which
can include preterm delivery, low birth weight,
birth defects, conditions such as fetal alcohol
syndrome, mental retardation, neonatal
seizures secondary to substance withdrawal,
and very often death due to premature
delivery. Substance abuse treatment during
pregnancy improves maternal and neonatal
outcomes11,12. Although pregnancy can be a
motivating factor for entering substance abuse
treatment, pregnant women face barriers both
to treatment initiation and completion13.
Identifying addiction and substance abuse in
pregnancy can present a significant clinical
challenge and often remains under diagnosed3.
Pregnant women may be less likely to enter
substance abuse treatment due to fear of losing
custody of their children, prosecution,
alienation from society or lack of child care,
insurance, or economic means.
Similarly, despite the benefits of treatment
during pregnancy, pregnant women may be at
a higher risk of attrition compared with the
general population. Similarly, certain factors
among pregnant women have been associated
with an even lower likelihood of treatment
completion, including age, race, peer deviance,
lack of employment, and prior experiences
with child protection services11.
The goal of this article is to identify the major
categories of drugs /substances that are
commonly abused in pregnancy and evaluate
the adverse effects these substances may have
during the preconception time period,
pregnancy, and the postpartum period. In
addition, we will review general guidelines
88 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
regarding the management of high risk
pregnancies in substance abusing mothers.
These guidelines primarily address the
identification and management of teratogenic
exposure, poor maternal nutrition, intra-uterine
growth restriction (IUGR), placental insufficiency, labor management, and maternal/
neonatal withdrawal symptoms.
TOBACCO:
Active and passive tobacco smoking presents
major risks to human health. Smoking
contributes to the development of various
human cancers, respiratory illnesses, and other
diseases. In the United States, tobacco
smoking is the leading preventable cause of
death and each year 480,000 deaths (one out of
five) are caused by tobacco-related diseases1.
Among child-bearing age women, there is an
increased prevalence of smoking particularly
in the youngest population.2In addition, the
lower the level of education achieved, the
greater the risk of being a current smoker14.
Tobacco users also have shown an increased
risk for infertility and dysmenorrhea15.
Therefore, every effort should be made to
identify smokers prior to pregnancy and
provide intervention to enhance the likelihood
of smoking cessation. Pregnancy can be also a
significant motivator to stop or reduce
smoking. The most recent available statistics
on tobacco use in pregnancy report that 16.4%
of pregnant women continue to smoke during
their pregnancy2. The prevalence of tobacco
smoking in pregnant women differs between
racial and ethnic groups; 19.8% in African
Americans, 24.4% in Caucasians, and 5.8% in
Hispanics16. Tobacco is associated with a
higher rate of adverse maternal and fetal
outcomes and has a clearly demons-trated
dose-response relationship10. In the first
trimester, these risks include an 2-5 fold
increased risk of spontaneous abortion and an
1.5-2.5 fold increased risk of ectopic
pregnancy. In the second and third trimesters,
ADDICTION IN PREGNANCY
there is an increased risk of placental
insufficiency, low birth weight, fetal growth
restriction, and preterm delivery (1.2 to 16
folds)15. When tobacco is smoked, a mixture
more than 4,000 chemicals are produced and at
least 43 of these chemicals are known
carcinogens17.
Nicotine is principally responsible for the
addiction to tobacco as a result of the
interaction between the compound and
nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs).
This interaction activates the reward centers in
the central nervous system. Nicotine receptors
are distributed in many areas of the brain.18
Nicotine readily crosses the placenta, it can
reach concentrations in fetal blood and
amniotic fluid that are much higher than
maternal plasma levels, exposing the fetus to
toxic effects19. Women who smoke are more
likely to have a low birth weight baby. Infants
born to women who smoke during pregnancy
are 200 to 300 grams lighter15. Furthermore,
nicotine causes impaired fetal oxygen delivery,
resulting in abnormal gas exchange within the
placenta and activation of the sympathetic
nervous system, increasing the fetal heart rate
and causing a reduction in fetal breathing
movements20. Carbon monoxide is a major byproduct of cigarette smoking that can cause
harm to the mother and fetus. Carbon
monoxide crosses the placenta and can be
detected in the fetal circulation at a level 15%
higher than in the maternal circulation21.
Carbon
monoxide
diminishes
tissue
oxygenation via competitive inhibition with
oxyhemoglobin, causing decreased availability
of oxygen to the fetus19. Approximately half of
women who quit smoking during pregnancy
resume smoking within 6 months postpartum
and 50% to 90% have relapsed 1 year postdelivery. Smoking during the postpartum
period causes a significant health risk for both
mother and child. To date, there are no proven
effective strategies for preventing relapse
during the postpartum period. However, close
follow-up, and continued counseling help in
reinforcement of the patient’s desire to quit
smoking21.
MARIJUANA:
Marijuana, also known as cannabis, refers to
preparations of the Cannabis plant intended for
use as a psychoactive drug and as a medicine.
Marijuana is the most commonly used illicit
drug among women of reproductive age, and
during pregnancy and lactation22, 23. Like all
substances of abuse, the actual rate of
marijuana use and the statistics cited depend
on voluntary reporting. In the United States,
4.6 % of African American, 3.0% of White,
and 1.5% of Hispanic women admit to
marijuana use in pregnancy58, and the number
of women 26 year or older who recently
initiated marijuana use has increased
significantly from 18,000 to 106,000 between
years 2002 to 20102.
Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), is the major
psychoactive ingredient of marijuana. It binds
to cannabinoid (CB) receptors, widely
distributed throughout the nervous system, and
other parts of the body. In the brain, CB
receptors are found in high concentrations in
areas that influence pleasure, memory,
thought, concentration, sensory and time
perception, appetite, pain, and movement
coordination. THC is known to pass from the
mother to the developing fetus through the
placenta. In animal research, THC exposure
pre- or perinatally, and even during
adolescence can alter brain development,
particularly in areas related to mood, reward,
and executive function. Therefore, the fetus is
affected by any amount of cannabis taken by
the pregnant woman, placing it at a greater risk
of complications24.
The effects of marijuana use on the developing
fetus in the preconception period and
pregnancy are hard to establish because users
of marijuana will frequently use other illicit
drugs while pregnant, making it difficult to
separate marijuana’s effects from the effects of
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
89
ADDICTION IN PREGNANCY
other drugs. Although THC is the active
ingredient in marijuana, over 400 compounds
have been identified in marijuana and it is
difficult to separate out the effects of these
chemicals. Studies have determined that the
CB1 receptor is present in all layers of human
placental membranes and that stimulation of
these receptors impairs fetal growth by
inhibiting cytotrophoblastic proliferation25, 26.
To date, there is no known association
between marijuana exposure and spontaneous
abortions27. However, in a large populationbased prospective cohort study, maternal
marijuana use was associated with fetal growth
restriction.28 Therefore, pregnant women who
are known to use marijuana during pregnancy
should be counseled about the associated risks
and encouraged to abstain of using marijuana
and other substances of abuse during
pregnancy. Obstetric care should include
follow-up ultrasounds at 28 and 36 weeks to
confirm adequacy of fetal growth.
Although some animal studies indicate that
marijuana may be teratogenic in very high
doses, there is no firm link between maternal
use of marijuana and congenital malformations
in humans above the background risk of 3%.
Reports of associations between marijuana use
in pregnancy and gastroschisis remain unsubstantiated.29 However, a study of almost
420,000 Australian live births over a 5-year
period found that in utero marijuana exposure
increased the risk of neonatal intensive care
unit admissions, predominantly due to
prematurity, but there was no relation to any
increased risk of perinatal death30.
Of greater concern, however, is the increasing
evidence that in utero marijuana exposure may
impair long-term growth and neurodevelopment, particularly in terms of cognition and
behavior. Evidence from population-based
human studies and in vitro animal data indicates that interference with the endocannabinoid system disrupts normal neurobiological
development, neurotransmitter maturation, and
neuronal survival31–33. A longitudinal cohort
90 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
study found that marijuana-exposed children
have smaller head circumferences at birth,
which increase in disparity in adolescence34.
Marijuana use in the postpartum period has not
been well studied and there is limited clinical
evidence to derive recommendations regarding
counseling, intervention, or rehabilitation.
However, social work consultations should be
used liberally in an attempt to stabilize the
home environment as much as possible.
ALCOHOL:
According to the 2010 National Survey on
Drug Abuse, 18.8% of pregnant women aged
15 to 44 reported current alcohol use2. The
prevalence of alcohol use in pregnant women
varies between racial and ethnic groups, 15.8%
among African Americans, 22.7 % among
Whites, and 8.7% among Hispanics16. Of
these, 3.7% reported binge drinking, which is
defined by the National Institute for Drug
Abuse (NIDA) as a pattern of alcohol
consumption that brings the blood alcohol
concentration to 0.08% or higher. This number
has remained relatively unchanged over the
last 15 years according to a longitudinal study
of data collected from the Behavioral Risk
Factor Surveillance System between 1991 and
200535. Alcohol is a protoplasmic poison with
a narcotic-like effect on the CNS. Alcohol
consumed in excessive quantities frequently
causes poisoning because it rapidly enters the
bloodstream, which carries it to all bodily
organs. Long-term consumption of excessive
amounts of alcohol leads to fatty liver disease
and cirrhosis of the liver, chronic
inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract,
damage to the gonads and CNS impairment.
Alcohol is a well-studied teratogen, and its
effects on pregnancy can include spontaneous
abortion, fetal growth restriction, and birth
defects. The incidence of alcohol use in nonpregnant women ages 15 to 44 years is 53%. It
is estimated that as many as 24% of young
women who drink are binge drinking36.
ADDICTION IN PREGNANCY
Oftentimes, conception occurs during times of
alcohol use or abuse and women continue
drinking, unaware of their pregnancy, into the
first trimester where all fetal organ systems
can be affected at this early stage of
development. Therefore, the preconception
period is an important time to identify women
at risk37. In the preconception period, each
encounter with patients can be an opportunity
to screen for alcohol use or abuse and
intervene to reduce or completely stop alcohol
consumption. There are several screening tools
available. Questions to ask are detailed in
mnemonics such as Take, annoyed, cut down,
eye opener (T-ACE) 36. The United States
Preventative Services Task Force, the
American College of Obstetrics and
Gynecology, and the American Academy of
Pediatrics suggest using preconception and
prenatal visits to discuss the benefits of
abstaining from alcohol. There are no
evidence-based studies to suggest any amount
of alcohol use that is safe during pregnancy.
During pregnancy, the fetus that is exposed to
alcohol can be severely affected by fetal
alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD). The
alcohol level in fetal blood reaches the same
level as it does in the mother and fetal liver
cannot process alcohol as efficiently as the
mother's liver. Therefore, women who drink
alcohol during pregnancy subject their fetuses
to a significant risk. There is strong medical
evidence to suggest that heavy alcohol use or
binge drinking can lead to high rates of FASD.
However, studies show that even small
amounts of alcohol used on a daily basis can
be detrimental to the fetus38. FASD
encompasses a wide range of disorders defined
as prenatal and postnatal growth restriction,
central nervous system abnormalities, and
craniofacial abnormalities.
Some common fetal abnormalities associated
with alcohol abuse include facial dysmorphogenesis, cardiac septal defects, and joint
abnormalities. Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC) studies show FASD rates
ranging from 0.2 to 1.5 per 1,000 live births in
different areas of the United States. This
makes alcohol abuse and misuse in pregnancy
the most common non-genetic cause of mental
retardation. Little data exist regarding the
postpartum period and alcohol use. There is a
reported increased risk of sudden infant death
syndrome and post-partum depression in
women who drink alcohol39. As we become
more aware of the importance of identifying
women at risk for postpartum depression, it
may be prudent to include those mothers who
are identified as using alcohol during their
pregnancy as a potential focus. The
postpartum visit may be a good time to screen
women for alcohol abuse. The Healthy Moms
Trial supports the implementation of brief
alcohol intervention during the postpartum
period40.
OPIOIDS:
The term “opioids” refers to natural, semisynthetic, and synthetic alkaloid derivatives
either prepared from opium or synthesized
substances possessing morphine like activity.
Opioids can produce a feeling of euphoria, and
this effect, coupled with physical dependence,
can lead to recreational use of opioids by many
individuals. The analgesic effects of opioids
are due to a decreased perception of pain,
decreased reaction to pain as well as increased
pain tolerance. The most common opioids are
heroin, morphine, codeine, oxycodone,
hydrocodone, and methadone. Heroin and
methadone are the most commonly used
opioids by pregnant women.
Most of the information available regarding
the effects of opioids is derived from studies of
patients who have used heroin or methadone.
The prevalence of opioids use in child-bearing
age women ranges from 1% to 21%14. The
higher number reflects use in at-risk
populations and does not represent overall use
in obstetric population. Recently, there has
been a drastic rise in the use of prescription
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
91
ADDICTION IN PREGNANCY
opioid analgesics, such hydromorphone and
oxycodone.41 Although there is a paucity of
data specifically focusing on the pregnant
population, data from
substance abuse
literature suggest that women with prescription
opioid dependence are initiating use on
average at 26 years of age, coinciding with a
woman’s peak reproductive years42. The extent
of maternal risk is greatly dependent upon the
predominance of intravenous injection as a
route of opioids administration43. Aside from
acute overdose, which carries a clear health
risk, intravenous injection carries an inherent
infectious risk, most specifically transmission
of hepatitis B (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV),
and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV),
each of which is associated with long-term
health concerns for the mother. There is also a
higher rate of reported unplanned pregnancies
(70% in women with significant illicit drug
history compared with 34.8% in women
without drug dependency) 44.
Heroin is the most commonly abused illicit
opioid. It crosses the placenta readily and
enters fetal tissues within 1 hour of maternal
use. Women who use heroin are likely to use
other harmful substances, such as tobacco,
alcohol, and cocaine, all of which have their
own potential adverse effects on pregnancy.
Therefore, it is difficult to separate the effects
of heroin from these other substances45.
Pregnant women who use heroin experience a
six-fold increase in maternal obstetric
complications including intrauterine growth
restriction, third trimester vaginal bleeding,
preterm delivery, and puerperal morbidity. In
addition, stillbirth, depressed Apgar score,
meconium staining of the amniotic fluid, and
chorioamnionits are all increased in heroin
users46–48. The developing fetus and neonate
also share undue burdens when exposed to
opioids during pregnancy. Rates of preterm
delivery, very low birth weight (1−1.499 kg),
low birth weight (1.5−2.499 kg), and stillbirth
have all been shown to be significantly
increased among neonates born to opioid-
92 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
dependent mothers46–48. Because of the
increased risks of stillbirth, growth restriction,
and preterm birth, increased fetal surveillance
and
serial
growth
evaluations
are
49
recommended .
Neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS) is the
most consistent outcome in neonates born to
mothers with opioid addiction. The incidence
of NAS is quite variable, ranging from 55% to
94%50. NAS is the constellation of withdrawal
signs in the neonate including seizures,
breathing problems, tremors and irritability,
difficulty of feeding, and dehydration. Many
of affected neonates are hospitalized for
several weeks with methadone or morphine
treatment to gradually wean them from their
dependence on the drugs that their mothers
used47. Multiple regimens have been proposed
to treat NAS, however, the American
Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommends
tincture
of
opium
for
replacement
51
medication . There are preliminary promising
data with the use of buprenorphine as a
treatment for NAS.52
Opioid analgesics such as oxycodone and
hydromorphone can be judiciously used in
pregnancy with close supervision but are much
more commonly used in the post-partum
period for post-delivery pain control. No
congenital anomalies have been reported in
babies born to mothers who used oxycodone
or hydromorphone for prolonged periods45.
However, the use of both substances increases
the risk of neonatal withdrawal, particularly if
they are used in and around the time of
delivery.
Prenatal and antepartum care for a pregnant
woman using opioids must be tailored to her
special needs.
Testing for sexually transmitted infections,
such as HIV, hepatitis B and C, syphilis,
gonorrhea, and chlamydia should be included
in routine care. Pregnant women need to be
counseled regarding the effects of opioids on
themselves and their fetuses, and the benefits
of methadone maintenance compared to
ADDICTION IN PREGNANCY
continued opioids' use. Pregnant women taking
methadone demonstrate reduced use of illicit
drugs, better compliance with prenatal care,
and improved newborn birth weight53.
Opioids are excreted into breast milk in small
quantities and minimal, if any, effect on the
newborn is clinically significant. However, the
neonate should be observed for signs of
adverse effects, such as gastrointestinal side
effects, sedation, and feeding pattern changes.
For heavy narcotic abusers and women in
methadone treatment, the postpartum period is
an excellent time to address the possibility of
gradual narcotic withdrawal and continued
rehabilitation.
COCAINE:
Cocaine is a crystalline tropane alkaloid that is
obtained from the leaves of erythroxylon coca
L plant54. Its use as a ‘‘recreational drug’’
skyrocketed in the last century. The commonly
used form, crack, is almost pure cocaine
formed through ‘‘cooking’’ the cocaine rocks
with water and sodium bicarbonate, producing
the alkalinized form of cocaine. This form,
known as crack from the characteristic noise
made during the cooking process, is the most
addictive form. In 2010, there were over 1.5
million current users of cocaine2. It is difficult
to discern the true prevalence of cocaine use
during pregnancy due to the large variations
that exist by reporting method. However, in a
large national survey conducted by National
institute of Drug addiction (NIDA) in 1995
utilized the self-report method and found that
the prevalence of cocaine abuse in pregnant
women was 4.5% among African Americans,
0.4% among Whites, and 0.7% among
Hispanics16. Regardless of the form, cocaine is
absorbed quickly. Once absorbed, the
physiological hallmark of cocaine is profound
vasoconstriction, through its sympathomimetic
properties. Cocaine blocks the presynaptic
reuptake of the sympathomimetic neurotransmitter norepi-nephrine, serotonin, and
dopamine. The norepinephrine effects lead to
hyper-tension, tachycardia, and possible arrhythmias. Within 2 minutes of cocaine use,
systolic blood pressure rises 25mm Hg and
heart rate increases 20 beats/min55. The
dopaminergic effects on the limbic system and
cerebral cortex lead to the ‘‘high’’ or euphoria
experienced with cocaine use56. Other effects
of acute cocaine use include coronary
vasospasm, possible ischemia after reduced
cardiac oxygen delivery, platelet activation,
increased platelet aggregation, and alteration
of the thromboxane production leading to an
increased risk of thrombosis. These effects
could place a pregnant woman at an increased
risk for adverse outcomes57–59.
Prenatal cocaine use is associated with poor
fetal and birth outcomes. Cocaine rapidly
crosses the placenta and a higher concentration
occurs in the fetus.
Intrauterine growth restriction, low birth
weight, and decreased head circumference are
all noted to be increased in neonates of
mothers who use cocaine in pregnancy.
Cocaine abuse is frequently associated with
inadequate prenatal care and concomitant use
of tobacco and alcohol60. Moreover, cocaine
abuse is associated with psychosocial,
behavioral, and biomedical risk factors, such
as poverty, poor nutrition, stress, depression,
physical abuse, lack of social support, and
sexually transmitted infections, all of which
can greatly affect pregnancy outcome61.
As with any other substance, cocaine exposure
during the first trimester can affect embryonic
and fetal development. An increased risk of
congenital anomalies especially of the brain
and the cardiovascular system has been
reported62.
Owing to the significant vasoconstriction
effects, cocaine users experience a significant
increase in first trimester spontaneous abortion
and up to 38% of early pregnancies may result
in miscarriage in cocaine-abusing mothers60.
This increase in incidence of spontaneous
abortion is probably secondary to an increase
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
93
ADDICTION IN PREGNANCY
in maternal plasma norepinephrine, which
increases uterine contractility, constricts
placental vessels, and decreases blood flow to
the fetus.
Cocaine use during pregnancy is associated
with increased risk of premature preterm
rupture of membranes, preterm labor, and
preterm delivery. Cocaine stimulates uterine
contractility through β-agonist action on the
β2-receptors of the uterus. Placental abruption
accounts for 2% to 15% of adverse effects of
cocaine use during pregnancy. Abruption is
thought to be caused by vasospasm and
hypoxia of the placental bed. As a result of
maternal cocaine use and placental abruption,
the incidence of stillbirth in cocaine-abusing
mothers is elevated 8% above the expected
level when compared to the general
population60.
Cocaine abuse during pregnancy is considered
a significant risk factor for infant neglect and
abuse in the post-partum period, and this often
results in the removal of the infant from
maternal custody in the first 18 months of life.
Prospective studies indicated a strong link
between cocaine-using mothers and child
maltreatment, with high rates of care-giving
disruption (43%) and child maltreatment by 2
years (9% to 23%)63.
AMPHETAMINES:
The amphetamine like substances including
amphetamine and methamphe-tamine are
powerful CNS stimulants with a profound
ability to increase wakefulness and focus. The
principal mechanism of action is increased
release of norepine-phrine, serotonin, and
dopamine from neurons within the brain. At
the same time, amphetamines inhibit re-uptake
of these neurotransmitters. Amphetamines are
commonly used as drugs of abuse, particularly
methamphetamine
(also
known
as
“crystalmeth”).
Methamphetamines abuse in the U.S. and in
other regions of the world remains a very
94 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
serious public health concern. The latest data
from the U.S. National Survey on Drug Use
and Health (NSDUH), an ongoing national
probability survey, estimates that 5.8% of
persons ages 12 and older (approximately 14.2
million people) used methamphetamine at
least once in their lifetime64. Information about
the prevalence of methamphetamine use
during pregnancy varies widely. The
magnitude of the methamphetamine problem
comes from the Treatment Episode Dataset
(TEDS), which indicated that methamphetamine abuse has more than doubled between
2008 and 2012, from 3.7 to 9.2%2.
The effects of amphetamine abuse in the
preconception period are difficult to establish
because amphetamines abusers commonly use
other illicit drugs while pregnant, making it
difficult to separate the effects of
amphetamines from those of other illicit drugs.
As with virtually all other drugs of abuse,
amphetamine use is often associated with risky
sexual behaviors, teenage pregnancy, and
potential increased risk of sexually transmitted
infections65.
Animal studies showed that in utero methamphetamine exposure can have a negative
influence on the neurodevelopment of
offspring, an increased risk of cleft palate,
retinal defects, delayed physical growth and
motor development68, 69. Human studies found
also that prenatally exposed infants to
methamphetamine exhibit poor alertness and
feeding, low birth weight, cleft lip, ambiguous
genitalia, anencephaly, and gastroschisis78–70.
Other studies have not shown any association
with increased risk of fetal malformation
above the background 3% population risk68.
Preclinical
studies
have
shown
that
methamphetamine to be neurotoxic to dopaminergic and serotonergic neurons through the
production of reactive oxygen species
resulting in cell death and mitochondrial
dysfunction71. Studies on prenatal exposure to
methamphetamine showed altered neurocognitive perform-ance in that methamphetamine
ADDICTION IN PREGNANCY
exposed children had lower verbal memory,
long-term spatial memory, sustained attention
and visual motor integration72. However, a
recent study showed that children exposed
prenatally to methamphetamine have poorer
gross motor and psychomotor performance
scores at 2 years of age compared to nonexposed children, but there was no effect on
cognitive and fine motor performance scores73.
Fetal growth restriction has also been
associated with amphetamine use in
pregnancy. It is unclear if this is related to a
direct effect of the agent on the placenta or
fetus or whether this represents a nutritional
problem in patients due to the anorectic effect
of amphetamines68.
Information about the use of amphetamines in
the postpartum period is scant, but abuse of
amphetamines during lactation is considered
possibly hazardous. Neonatal withdrawal has
been described, including jitteriness, drowsiness, and respiratory distress74.
Maternal methamphetamine use may have
long-term detrimental effects on exposed
fetuses, and exposure may result in future
learning and memory impair-ments75.
SEDATIVE-HYPNOTICS
AND ANXIOLYTICS:
Barbiturates and benzodiazepines belong to a
larger category of medications; sedativehypnotics and anxiolytics, which are
frequently abused.
Of the barbiturates, butalbital is an active
agent in many medications to treat migraines.
Since migraines are more common in
reproductive age women, many women
conceive while using butalbital containing
medications. Due to the severity of migraine
and headache during pregnancy, these drugs
continue to be appealing to many pregnant
women and they continue using them in
pregnancy. Butalbital is a category C drug and
it should only be used if the benefits outweigh
the risks. Review of literature about safety of
barbiturates’ use in pregnancy suggests that
there is no increased risk of fetal malformation
noted above expected levels of occurrence.
However, neonatal withdrawal is a critical
consideration if the mother is a heavy
barbiturates abuser, particularly close to the
time of delivery45.
Benzodiazepine use in the preconception time
period is not uncommon and frequently
prescribed for the treatment of anxiety.
Benzodiazepines are also frequently prescribed
during pregnancy and approximately 3% of all
pregnant women use this type of medication76.
Benzodiazepines are generally category D
drugs, reflecting positive evidence of fetal risk.
However, there is conflicting evidence
regarding the teratogenicity of benzodiazepines, with the suggestion of an increased
likelihood of multiple anomalies, including
cleft lip and palate, fetal growth restriction,
and intrauterine fetal death. However, there is
no study or meta-analysis that has been able to
definitively link benzodiazepine abuse with a
specific neonatal syndrome or constellation of
anomalies.
Exposure to benzodiazepines during the last
trimester of pregnancy increases the risk for
development of the floppy infant syndrome.
Since the floppy infant syndrome can cause
severe morbidity, prescription of benzodiazepines in the last trimester of pregnancy is not
recommended77.
MANAGEMENT OF PREGNANCIES
IN SUBSTANCE
ABUSING MOTHERS:
General considerations:
Pregnancy in a substance-abusing mother is
considered high-risk and is associated with
significant maternal and fetal complications.
Teratogenicity, poor maternal nutrition, IUGR,
poor placental perfusion and function, and
withdrawal syndromes are the most common
obstetric issues that must be addressed. In the
case of cocaine abuse, placental abruption and
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
95
ADDICTION IN PREGNANCY
stillbirth are important additional considerations.
Teratogenic Exposure:
The possibility of substances of abuse causing
fetal anomalies is an overriding concern.
Genetic counseling, particularly in the
preconception period, about the potential
teratogenic effects of the abused substances is
very helpful to the expectant mother so she
may abstain from using these substances.
Ultrasound
identification
of
structural
anomalies and addressing them by consulting
various pediatric specialists for post-delivery
management will optimize neonatal and infant
outcomes. Serial ultrasonographic surveillance
for fetal growth and frequent fetal well-being
testing will help in monitoring fetal growth
and delivery planning.
Nutritional considerations:
Poor maternal nutritional status is often
associated with many substances of abuse as
many of these substances suppress maternal
appetite.
A multi-disciplinary approach incorporating
nutritional counseling by trained dieticians can
certainly be valuable. Frequent maternal
weight checks and fetal interval growth
surveillance should be in the routine obstetric
care for substance abusing mothers. Nutrition
counseling should focus on a well-balanced
diet, adequate caloric intake (25 to 35 kcal/day
of optimal body weight) prenatal vitamins,
folic acid and minerals supplementation. Iron
deficiency anemia is a common problem in the
substance abusing population, and an
additional 60 to 120 mg of iron is
recommended 78.
Intrauterine growth restriction
and placental insufficiency:
Because of the high correlation between
substance abuse and intrauterine fetal growth
restriction, surveillance for fetal growth and
96 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
placental function is an important component
of care for substance -abusing mothers.
Recommendations involve serial uterine fundal height measurements and ultrasound
evaluation of the fetus with attention paid to
fetal head circumference and biparietal
diameter, abdominal circumference, amniotic
fluid indices, and Doppler velocimetry. Serial
ultrasound surveillance typically begins at
approximately 24 weeks of gestation and
continues at 4-week intervals thereafter. Fetal
wellbeing testing primarily by non-stress
testing and the biophysical profile can be used
depending on the clinical situation. They are
typically performed in the beginning of the
third trimester. Timing of delivery can be a
challenge in the growth-restricted fetus. The
risks of prematurity must be weighed against
the risk of intrauterine fetal death due to
placental insufficiency. In general, significantly abnormal umbilical artery Doppler
velocimetry is usually an indication for
delivery. Complete absence of fetal growth
observed in consecutive ultrasound evaluations
may also provide a strong indication for
delivery.
Labor management:
Management of the substance-abusing patient
in labor can present significant challenges to
the obstetrical team. As a general rule, the
labor and management of the substanceabusing patient should be based on widely
accepted obstetric practice and recommendations. Establishing healthy and non-threatening
communication with a substance-abusing
mother in labor is a paramount goal for
obstetrical caregivers.
Regional analgesia is the preferred method to
control pain during labor. However, each
particular substance of abuse brings its own
challenges. Anesthesia consultation and preoperative evaluation should be obtained to
determine the safest and most appropriate
method for pain management during labor and
ADDICTION IN PREGNANCY
delivery especially if cesarean section is
planned or expected79.
5.
Management of withdrawal symptoms:
Issues arising as a result of maternal and fetal
withdrawal must be managed on an
individualized basis, taking into consideration
the substance of abuse. For example, it is not
prudent to withdraw methadone from an
addicted or abusing mother because this may
increase the likelihood of fetal stillbirth78.
In contrast, the withdrawal of cocaine will
likely diminish the possibility of catastrophic
placental abruption or stillbirth. It is important
to adopt a team approach regarding maternal
and neonatal withdrawal, incorporating
neonatologists, psychiatrists, and social
workers.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Conclusions:
There are many challenges in diagnosing and
treating maternal addiction and substance
abuse during pregnancy.
As the magnitude of the problem increases, it
has become critical to create a model in which
pregnant women can receive comprehensive
medical care while being treated with
compassion and dignity to address the
complex physical, emotional, social, and
environmental characteristics of addiction.
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100 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
MOBILIZATION OF THE PUBLIC AGAINST ADDICTION:
THE TURKISH GREEN CRESCENT SOCIETY AS A MODEL INSTITUTION
M.Ihsan Karaman*
Abstract:
In this article, a general framework on the addiction problem is analyzed by focusing on the
works of the Turkish Green Crescent Society. A brief comment on the industries behind
alcohol, tobacco, and drugs is given to understand the background of the problem. As a model
institution, the history, organizational structure, vision, objectives, and activities of the
Turkish Green Crescent Society are summarized in the article. Examples of prevention
practices, educational, advocacy and international programs are presented in the tactics for the
mobilization of the public against addictions. Then the psychological drive behind being
addicted and especially the threat of spread among young generation is presented giving
special attention to “peer effect” phenomenon.
Keywords: addiction, public awareness, prevention, advocacy, Turkey, Green Crescent
Society
Introduction:
As the President of the Turkish Green
Crescent Society, and the Chairman of the
Addiction Working Group in the Federation
of Islamic Medical associations (FIMA), I
would like to start this article by giving a
general framework of the problem of
addiction. Then, I will summarize the
history, vision, objectives and activities of
the Green Crescent Society; including the
tactics for the mobilization of the public
against addiction. It is important that we
realize and accept that “Addiction is a type of
slavery! We, representing humanity, have to
be against all kinds of addiction!”
Background of the Problem
One of the ways to prevent the evils of
addiction is to fight through scientific
methods against the power groups that
promote it. We are aware of the fact that the
addiction industry reaches out, and intends to
reach out even further, to our people and our
youth, legally and illegally, through various
ways and means that continue to change and
develop day by day. It is apparent that our
efforts in trying to stop them by using
ordinary slogans and methods gets more and
more difficult. For this reason, the best
instruments that we can use is to conduct
serious scientific studies on how the
problems emerge and spread, to follow up
with this scientific data and share them with
the public and authorities, to research on the
ways of fighting against addiction and how
they can be applied through national as well
as international scientific meetings and
forums. The problems related to addiction do
not only derive from our own social,
administrational and moral structure, but are
open to the influence of a broader spectrum.
*Professor Dr. M.Ihsan Karaman
President, Turkish Green Crescent Society
Professor of Urology, Istanbul Medeniyet University, Medical Faculty
Istanbul, Turkey
E-mail: [email protected]
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014 101
THE TURKISH GREEN CRESCENT
Today, through the tools of mass
communication and the tools and carriers of
the global culture, a structure with an
expanding influence has emerged in our
society as in the rest of the world. The Green
Crescent Society cares about the world’s way
of fighting against this experience that it is
going through, and about the scientific
knowledge accumulated in this field. It is
necessary to transfer this knowledge into
healthy channels by making use of local
dynamics as well. We are initiating a more
active process in the international arena, with
the hope and aim that the whole world will
act upon conscience.
Just as the evil does not emerge only from
our own internal structure, the solution is not
a process that we can handle on our own,
either. We want to speed up the activities
carried out in coordination with other
organizations working in this field throughout the world, in the name of our goal to
prevent the evil and addiction before it even
starts. We believe that there is a lot to do,
especially in the countries where addiction
and the production of addictive substances
are widespread. For this purpose, the Green
Crescent Society, with its experience of
almost a century, will remain determined to
carry its knowledge and efforts to the international arena, and to mobilize the collective
conscience of humanity in the fight against
addiction.
Addiction Industry:
It is a well known fact that drugs, tobacco,
and alcohol are the primary addictive
substances in the world. They cause millions
of deaths every year. Of the producers of
these substances, at least two of them,
namely, the tobacco and alcohol industries
are acknowledged as legal industries which
are subject to international trade rules. When
we look at this issue from the public health
perspective, alcohol consumption results in
2.5 million deaths each year and it is one of
three primary public health problems of the
world. Alcohol is the third leading reason of
preventable deaths and injuries on a global
102 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
basis. Between the ages 15 and 29, 320.000
individuals lose their lives because of alcohol
related reasons every year in the world. This
number corresponds to 9% of deaths in this
age group1.
Apart from being addictive, alcohol is a
public health problem known as the reason
for 60 different diseases and conditions,
injuries, mental and behavioral disorders
including digestive system diseases, cancers,
cardiovascular diseases, immunity disorders,
lung diseases, musculoskeletal diseases,
gonadal dysfunction, preterm births, and
low birth weight2 .
Another important addictive substance is
tobacco. According to World Health Organization (WHO), Tobacco kills nearly 6
million people each year. More than five
million of those deaths are the result of direct
tobacco use while more than 600,000 are the
result of non-smokers being exposed to
second-hand smoke. Nearly 80% of the more
than one billion smokers worldwide live in
low- and middle-income countries, where the
burden of tobacco-related illness and death is
heaviest. More than 50 illnesses and health
problems are caused by the direct and
indirect effects of cigarettes. Tobacco caused
100 million deaths in the 20th century. If
current trends continue, it may cause one
billion deaths in the 21st century3. In addition
to alcohol and tobacco, illicit drugs are also
one of the most serious problems threatening
our future generations. Recent estimates
prove that in 2008, 155 to 250 million
people, or 3.5% to 5.7% of the world's population aged 15-64, used psychoactive substances, such as cannabis, amphetamines,
cocaine,
opioids,
and
non-prescribed
psychoactive
prescription
medication.
Globally, cannabis is the most commonly
used (129-190 million people), followed by
amphetamine type stimulants, then cocaine
and opioids. The use of psychoactive
substances causes significant health and
social problems for the people who use them,
and also for others in their families and
communities4.
Both alcohol and tobacco industries use
similar tactics to resist public health policies.
THE TURKISH GREEN CRESCENT
They are very actively lobbying politicians,
mobilizing farmers, retailers and advertising
agencies to influence public health legislation. They challenge laws and buy friends
from sports and cultural groups, and undermine control policies5. In addition to these
legal deadly industries, there is also an illicit
drug industry with a massive market. Annual
value of the illicit drugs in the world is
estimated at US$320 billion. This industry is
to a large extent outside the governmental
controls. In addition to the significant
harmful health effects of the drugs they
market, this industry is a major contributor to
crime, violence and corruption6.6From the
information above, it can be deduced that
addiction is not only a psychological issue
affecting individuals, but it is also a major
problem that is caused by interacting social,
economic and political factors. To protect
humanity from the damages of the addiction
industry, public health community and civil
society should cooperate in the struggle
against this huge industry and power groups.
THE TURKISH GREEN CRESCENT
SOCIETY:
History and the Organizational Structure:
The Turkish Green Crescent Society was
founded with the initial name “Hilal-i
Akhdar” on 5 March 1920 at the end of the
First World War in Istanbul. The society was
founded by patriotic intellectuals in 1920 as
a response to the British attempts to
distribute alcohol and drugs free of charge in
Istanbul in order to undermine the resistance
against the occupation. The founders sensed
the upcoming dangers of alcohol and drug
addiction that would result in decline of the
resistance against the occupation. The
patriotic intellectuals established the “Green
Crescent”, “Hilal-i Akhdar” in Istanbul in
order to warn Turkish society against
occupation and harms of alcohol and drugs.
The Turkish Green Crescent Society is a
non-governmental association was included
among “The Public Beneficial Societies”
upon the decision of the Council of Ministers
dated 19 September 1934. Public beneficial
society status is given by the Turkish
government to the organizations that provide
public benefits7. The Green Crescent Society
is an independent, non-profit and nongovernmental organization that acts according to rules of the Ministry of Interior
Department of Associations. The General
Assembly of the Green Crescent is the
highest and most authoritative decisionmaking body of the Society. The members of
the Executive Board and the President are
elected triennially by the delegates in the
Assembly. The delegates of the General
Assembly are elected by the branches and the
headquarters of the Green Crescent from
among the Green Crescent members. The
General Executive Board is composed of
thirteen administrative board members and
seven auditing members. The Green Crescent
Branches have their own General Assemblies
and Executive Boards. The Headquarters and
Branches are governed according to rules of
the Green Crescent Constitution. The Green
Crescent has 37 branches and 101
representation offices in different provinces
of Turkey and has 30 thousands members
across the country8. Apart from employees in
the headquarters and branches, the members
in General Assembly and Executive Boards
take part in the struggle voluntarily and this
make the Green Crescent a voluntary movement. There are two commissions within the
Society consisting of Green Crescent
members and volunteers. The first one is the
Green Crescent Youth Commission which
involves hundreds of young people, mostly
university students. Universities are the
primary working field of the Young Commission and they work within a partnership
with the Green Crescent Youth Clubs in the
universities. There are 11 Green Crescent
University clubs in Turkey. The clubs play
important role in raising awareness and
keeping the young students away from
harmful habits. They are involved in various
activities like “smoke-free campuses”9.
The second voluntary commission is the
Green Crescent Women Commission. The
commission members work voluntarily in the
neighborhoods to educate housewives on
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014 103
THE TURKISH GREEN CRESCENT
addictions. Both commissions are leading
voluntary activities of the Green Crescent.
Any person can become a member of the
Society if he / she adopts the principles, values,
goals and working ethics of the Green Crescent.
He / she should have no record of any illegal
activity, not addicted to tobacco, alcohol or any
drug To be a member one should pledge the
following commitment “As long as I stay as a
member, I solemnly pledge on my honor and life
not to use any tobacco, alcohol or drug and to
propagate Society’s ideals.” A person, who
would like to be a member, applies directly
to directorate of the branch on the basis his/
her place of residence. The decision making
body for the affiliation is Executive Board of
the Green Crescent Branch. Turkish Green
Crescent Society is a member of the National
Quality Movement, led by the Quality
Association of Turkey.
Quality Association of Turkey provides
training and direction to develop the Green
Crescent's management structure and human
resources. EFQM (European Foundation of
Quality Management) Model is implemented
to be a part of the journey on the road to
being a Center of Excellence.
Core Values and Principles of the Society
Struggling for Human Dignity:
The scope of the Green Crescent is to ensure the
protection of human health and respect for
human dignity against risk factors causing
addiction. In all its activities, the Green Crescent
supports mutual understanding, fellowship,
friendship, cooperation and permanent peace
among individuals. It endeavors to relieve and to
prevent human pain anywhere arising from
addictions within national and international
capacity.
Non-Discrimination: The Green Crescent does
not discriminate people based on race,
age, religion, ability, marital status, sexual
orientation. By prioritizing the most urgent and
necessary requirements, it focuses on relieving
human pain arising from addictions within its
capacity.
Independency: The Turkish Green Crescent is
an independent non-governmental organiza104 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
tion. As a supporter of public authorities for
human affairs, the Green Crescent is subject to
international agreements duly enacted by State
of the Republic of Turkey. In this context, it
has the autonomy to make international
agreements and to act accordingly within its
field of activity.
As Charity Organization: The Green Crescent
is a voluntary charity organization which does
not seek profit or personal benefit in its
activities.
As Public Health: The Green Crescent is a
voluntary non-governmental organization which
builds programs to fight risk factors for all
kinds of addiction, particularly, those related to
tobacco, alcohol, and drugs.
Scientific Understanding: The Green Crescent
adopts evidence-based research, analysis and
intervention regarding behavior reinforcement
and /or behavior change during the phase of
fighting against addiction, protection and
prevention of addiction, therapy and treatment.
Globalism: Having equal status and sharing
equal responsibility and duty like other foreign
national societies in the field of combating
addictions, the Green Crescent adopts the
following principles: creating a global organization to fight against addictions on a worldwide
basis and as a part of such organization,
evaluating issues on a global scale and working
accordingly, functioning on a global level and
being influential and highly regarded.
Sense of Community: Organizing to create
awareness for public health at every stage from
the whole part of society to individual and
public organizations, carrying out participating
activities on social-level and
permanent
achievement are considered as a necessity by
the Green Crescent10.
MOBILIZATION OF THE PUBLIC
AGAINST ADDICTION:
Evidence Based and Scientific Prevention
Practices
The Green Crescent Society contributes to
public health by developing evidence-based
prevention programs and advocating for
legal, social and environmental changes in
the fight against addiction.
THE TURKISH GREEN CRESCENT
The Green Crescent fights against tobacco,
alcohol, drug, gambling, and technology
addiction that destroy the mental and
physical health of the youth in cooperation
with the private sector, governmental bodies
and international organizations. It works to
develop contemporary strategies for dealing
with consumption of addictive substances
and for the prevention of addiction by using
evidence-based scientific methods.
The Green Crescent launces many projects
and preventive campaigns every year. The
activities and programs are based on the
guidelines of the prevention programs. There
are general set of guidelines for prevention
activities which are general considerations
for all addiction prevention activities.
Assessment of the need, assessment of the
capacity and sources, planning with goals
and objectives, implementation, and evaluation are the basic steps in the Green Crescent
preventive programs11. The implementation
and the findings of three different programs
are summarized below.
(ISTKA). Using the slogan "The Green
Crescent is looking for youth leaders", the
project reached 200,000 students in Istanbul.
The project aimed to educate nearly 5,000
secondary school students and 1,000
teachers. The young leaders were trained on
the Green Crescent Club Curriculum and
peer education approach was initiated along
with training on leadership and motivation.
As part of the project, participants were
administered pre- and post-tests. Awareness
and knowledge level of cigarette and internet
addiction were measured in students between
the ages of 11 and 14. All indicators showed
a positive effect of the peer education
amongst children of different age groups,
genders, and socioeconomic levels. Educated
leader students conducted many activities to
attract the attention of their peers at schools.
Approximately 80% of students who participated in the training expressed a desire to
share the information they learned in the
program with their friends and to participate
in similar programs in the future13.
Youth Center Project
with Ministry of Youth and Sports:
National Water Pipe Campaign:
The project's aim was to establish a youth
center in Istanbul with the cooperation of
Ministry of Youth and Sport. The project was
planned according to the needs of the
university students in Fatih district. A survey
of five hundred young students was
conducted to understand the needs of young
people and evaluate their perception of
addictive substances like; tobacco, alcohol,
and drugs. As a result of the research the
youth center was designed and established to
meet the requirement. The Youth Center
became operational in 2013 and is still
providing sporting and artistic activities for
young students12.
The Project on Combating Substance
Abuse through Official Primary School
Green Crescent Clubs in Istanbul:
The project was implemented in cooperation
with
Istanbul
Development
Agency
The National Water Pipe Campaign was
prepared as a nationwide communication
campaign to prevent the epidemic of water
pipe use across the country. Qualitative and
quantitative preliminary surveys were
lunched and completed in 2013. 1,200
smokers, non-smokers, and water pipe users
participated in the survey. The habit of use of
water pipe and the perception in the community about its use were analyzed to plan
communication campaign in 2014.
The contents of the campaign were prepared
and the kick off is planned on 1st April 2014.
At the end of the year another survey will be
launched to analyze the effects of the
campaign14.
Advocacy:
The Turkish Green Crescent Society plays an
important role in policy making, lobbying
and advocacy issues. The Green Crescent
efforts are especially focused on carrying out
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014 105
THE TURKISH GREEN CRESCENT
preventive social and advocacy activities
aiming at creating public opinion and raising
awareness of the decision-makers and the
general public. The advocacy activities vary
from legislation on public health to alcohol
and tobacco control policies.
Article 58 of the current Turkish Constitution, which forces the state to protect youth
from harmful habits was a proposal of the
Green Crescent.
“The State shall take necessary measures to
protect youth from addiction to alcohol, drug
addiction, crime, gambling, and similar
vices, and from ignorance”15.
The WHO Framework Convention on
Tobacco Control and its guidelines provided
the foundation for countries to implement
and manage tobacco control. WHO
developed the MPOWER measures to assist
in reducing the demand for tobacco products
at country-level16. In recent years Turkey
became an example of success for the
implementation of MPOWER measures in
the World. Green Crescent played an
important role in the Turkish Government’s
adoption of the Framework Convention on
Tobacco Control and its enactment process in
Turkey17.
Recently, the Turkish Government has
enacted a new law on alcohol control policy
within the framework “the National Alcohol
Control Action Plan”. The bill was proposed
and prepared by the Ministry of Health and
was approved in the Grand National
Assembly of Turkey on 24th of May,
201318.
Unfortunately, the new alcohol law turned to
be a political instrument between the ruling
and the opposition political parties in Turkey.
The new law faced very strong objections
from the secularist segments of the society
claiming that it deliberately restricts their
freedom and it is an interference into their
lifestyle. Alcohol Industrial involvement and
lobbying increased the reaction against the
regulations. Alcohol industry propagated the
argument that the alcohol regulations are
religious based and mostly violate secular
people’s freedom. The Green Crescent
conducted advocacy campaigns for the
106 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
adoption of “The National Alcohol Control
Action Plan”. Green Crescent organized an
international symposium in Istanbul on 25-27
April 2013 and representatives from 60
different countries including Turkish Prime
Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan, and the
Director-General of the World Health
Organization Dr Margaret Chan participated.
Global Alcohol Policy Symposium provided
important base for the adoption of the new
alcohol law in Turkey. As an advocacy
organization, Green Crescent tried to push
decision makers to enact this law with the
scientific and evidence-based public health
principals19.
The Turkish Green Crescent Society has
adopted a strategy to help the development of
the alcohol policy in Turkey. The Turkish
Alcohol Policy Platform was established in
2013 on a national level under the leadership
of the Green Crescent. Many organizations
from various sectors came together under the
platform and currently 40 different
organizations are the members of this
platform. It was an attempt to organize
pressure group to raise public health
awareness in general and about alcohol
policy in particular20.
The Green
Institutions:
Crescent
in
Educational
As a public health organization, the Green
Crescent mostly cooperates with educational
institutions for preventive activities. The
anniversary of the foundation of the Green
Crescent Society 1-7 March, is celebrated as
the Green Crescent Week in Turkey by the
Council of Ministers’ decision since 1960.
The syllabuses of the secondary and high
schools cover contents on harmful habits,
addictions and the concept of the Green
Crescent during that week, and great
numbers of activities are carried out in
schools across the country during the entire
month. The Green Crescent has an official
protocol with the Ministry of National
Education.
The National Educational Program on
Addictions of the Green Crescent has been
THE TURKISH GREEN CRESCENT
developed in cooperation with the Ministry.
It provides an opportunity to conduct many
surveys, projects and activities beginning at
primary and including secondary and high
schools. In every secondary and high school
across the country, there is a Green Crescent
Club. These clubs are conducted according to
the rules of the Club Regulation of Ministry
of National Education. The regulation
obligates schools to constitute the Green
Crescent clubs under the leadership of the
trainers. Although they are compulsory for
the teachers, students participate in the clubs
voluntarily. The Green Crescent clubs follow
the curriculum of Ministry of Education and
they mostly conduct their activities in March.
The Green Crescent club members conduct
their activities under the guidance of their
teachers. The Green Crescent branches and
headquarters provide the required documents
for the teachers and launch some programs to
train club trainers in the provinces. Peer
education activities are mostly implemented
through these clubs to keep children away
from harmful habits. According to this
method students work to protect their friends
from harmful habits and they inform their
friends periodically at schools.
Leader students in the clubs reflect and share
their experience in the Green Crescent Club
Periodical published monthly.
Since the Republic of Turkey is a secular
country, the laws and the rules of the
educational institutions cannot be religious
based. The philosophy of the Green Crescent
clubs is based on the educational rules of
Ministry of National Education and universal
moral values21.
Peer Effect:
There are many causes of addiction. It is
impossible to focus on just one single cause
and achieve results from methods based on
only that specific cause, whereas many
psychological, physiological, cultural and
environmental factors exist. Taking such an
easy way out is no different than what an
ostrich does when it sees its hunter.
Addiction of smoking, alcohol, drugs and the
recently developed technology can pass
through many doors and find new spaces and
victims. Beside the causes of addiction, what
we really need to pay attention to is the tools
of addiction, namely, the means that
influence and push individuals, the youth,
into addiction. When individuals step out of
didactic education processes in their families
and schools, they become less shielded from
the marketing strategies of the media and the
addiction industry, and become easier targets
prone to influence, under the so-called
“freedom”. This opening that comes along
with getting out of teachings and restrictions
of their families and schools that interfere in,
and limit their participation in what they
consider pleasant activities, makes the
children/youth open to ideas of “being free”
and “realizing oneself”. This pursuit of
independence of becomes a tool for
addiction. This concept of freedom combined
with the pressure of two other elements.
One, is the idealized and marketed world;
and two, the acknowledgement of the peers
sharing the same interests and expectations.
Peers are the only place where the
individuals who turn their backs to the
difficulties of being good and responsible,
find acknowledgement and appreciation. This
situation that we can call “the peer effect”
provides two benefits to individuals. First,
finding an authority that likes and appreciates
the situations and tendencies that are not
approved by authorities such as the family
and school. Second, the psychological
confidence resulting from seeing the peers
sharing the same evil by doing things
considered bad. As a result of that, the
individuals isolated by the increasing
criticism and pressure of the families and
schools, are left even weaker in their peer
groups. At that point, these individuals are
now forced to behave according to the
interests and tendencies of their peers, and
making the expected sacrifices and attempts
to get accepted by and belong to the group.
And then it is difficult to predict where these
individuals will stop. On the other hand, we
cannot undervalue the number of young
people who have received good family
discipline, good education and who have
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014 107
THE TURKISH GREEN CRESCENT
made healthy progress, and have strong
personalities and characters. What needs to
be done and what the Green Crescent has
adopted is to encourage the youth in the right
direction. The youth constitutes the most
important part of the purest and cleanest
times in terms of emotions and thoughts,
because the demand for justice and tendency
to sacrifice oneself in the name of what is
right, and of their ideals, exist intensively in
young people. And that is why we have the
opportunity to educate our youth and make
them volunteer to fight against the addictions
of their peers by setting good role models.
Young people diverted to quests outside of
the teachings and ideas of families and
schools, will easily accept their peers who
are mentally and physically healthy, and who
look to life and the future with confidence.
This way, peer groups will move from being
a tool of the evil and addiction to leading the
way for raising educated generations who
will look to the future with confidence. Also,
generations who have chosen this path of
commitment to benefit and their humanoriented thinking will safeguard the future of
our nations.
It must be our primary goal to expose the
dangers of the concepts, which are presented
to our youth under the name of freedom, and
which trap them in the web of addiction
industry, and to raise our youth as
responsible individuals with strong minds,
morals and personalities of the future.
For our social values and healthy family
structure to be carried into the future in the
hands of mentally and physically healthy
generations,
we
have
adopted
an
understanding and determination beyond
daily philosophical and political debates. We
aim to transform the Turkish Green Crescent
Society into a structure that is more efficient
and more active both in the service of our
nation and of humanity, through ideals and
ideas that we have preserved since the first
day of our foundation, by opposing the
misinterpretation of the definition and
requirements of freedom as well as some
negative mentalities that stand out as the
values of our era.
108 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
International scope:
Alongside national affords, the Green
Crescent targets to be part of international
solidarity to fight against addictions on a global
level. The Turkish Green Crescent Society is
an organization who has a Special
Consultative Status within the Economic and
Social Council of the United Nations22. The
Green Crescent is also a member of the
European
Alcohol
Policy
Alliance,
EUROCARE23. Turkish Green Crescent
Society has “EFQM Committed to
Excellence” certificate of the European
Foundation for Quality Management. Green
Crescent also cooperates with a great number
of organizations in the world.
The Society aims to transfer its experience and
values to other organizations. It helps the
foundation of new Green Crescents in different
countries, namely; Palestinian, Bosnia and
Herzegovinian, Malaysian, Thai, Lebanese
and Montenegrin Country Green Crescents.
A major objective of the Turkish Green
Crescent Society is to launch the World
Federation of Green Crescent Societies for a
better future of our next generations.
The Turkish Green Crescent Society is
always ready to share its expertise, knowhow and documents to help the foundation of
Green Crescent Societies in other countries
in order to make our world smoke-free,
alcohol-free, drug-free and to protect our
next generations from all kinds of addictions
that are the evils of the modern world.
References:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
World Health Organization Management of Substance
Abuse
http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/facts/alcohol/en/.
For further information on alcohol harms see
http://www.yesilay.org.tr/en/news/item/207-globalalcohol-policies-symposium-final-declaration.html.
World Health Organization Tobacco Free Initiative
http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs339/en/.
World Health Organization Management of Substance
Abuse
http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/facts/psychoactiv
es/en/.
WHO Bulletin, Tobacco Industry Tactics for Resisting
Public Policy on Health,
http://www.who.int/bulletin/archives/78(7)902.pdf.
Vienna Declaration
http://www.viennadeclaration.com/the-declaration/.
THE TURKISH GREEN CRESCENT
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
For further information on the Turkish Green Crescent
Society see the official web site
http://www.yesilay.org.tr/en/.
Constitution of the Turkish Green Crescent Society
http://www.yesilay.org.tr/en/about/constitution.html.
For Smoke Free Campus Activity see
http://www.yesilay.org.tr/tr/haber/item/20bezmialemde-sigarasiz-kampus.html.
Turkish Green Crescent Society
http://www.yesilay.org.tr/en/.
For the guidelines of preventive programs see
Substance Abuse & Mental Health Services
Administration
http://www.samhsa.gov/prevention/spfcomponents.asp
x.
Green Crescent Youth Center
http://www.yesilay.org.tr/genclikmerkezi/.
For the details of the Green Crescent is Looking for
Young Leaders Project see
http://www.yesilay.org.tr/en/news/item/375-200,000students-receive-addiction-resistance-education.html.
For further information on Water Pipe Campaign see
http://www.nargilegercekleri.com/, the page will be
activated as from 1st April 2014.
For 58. Article in the Turkish Constitution see
http://www.anayasa.gen.tr/1982Constitution-19952.pdf.
Framework Convention on Tobacco Control
http://www.who.int/fctc/en/.
For Turkey’s FCTC success and MPOWER story see
http://www.who.int/tobacco/mpower/publications/mpo
wer_2013.pdf?ua=1.
For an evaluation on the Turkish Alcohol Control Law
2013 see http://www.todayszaman.com/news-316734erdogan-defends-alcohol-law-not-impositionprotecting-youth.html;
http://www.todayszaman.com/news-316365parliament-passes-bill-limiting-sale-of-alcoholbanning-ads.html.
Global Alcohol Policy Symposium 26-27 April 2013
http://gaps-istanbul.com/eng/news.aspx.
Turkish Alcohol Policy Platform
http://www.tapp.org.tr/.
Club Regulation of Ministry of National Education
(Turkish)
http://mevzuat.meb.gov.tr/html/25699_0.html; Green
Crescent Official Page for the Green Crescent Clubs
http://www.yesilay.org.tr/yesilaykulubu/.
For Consultative Status with the United Nations
Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) see
http://csonet.org/; For the Green Crescent Consultative
Status see http://www.yesilay.org.tr/en/news/item/337the-green-crescent,-member-of-the-un-economic-andsocial-council.html.
European Alcohol Policy Alliance
http://www.eurocare.org/.
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014 109
110 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
BEWARE OF SPIRITUAL BYPASSING:
INTEGRATE PSYCHOTHERAPY
IN THE ADDICTION RECOVERY PROCESS
Ketam Hamdan*
Abstract:
This chapter discusses the phenomenon of spiritual bypassing, generally defined as a person’s
utilization of spiritual practices and beliefs to avoid unresolved psychological issues that may have
triggered the addiction. As a result, those on the path of addiction recovery will most likely not heal
properly and will continue to struggle with their addiction issues. To elaborate on this topic further,
this chapter contains four sections.
First, a brief discussion of the definitions of key terms used throughout the chapter. Second, a
summary of the characteristics of spiritual bypassing and how it may manifest on the path to
recovery. Third, a psychological model for holistic development is offered. Finally, this section
provides recommendations for using both spiritual and psychological practices for sustainable
addiction recovery.
Keywords: Spiritual Bypass, Islam, Addiction Recovery, Therapy, Psychology.
Introduction
In the past decade, there has been a rapid
increase in addiction to drugs, alcohol,
gambling, pornography, technology, and
compulsive eating that have fueled the growth of
emotional and behavioral problems in the
American Muslim community1. Most Muslims
hold the worldview that a person with an
addiction problem is often the result of one’s
weak iman (the Arabic word for faith) and
increasing one’s faith is the only cure. They
believe that addiction violates and disregards the
basic tenets of Islam. Islamic scriptures provide
Muslims with clear guidelines about what is
permissible and what is not. For instance, the
Qur’an informs Muslims:
“ O you who believe, intoxicants, and gambling,
and the altars of idols, and the games of chance
are abominations of the devil; you shall avoid
them, that you may succeed. The devil wants to
provoke animosity and hatred among you
through intoxicants and gambling, and to
distract you from remembering God, and from
observing the prayers (Salat). Will you then
refrain?”2.
The above verse directly tells Muslims to abstain
from harmful things such as alcohol, drugs, and
gambling because these acts are from the devil
that only desires to push people towards faulty
things that keep one from the remembrance of
God. Therefore, when a Muslim admits or is
found to have an addiction problem, his or her
psychological issues are rarely unearthed and the
underlying reasons for the addiction problem
goes unexamined. Instead, one is often preached
at and told to become more religious.
Unfortunately, this ostrich philosophy that
religion is the only remedy to treat an addiction
problem is rarely accurate.
*Dr. Ketam Hamdan
Ph.D Psychology
Master of Theological Studies (M.T.S.)
Religion & Psychology, Harvard University
Master of Science (M.S.), Social Sciences
Columbia University
E-mail: [email protected]
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014 111
BEWARE OF SPIRITUAL BYPASSING
One phenomenon that describes the limitations
of relying solely on spiritual practices to
overcome problems such as addiction is known
as spiritual bypassing, which is a phrase that
describes a person who avoids dealing with
negative emotions and other internal psychological issues. Instead, this person resorts to
healing by using only spiritual practices and
beliefs 3,4.
Therefore, the objective of this chapter is four
fold. Firstly, it will provide definitions for the
usage of the terms spirituality and spiritual
bypassing, in relation to how it is used
throughout this paper. Secondly, a discussion of
spiritual bypassing traits that Muslims may
manifest on the path of addiction recovery.
Thirdly, the paper will share a model of the self
that helps explain the importance of both
spiritual and psychological development for
holistic addiction recovery. Finally, it will
conclude with recommendations of how therapy
can be integrated and used to compliment
spiritual growth.
1.Definition of Terms
The usage of the words spirituality and spiritual
bypassing may have a variety of meanings.
Thus, below are definitions of these words to
clarify what is meant by the use of these terms in
the context of this paper.
Definition of spirituality:
The word spirituality has no universal definition
because the word can be applied to different
contexts.
For example, one definition of spirituality is “the
personal quest for understanding answers to
ultimate questions about life, about meaning,
and about relationship with the sacred or
transcendent, which may (or may not) lead to or
arise from the development of religious rituals”5.
Another definition of spirituality is the “human
yearning for divine love”6. For the purpose of
this paper, spirituality is defined as the perpetual
pain of the soul that craves for a connection with
a higher power, God, and stems from an organi-
112 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
zed religion, such as Islam. Thus, the words
spirituality, spiritual, religious, and religion are
used interchangeably throughout this paper to
refer to Islam, Islamic rituals, Islamic principles
and beliefs.
Definition of spiritual bypassing:
Charles Whitefield7, who is a medical doctor
that works in the field of trauma and addiction
recovery, first coined the phrase spiritual bypass.
Whitefield noticed that those individuals who
engage in psychological work and development
were better able to improve and experience true
spirituality. He also noticed that individuals who
engaged in psychological and spiritual work
together recovered faster from addiction related
issues and were less likely to relapse. Likewise,
John Welwood8, a psychotherapist who
integrates psychological and spiritual therapy,
noticed that many of his clients engaged in
advanced
spiritual
practices;
however,
their spiritual practices had a tendency to help
them avoid facing their wounds, emotional
insecurities, and pains that most likely triggered
or influenced one’s addiction problem in the first
place. He observed that often times his patients
were unconsciously using spiritual beliefs to
achieve spiritual maturity while unconsciously
overlooking, or bypassing, their personal and
emotional problems. The person is most likely
trying to resolve psychological issues at the
spiritual level and does not realize that he or she
is escaping the work at the other levels, such as
the cognitive, emotional, and interpersonal.
When this happens, spiritual practice is not
integrated into the real-world state of the psyche
and, as a result, personal growth is less mature
than the spiritual practice.
As a noun, the term bypass means to go around,
to avoid, or to proceed without reference to
the core or superior issue9. However, for the
purpose of this paper the term bypassing is
preferred. As a verb, bypassing represents and
implies a developmental process that a person is
continuously engaged in. Thus, the phrase
“spiritual bypassing” refers to a person’s
unconscious utilization of spiritual beliefs and
BEWARE OF SPIRITUAL BYPASSING
practices to go around psychological issues and
emotional unfinished business, with the hope of
finding inner peace through one’s faith10.
Moreover, the explosion of New Age fads like
think positive, be grateful, and avoid negative
people are examples of fast food spiritual
remedies often recommended to people to feel
better. Another mainstream fad is the Secret,
which is a concept that centers on the attraction
principle in New Age spirituality and teaches
people that whatever one imagines one will
manifest. The belief is that a person attracts what
he or she believes. Thus, if an individual
believes he or she is poor then the person will
most likely live poor. Whereas if a person is
content and grateful, the Secret experts suggest
that the person will attract more money and
positive experiences. People are also preached
catch phrases like “don’t take it personally”, or
“whatever bothers you about someone is really
about you”11. However, these fads have helped
to further promote a fast-food spirituality culture
of drive-through offerings that only temporarily
help one feel better. These fads have also
misguideda person that becoming more spiritual
is the cure to any problem. As a result, the
individual never seeks help for internal issues
that he or she rarely understands. One merely
escapes internal issues and pain by numbing
problems with quick fixes like think positive or
avoid negative people. When this happens, an
individual is unable to fully live an authentic and
genuine life because his or her issues are
constantly lingering in the background. These
quick fixes and easily blurted expressions
actually repress one’s painful issues and impact
one’s ability for holistic development that is
necessary for true fulfillment12. Moreover, others
are told to simply increase their Islamic practices
and preached to pray more, to give more charity,
and to read more Qur’an. One’s spiritual
practices may make one feel better, but often
times it is only temporary. Individuals will most
likely continue to experience frustration and
disappointment because the issues that he or she
is trying to escape, via their addiction, still
remains internally and will continue to haunt
them. One has to first become aware of these
issues, and then take steps to overcome them.
There are no quick fixes for fully healing one’s
repressed issues and childhood wounds. The
process of transformation takes time and people
need to be educated about the complexity of this
process, rather than be given false band-aid fixes
that rarely resolve or just scrape the surface of
one’s issues.
Furthermore, the literature that discusses spiritual bypassing is scarce. So not only is there
limited research about spiritual bypassing, but
also there is no research about this topic from the
Muslim perspective.
The literature also references other phrases that
allude to the concept of spiritual bypassing. For
instance, Trungpa13 coined the term spiritual
materialism, which is the practice of
strengthening the ego by accumulating more
spiritual experiences and by shopping around for
diverse spiritual practices without commitment
to a specific tradition. Spiritual materialism can
be experienced by both practicing Muslims that
understand Islam properly and by Muslims who
may have had blind faith growing up. Regardless
if one is applying Islamic practices properly or if
one is merely implementing what one was taught
growing up, spiritual materialism most likely
occurs when one feels a sense of superiority over
others or holier than others because one is doing
a lot of spiritual activities. Another phrase is
bullet-proof faith, which suggests that a person
has strong faith in a God that cannot be stirred
no matter what happens to him or her. Another
phrase premature transcendence is also known
to be synonymous with spiritual bypassing,
which alludes to a person who engages in
spiritual practices to rise above psychological
issues that are internally stored, silent, and
remain unresolved14.
Ultimately, one’s unresolved issues continue to
haunt them and get acted out, which results in
immature and half-baked spiritual practices.
In summary, in the context of this chapter, the
phrase spiritual bypassing will be used to
describe Muslims who turn only to their Islamic
beliefs and practices to overcome an addiction
problem. These persons do not address or
examine their internal psychological issues that
most likely contributed to their addiction related
problems in the first place.
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014 113
BEWARE OF SPIRITUAL BYPASSING
The next section will discuss in more detail how
spiritual bypassing may manifest.
2. Traits of Spiritual Bypass
on the Path of Addiction Recovery
Most Muslims are taught to believe that the
Qur’an and Sunnah (authentic prophetic
traditions) contain the tools and keys for how
they should govern their life and enhance their
overall character. Many accept that everything
that happens in one’s life is a direct result of
God’s will, especially crises, illnesses, and
losses. For instance, this verse from the Qur’an
informs Muslims, "Nothing will happen to us
except what Allah has decreed for us: He is our
protector’: and on Allah let the believers put
their trust”15.
Further, devout Muslims are instructed to trust
that calamities, problems, and illnesses are a
means to get closer to God. As a result, many
Muslims are preached at and told that he or she
should embrace their problems because one’s
issues are a means to “cleanse, purify, and
balance…on the physical, emotional, mental,
and spiritual planes”16. Thus, psychological or
mental health issues such as addiction are
considered a test from God17. For instance, if a
person has feelings of anxiety, depression, and
shame that resulted from some type of addiction,
then he or she is often taught to believe that this
problem should be used as an opportunity to
reevaluate his or her life and increase their
Islamic practices.
In addition, for many Muslims, a person’s family
or religious leader (known as an Imam) is often
seen as the resource to go to when a person
experiences a life problem, calamity, or issue.
One research study found that Muslim
participants were more likely to consult religious
leaders for help re their mental health issues and
that only 11% of participants reported that they
would seek treatment from a mental health
professional18. However, many religious leaders
find themselves being consulted about
psychological issues that they do not have
formal education or training in. As a result,
Muslims do not get the proper treatment and
guidance needed for healthy recovery or
114 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
development. Often religious leaders will
prescribe to someone with an addiction problem
the need to engage in more Islamic rituals and
practices. However, recent research suggests a
person’s religious beliefs and practices may
hinder sustainable recovery 19. Instead, religious
leaders could serve as mentors to refer addicts to
professional counselors or mental health
professionals that are better equipped to help the
individual.
Correspondingly, when an addict is in the
process of recovery and is engaged in spiritual
bypassing, it can manifest itself in different
ways. For instance, it may appear as an
obsession with a spiritual leader or religious
scholar, which most likely leads to the development of blind faith in spiritual gurus or mystics
and social seclusion20.
This unquestioning faith may lead one to renounce personal responsibility by passively relying
on religious leaders to resolve psycho-logical
problems, which can, over the long haul impede
functioning in the modern world. One may also
demonstrate a zealous preoccupation with
reciting the Qur’an, supplications, prophetic
sayings, or other Islamic literature that he or she
rarely did before. In essence, increasing one’s
religious activities is not wrong and is highly
encouraged for every Muslim to do. However,
the concern is when these Islamic practices are
done in isolation and not complemented with
psychotherapy or psychiatric help. It is now
believed that both spiritual and psychological
work are needed for addiction recovery.
In addition to spiritual engagement, Muslims
need to gain more knowledge about the
complimentary role that therapy can have in
helping them fully recover21.
More specifically, Cashwell, Myers, and
Shurts22 identified three different types of people
that use spiritual beliefs to prevent or avoid
facing their psychological issues. These are the
Good Servant, I Have a Gift, and Turn the Other
Cheek. As a Muslim, the Good Servant type may
be someone who tries to overcome an addiction
problem by spending a lot of time volunteering
at the mosque and participating in spiritual
events and activities. This person most likely
exhibits traits of compulsive goodness and is
BEWARE OF SPIRITUAL BYPASSING
someone who is extremely kind, helpful,
considerate of others, and goes out of his or her
way to do good. The second type, I Have a Gift,
is most likely a person that believes he or she
has been guided by God and is extra special.
This person will dismiss their addiction behavior
and pacify the addiction as something that was
temporary. As he or she turns to spiritual
practices, the persons will rationalize that their
addiction may be a way to bring them closer to
God. Thus, they are special and God is watching
over them.
The third type, Turn the Other Cheek, may
resemble a Muslim who has an addiction issue
because of historical pains and issues associated
with not being able to express him or herself.
This person internalizes his or her feelings and
negatively acts out feelings, by indulging in drug
or alcohol abuse. The person generally has an
addiction problem because the addiction to some
type of substance helped to numb the person’s
pain. For instance, if while growing up, a person
did not feel loved by his or her parents, this
person most likely would have avoided getting
close to people and did not feel comfortable
expressing his or her feelings. If one is unable to
express him or herself then the person feels
unimportant and not valued. When one is not
heard, one feels bad and has internal disarray.
Thus, instead of confronting his or her pain and
admitting the need to be valued and heard, the
person numbs these needs by turning to drugs or
alcohol as a temporary escape to feel good.
Thus, on the path to addiction recovery, this
person will rarely be able to express his or her
needs, how he or she feels, and will not confront
others when wronged. Instead, he or she may
follow Islamic beliefs and teachings, such as this
verse, “Those who spend (in Allah’s cause) in
prosperity and in adversity, who repress their
anger, and who pardon men, verily, Allah loves
the al-Muhsinun (the good-doers)23”
However, Muslims need to understand the depth
of what is meant by Islamic teachings that
emphasize forgiveness and pardoning others.
The ability to truly forgive someone requires the
removal of any ill feelings towards a person who
has wronged him or her. One should not hold
grudges or have any animosity towards another
person. One should also not talk negatively or
have negative thoughts about another person.
This requires one to have a purity of heart and is
often difficult for one to achieve without having
addressed past pains of not being heard, valued,
and respected.
Furthermore, it is important to note that it is not
always easy to detect spiritual bypassing because
it can take the guise of other positive traits, such
as being extremely polite and nice or being
overly charitable. At the same time, the person is
inconsistent with these extreme positive traits
and will at times demonstrate sudden moments
of frustration, anger, or irritability. These traits
only further validate the existence of repressed
and unresolved negative emotions. Thus, the
seemingly more devout Muslim is not congruent
and does not experience the continuous inner
peace of leading a more spiritual life. Instead,
the person on the path to recovery and engaged
in spiritual by passing may exhibit traits of being
judgmental of others, having a holier than thou
attitude, critical of those who do not practice,
morally harsh, and insensitive24. Also, a person
may become obsessed with increased religious
activities, which serve as a way for the addict to
feel in control or to contain negative emotions.
The addict in this case is simply replacing a
negative addiction under the guise of a more
positive addiction, a spiritual one. This faulty
replacement only helps the person further mask
his or her historical wounds and issues25. The
following section will elaborate on the concept
of holistic development for sustainable addiction
recovery.
3. Holistic Development
for Addiction Recovery
More and more psychological experts are
recognizing that spirituality is essential and can
tremendously help one overcome an addiction
problem26. For instance, Carl Jung27, a famed
psychologist, believed that spirituality might be
the best solution for a person with an addiction
problem and explained that addiction is most
likely a sign of a deep spiritual yearning that is
missing in one’s life. Thus, from a deep
psychological standpoint, a person’s search for
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014 115
BEWARE OF SPIRITUAL BYPASSING
spirituality is a sign of seeking completeness of
the soul. Many recovering individuals point to
their spiritual lives as being central to their
abstinence. Specialists on addiction recovery
describe successful programs, such as the 12step addiction recovery plan, as a spiritual
revival program that encourages the person to
return to their faith and find greater meaning in
their life28.
who
created
the
Robert
Assagioli29,
transpersonal model of psychosynthesis, also
agreed with Jung that people experience
conflicting impulses on an ongoing basis. They
often fluctuate between the desire for security,
and the “tendency towards growth, selfassertion, and adventure”30. In essence, new
drives are continuously being awakened that
challenge previous ones. Assagioli asserts that
during adolescence one is likely to awaken new
motivations. Then in middle age one is more
likely to awaken more spiritual or religious
aspirations. It is these aspirations that are at the
heart of spiritual bypass that an addict on the
path to recovery may focus on. A person’s
spiritual development is not an easy or short
process; it is a long and difficult journey that
requires continuous self-awareness, selfregulation, and self-development. If a person
neglects psychological growth and focuses only
on spiritual amplification, this only makes the
process more complicated.
While spiritual practices can help an individual
address cognitive and behavioral dissonance, the
person must have a secure psychological
structure that he or she is grounded in. Welwood
assessed that this grounding is:
Psychological and not spiritual work.
It means working with needs, scripts, hunger for
love, fear of love, fear of loss of love, fear of
receiving love, fear of giving love, and
establishing a sense of self-respect, which is not
overwhelmed or crushed by other
people’s
opinions31.
Moreover, John Engler coined the phrase “you
have to be somebody before you can be
nobody”32, which emphasizes the need to
strengthen the ego before transcending it. Many
addicts who are attracted to spiritual practices
misguidedly bypass confronting historical wou-
116 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
nds and assume that they need to forego any type
of self-grounding or psychological development
of a secure structure. However, spiritual bypass
is more of a false sense of transcendence that
bypasses psychological issues and often entails
avoiding or denying one’s shadowy side. Within
the Muslim community, there is a strong need to
raise awareness of the constructs of the self and
the importance of holistic development. When a
person increases spiritual practices without
examining psychological issues then he or she is
most likely creating psychic fragmentation, not
holistic development. In an attempt to explain
more vividly the constructs of the human psyche
and its complex part, Assagioli’s oval model or
“egg diagram33” (Figure I) is illustrated below:
Figure I. Assagioli’s Structure of the Psyche.
Soul
c. Higher
Unconscious
b. Middle
Unconscious
I
Field of
Consciousness
& Will
a. Lower
Unconscious
In Figure I: Assagioli’s Structure of the Psyche,
Assagioli suggested that the unconscious has
three main levels: (a) the lower unconscious,
which can be thought of as Jung’s personal
unconscious and Freud’s unconscious area of
drives and passions, as well as childhood
repressed experiences, anger, and traumas; (b)
the middle unconscious, similar to everyday
waking state of consciousness that contains
easily accessible memories and skills, labeled by
Freud as the preconscious; (c) the higher
unconscious, or super-conscious is the region
where more spiritual, mystical, or higher values
reside. For Muslims, the higher unconscious area
BEWARE OF SPIRITUAL BYPASSING
is the area that houses one’s Islamic beliefs and
values. This area also houses creativity,
intuition, and the drive for meaning, and
purpose. In the center of the middle layer,
signifying the middle unconscious is a circle that
represents one’s immediate conscious field of
awareness that the “I” operates in.
Although the model places the soul on the top of
the diagram, the soul is an aspect of the self that
is “center of the entire psyche. The soul can be
said to pervade all of the oval . . .”34. In this
model, the lines are dotted to signify that the
different layers are permeable and can influence
the “I”. However, this requires a more conscious
understanding of the constructs of the self and
the importance of integrating these parts for
healthier development. In the case of an addict
who has turned to Islamic practices for recovery,
he or she is most likely functioning using two of
the three areas, the upper unconscious and the
middle unconscious. Thus, the person is
engaging in spiritual bypassing because one is
most likely unaware of the lower unconscious
area. As mentioned previously, the lower
unconscious area is the area that stores one’s
historical issues and wounds that are often
repressed and the person is unaware of. In
viewing the diagram, one is able to see that in
dismissing or ignoring the lower unconscious
altogether the individual is not able to become
whole, which is needed for psychic unity.
Moreover, this thinking is in alignment with
Freud’s psychological discourse, which emphasized the impact of one’s unresolved conflicts
that are repressed in the unconscious and that
there are psychological hazards of not addressing these past issues35. These unsolved conflicts
cannot remain unknown and over time create
internal psychic dissonance, which might result
in serious pathological outcomes.
Freuddisclosed that the “patient does not
remember anything of what he has forgotten and
repressed, but acts it out. He reproduces it, not as
a memory but as an action”36. In essence, Freud
is telling us that people do not recall the
repressed material; he or she simply repeats it
unconsciously and acts its out in unhealthy
ways, such as in addiction related behavior.
The next section will elaborate in more detail on
using both spirituality and psychological
practices for more holistic development.
4. Using Both Spiritual Practices and Therapy
Unlike traditional cognitive and behavioral
methods, there is a greater need to look at a more
integrated use of treatment that takes into
account both spiritual and psychological
solutions37. Cognitive behavior therapy does not
necessarily help to diagnose or determine one’s
unconscious or conscious drivers38. As a result, a
person’s problems go undiagnosed and leave
wounds pending while allowing one to act in
ways that may appear to be satisfactory.
Essentially, the heart of spiritual bypassing is
predominantly unconscious, or as Assagioli
defined it, the lower unconscious, which
contains repressed material, developed from
early childhood experiences, and later covertly
affects one’s spiritual intentions and overall
development. For example, The Adverse
Childhood Experiences (ACE) study suggests
that early childhood trauma such as abuse or
continuous neglect by parents often results in
children engaging in addictive behavior during
adult life39. Researchers suggest that a child who
suffered abuse will most likely store the abusive
memories in the lower unconscious. As one
progresses through life, one never faces the pain
and hurt from the abuse. This pain in the lower
part of the unconscious lingers silently and stirs
internal disarray. To alleviate this disarray, one
turns to drugs or alcohol as an analgesic from
reliving, confronting, or acknowledging the pain.
In most situations, the person is often unaware of
the unconscious influence that is fueling his or
her addictive behavior.
In order to acquire self-awareness of lower
unconscious issues, one can begin by seeking
professional help to evaluate their destructive
behavior and learn about unconscious issues that
is hindering growth. Yet, within the Muslim
community this poses a challenge because there
tends to be a general taboo associated with
seeking therapy to examine or understand one’s
addiction behavior. This attitude is most likely a
result of the cultural shame and negative
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014 117
BEWARE OF SPIRITUAL BYPASSING
stereotypes associated with seeing a therapist or
getting any type of psychological help. In
addition, many Muslims simply do not know
what resources to turn to or how to go about
dealing with their addiction related issues. There
is a necessity for Muslims to make a more
conscious effort to understand and resolve their
psychological issues that trigger their addiction
behavior.
Applying religious values and principles, while
ignoring necessary psychological development
and work, will most likely continue to create
internal disarray and discord40. In addition,
ignoring psychological work will also result in
incomplete spiritual practices because one’s
psychological issues will most likely continue to
blindly impact one’s spiritual practices. For
example, there are many Muslims who
understand Islam properly and are extremely
devout. However, it is not uncommon to hear
that these very same people are guilty of
domestic violence, drug abuse, or other wrongful
acts that go against Islam. These individuals
most likely have undiagnosed or untreated
psychological issues that they are unaware of,
but yet they continue to act out in ways that
negate their Islamic beliefs.
Muslims too often approach an addiction
problem with a nonchalant response that it is a
sin and one needs to just obey Islamic teachings.
It is common to hear one say to a person with an
addiction problem to fear God (Allah) and the
problem will go away. Unfortunately, this
simplistic attitude is limiting and does not solve
the problem.
Telling one to just become more religious and
follow Islamic rules, allows a person to avoid
examining or taking responsibility for their
addiction issues. Research also demonstrates that
social support is instrumental in the addiction
recovery process. However, most Muslims are
not comfortable talking about their addiction
issues with close family or friends for fear of
being reprimanded, ridiculed, or shamed. In fact,
many Muslims are taught to not publicly discuss
or disclose their faults. For instance, the
following prophetic tradition tells Muslims to
not disclose your sins. Abdullah Ibn Masoud
(radiyallahu anhu) related, “A man came to the
118 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
Prophet and said: “O Messenger of Allah! I have
mingled with a woman in the far side of alMedina, and I fulfilled my desire short of
actually having sexual intercourse with her. So,
here am I, judge me according to what you
decide.” Umar Ibn al-Khattab (radiyallahu anhu)
then said: “Allah had kept your secret, why did
not you keep your secret?41.
As a result, most Muslims internalize or
suppress their issues and do not seek social
support or professional help for fear of being
humiliated or scorned. Unfortunately, a person
that attempts to overcome his or her addiction
problem by turning only to spiritual practices
will still experience challenges because hidden
emotions and issues that triggered the addiction
remain unaddressed.
On the surface it will appear to others that the
person is getting better, but in reality the
person’s psychological wounds that prompted
the addiction are never dealt with. For many
individuals who struggle with an addiction
problem, such as substance abuse, alcohol,
pornography, etc., the addictive behavior often
serves to suppress unwanted issues that the
person is often unaware of. Historically, therapy
did not integrate spirituality as part of the
healing process. However, the growing practice
of incorporating spirituality in therapy presents
both opportunities for better healing and
potential threats of helping clients bypass
psychological issues. Thus, as stated earlier,
spiritual bypass happens when a person turns to
his or her religious rituals and dismisses
examining the cause of one’s unhealthy behavior
or negative emotions. In the short-term, spiritual
bypass may be beneficial because it provides a
coping platform for a person to begin the
recovery process. However, in the long-term, a
person needs to become aware of and face his or
her psychological issues that most likely
influenced the addiction to begin with. To do
this requires that Muslims embrace professional
counseling and therapy as a formal science that
can help one understand his unconscious drives
and emotional issues. The following are some
recommendations for facilitating the integration
of spirituality and psychotherapy on the path to
addiction recovery.
BEWARE OF SPIRITUAL BYPASSING
1. Educate: spiritual leaders, educators, medical
professionals, counseling and mental health
experts need to make a more concentrated
effort to debunk negative stereotypes of
psychotherapy, counseling, and mental
health services. In addition, there is a need to
educate Muslims how psychotherapy
compliments spiritual practices, as well as
how seeking psychotherapy can help
expedite the recovery process long-term.
2. Motivate: Muslim community leaders and
professionals need to lead the way and set up
organizations or recommend therapists that
are skilled in helping Muslims get the
necessary psychological addiction support
and assistance needed. The combination of
psychology and Islam will allow one to
address the root causes of an addiction
problem and aid in more holistic
development. Failure to do so will often
result in a relapse and the person returning to
the addictive problem or picking up an
alternative way to act out unresolved
problems.
3. Engage: A skilled therapist can effectively
work with individuals who demonstrate
spiritual bypassing because they can “hold
and value both sides of the dilemma”42. The
therapist and client dyad can have a powerful
effect that facilitates a “flow of energy and
information”43 that expedites the healing
process, and ultimately transforms the client.
Conclusions:
There is a growing phenomenon of people
turning to spiritual practices and beliefs to
remedy addiction related issues; however, many
are most likely experiencing spiritual bypassing
by avoiding their pains. Islamic scriptures,
teachings, and practices serve to provide
Muslims with clear guidelines and rules to live a
successful and peaceful life. At the same time, to
resolve an addiction problem properly, one
needs to take a holistic development approach
that includes increasing both spiritual and
psychological activities. Failure to understand
one’s psychological issues to address an
addiction problem will result in immature and
half-baked
spiritual
practices
because
psychological issues that triggered the addiction
problem remain unaddressed.
The belief is not that one’s religion cannot help,
but rather the healthiest and most sustainable
form of addiction recovery includes using both
spiritual and psychological efforts. For instance,
the Quran and Sunnah (prophetic) are used to
provide one with principles and rules to live
one’s life by and professional counseling could
be used to help the person understand why he or
she may have difficulty applying these
principles. Also, a person needs some type of
support to openly discuss their desires, fears, and
emotions, which is often not readily available in
one’s local community. Thus, the main goal is to
educate Muslims that psychotherapy and
counseling can serve to enhance a person’s
spiritual beliefs, not take away or replace
religion. Furthermore, the therapist’s role is
instrumental in the healing process, especially
for Muslims who do not openly feel safe
discussing their problems with close family and
friends. Mental health professionals have the
ability to develop secure relationships with
clients that are essential in helping clients open
up and tackle difficult emotions repressed in
their unconscious mind. Clients advanced in
their spiritual practices will attempt to bypass
emotional discomforts and prefer to work at the
spiritual level. Historically, therapy did not
integrate spirituality as part of the healing
process. However, the growing practice of
incorporating spirituality in therapy presents
opportunities for better and more sustainable
healing.
References:
1.Basit, A., & Hamid, M. (2010). Mental health issues of
Muslim Americans. Journal of the Islamic Medical
Association, 42, 106-110.
2. The Glorious Qur’an, Al-Ma’ida, 5:90-91.
3. Whitfield, C. L. (1987). Healing the child within. Deerfield
Beach, FL: Health Communications.
4. Welwood, J. (2000). Towards a psychology of awakening:
Buddhism, psychotherapy, and the path of personal and
spiritual transformation. Boston, MA: Shambhala.
5.Koenig, H. G., McCullough, M. E., & Larson, D. B. (2000).
Handbook of religions and health.
New York, NY: Oxford University Press, p. 18.
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014 119
BEWARE OF SPIRITUAL BYPASSING
6.Morgan, O. J. (Ed.). (2007). Counseling and spirituality:
Views from the profession. Boston,
MA: Lahaska Press. p. 65
7.Whitfield, C. L. (1987). Healing the child within. Deerfield
Beach, FL: Health Communications.
8. Welwood, J. (2000). Towards a psychology of awakening:
Buddhism, psychotherapy, and the path of personal and
spiritual transformation. Boston, MA: Shambhala.
9.Cashwell, C. S., Clarke, P. B., & Graves, E. G. (2009). Step
by step: Avoiding spiritual bypass in 12-step work. Journal of
Addictions and Offender Counseling, 30, 37-48.
10.Masters, R. A. (2010). Spiritual bypassing: When
spirituality disconnects us from what really matters. Berkeley,
CA: North Atlantic Books.
11.Masters, R. A. (2010). Spiritual bypassing: When
spirituality disconnects us from what really matters. Berkeley,
CA: North Atlantic Books. p. 2.
12.Cashwell, C. S., & Young, J. S. (2005). (Eds.). Integrating
spirituality and religion into counseling: A guide to
competent practice. Alexandria, VA: American Counseling
Association.
13. Trungpa, C. (1987). Cutting through spiritual materialism.
Boston, MA: Shambhala.
14.Cortright, B. (1997). Psychotherapy and spirit: Theory and
practice in transpersonal
psychotherapy. Albany, NY: State University of New York
Press.
15.The Glorious Qur’an,Al-Tauba 9:51.
16.Rassool, G. H. (2000). The crescent and Islam: Healing,
nursing, and the spiritual dimension: Some considerations
towards an understanding of the Islamic perspectives on
caring. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 32, 1476-1484.
17.Abu-Ras, W., Gheith, A., & Cournos, F. (2008). The
imam’s role in mental health pro-motion: A study at 22
mosques in New York City’s Muslim Community. Journal of
Muslim Mental Health, 3, 155-176.
18.Aloud, N., & Rathur, A. (2009). Factors affecting attitudes
towards seeking and using formal mental health and
psychological services among Arab Muslim populations.
Journal of Muslim Mental Health, 4, 79-103.
19. Cashwell, C. S., Bentley, D. P., & Yarborough, P. (2007).
The only way out is through: The
peril of spiritual bypass. Counseling and Values, 51, 139-148.
20. Whitfield, C. L. (1987). Healing the child within.
Deerfield Beach, FL: Health Communications.
21. Shrikhande, A., Dermatis, H., & Galanter, M. (2008). The
need for understanding the role of spirituality in twelve-step
programs. Substance Abuse, 29, 1-3.
22. Cashwell, C. S., Myers, J. E., & Shurts, M. (2004). Using
the Developmental Counseling and
Therapy model to work with a client in spiritual bypass:
Some preliminary considerations.
Journal of Counseling and Development, 82, 403-409.
23. The Glorious Qur’an 3:134.
24. Whitfield, B. H. (1995). Spiritual awakening: Insights of
the near death experience. Deerfield Beach, FL: Health
Communications.
25. Cashwell, C. S., Glosoff, H. L., & Hammond, C. (2010).
Spiritual bypass: A preliminary
investigation. Counseling and Values, 54(2), 162-174.
26. Hopson, R. E. (1996). The 12-step program. In E. P.
Shafranske (Ed.), Religion and the clinical practice of
120 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
psychology (pp. 533-558). Washington, DC: American
Psychological Association.
27. Jung, C. G. (1959). Conscious, unconscious, and
individuation. The archetypes and the
collective unconscious (R. F. C. Hull, Trans.). New York,
NY: Bollingen/Pantheon. (Original
work published 1939).
28.Galanter, M., Dermatis, H., Bunt, G., Williams, C.,
Trujillo, M., & Steinke, P. (2007). Assessment of spirituality
and its relevance to addiction treatment. Journal of Substance
Abuse Treatment, 33, 257-264.
29. Assagioli, R. (2000). Psychosynthesis. New York, NY:
Viking Press.
30. Assagioli, R. (2000). Psychosynthesis. New York, NY:
Viking Press. p. 33.
31. Welwood, J. (1984). Principles of inner work:
Psychological and spiritual. Journal of
Transpersonal Psychology, 16, p. 64.
32. Engler, J. (1984). Therapeutic aims in psychotherapy and
meditation: Developmental stages in the representation of
self. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 16(1), p. 34.
33. Assagioli, R. (2000). Psychosynthesis. New York, NY:
Viking Press. p. 14.
34. Frager, R. (1999). Heart, self, and soul: The Sufi
psychology of growth, balance, and harmony.Wheaton, IL:
Quest. p. 65.
35.Jung, C. G. (1938). Psychology & religion. New Haven,
CT: Yale University Press.
36. Freud, S. (1958). Remembering, repeating, and workingthrough. In J. Strachey (Ed. &
Trans.), The standard edition of the complete psychological
works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 12,
pp. 147-156). London, UK: Hogarth Press. (Original work
published 1914)
37. Siegel, D. J. (1999). The developing mind. New York,
NY: Guilford Press.
38. Schore, A. N. (2003). Affect regulation and the repair of
the self. New York, NY: Norton.
39. Felitti, V. J., & Anda, R. F. (1997) .The adverse
childhood experiences (ACE) study. Centers for Disease
Control
and
Prevention.
Retrieved
from
http://www.cdc.gov/ace/index.htm
40. Schore, A. N. (1994). Affect regulation and the origin of
the self. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
41. Sahih Muslim. Kitab al-tawba. Bab qawlihi ta`ala inna alhasanati yudhhibna al-sayyi’at. Hadith No. 2763 in
http://www.muhaddith.org/cgi-bin/a_optns.exe.
42. Cortright, B. (1997). Psychotherapy and spirit: Theory
and practice in transpersonal
psychotherapy. Albany, NY: State University of New York
Press. p. 213.
43. Siegel, D. J. (2010). The mindful therapist. New York,
NY: Norton. p. 262.
HARM REDUCTION STRATEGY IN THE TREATMENT OF ADDICTION
IN THE CONTEXT OF ISLAMIC JURISPRUDENCE
Dr Imthiaz Hoosen* and Prof. Yasien Mohamed**
Abstract:
The recreational use of intoxicants in contemporary society is common and widespread and its
use is associated with a multitude of harms to the individual and to the wider society. Substance
abuse is a public health issue. Some countries treated addicts punitively and advocated an
abstinence only approach. This approach is associated with greater harms particularly amongst
injection drug users (IDUs). Harm Reduction is an alternative approach that allows addicts to
continue using intoxicants, but in a less risky manner. This approach is associated with less
harm. Despite its efficacy, there has been opposition to its implementation, particularly in
Muslim Countries. To enlighten the Muslim doctor and patient, we discuss the philosophy and
higher objectives of the Islamic law and explore how the principles of Islamic law can be applied
to the Harm Reduction approach in our contemporary setting. The understanding of maqasid-alShari’ah (The Objectives of Islamic Jurisprudence) and proper application of its principles
provides an ethical framework through which we can apply the Harm Reduction approach in the
treatment of addiction in the Islamic context.
Keywords: Substance abuse, addiction, Islamic jurisprudence, Harm Reduction strategy,
addiction treatment.
Introduction:
Substance abuse is a complex, multi-faceted
phenomenon. The use of intoxicants is clearly
prohibited in Islam, but in our time the use of
intoxicants is wide spread and Muslims
whether living in Muslim-majority or Western
countries are not immune to the harms of
substance abuse and drug dependency.
The traditional focus of many countries' drug
policies and substance abuse services is to
achieve abstinence. Addicts are encouraged to
attend drug rehabilitation centers, enroll in
substance abuse programs, attend support
groups such as AA (alcoholics anonymous) or
NA (narcotics anonymous) or rely on support
of family or friends. It is expected that these
individuals would maintain their sobriety.
This traditional approach, while being of
benefit to some, has not been universally
successful. There are some individuals who do
not wish to give up their substance abuse, but
may benefit from using substances in a less
risky manner. There are others who have
repeatedly failed to address their substance
abuse using the traditional approach. There are
also those whose substance abuse may be so
entrenched in their daily lives that abstinence
may not be a realistic goal. For these
individuals a different strategy is needed to
manage their substance abuse. Harm
Reduction is one such strategy.
*Dr. Imtiaz Hoosen
Consultant Psychiatrist
Lentegeur Psychiatric Hospital
Lecturer, Department of Psychiatry
University of Cape Town - South Africa
E-mail: [email protected]
** Professor Yasien Mohamed
Professor of Arabic Language
And Islamic Philosophy
University of the Western Cape - South Africa
E-mail: [email protected]
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014 121
HARM REDUCTION
This article is not a comprehensive review of
the Harm Reduction Strategy, rather it aims to
raise the issue of Harm Reduction as a public
health intervention within the contemporary
Islamic context. We will first briefly discuss
the concept and impact of the Harm Reduction
strategy and reflect on the changing attitudes
and policies of drug treatment in some Muslim
countries. Next we will explore the Fiqh
(Islamic jurisprudence) principles that can be
applied to this approach.
Harm Reduction strategy:
There is no universal definition of Harm
Reduction strategy nor is there a specific
methodology for Harm Reduction. Rather,
Harm Reduction is a pragmatic approach
which encompasses interventions, programs
and policies that seek to reduce the health,
social and economic harms of drug use to
individuals, communities and societies.
Substance Abuse is an issue that we cannot
ignore, nor should we simply condemn
individuals who engage in this behavior. The
Harm Reduction approach accepts that
substance abuse, whether legal or illicit, is a
part of contemporary society. This does not
imply that Harm Reduction attempts to
minimize or ignores the real dangers
associated with licit and illicit drug use.
Rather, it affirms that drug users themselves
are the primary agents for change. It is an
approach that seeks to empower users to share
information and to support each other in
engaging in strategies to reduce the harms of
their substance abuse.
Harm Reduction is thus a way of working
towards minimizing the harmful effects of
drugs and improving the quality of lives of
substance abusers, while acknowledging that
cessation of all substance abuse is not
necessarily the criterion of success.
There is a wide range of harms that are
associated with licit and illicit substances use
including legal problems, crime, social
deprivation, family conflict, abuse and neglect,
job loss and poor physical and mental health.
In addition, there are particular harms
associated with injecting drugs. These include
122 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
the spread of blood-borne viruses, such as
HIV, hepatitis B, hepatitis C, septicemia,
wound and other infections, drug overdose and
unintentional injury, which may lead to
premature drug-related deaths.
Harm Reduction strategies to reduce the risks
associated with injection drug users may
include measures such as:
 Reducing the sharing of injecting
equipment by providing clean, sterile
injecting equipment through needle and
syringe programs (NSPs)
 Giving advice about safe injecting
methods
 Providing drug consumption rooms
(DCRs),
 Providing support for stopping injecting
behavior
 Distributing free condoms to reduce the
risk of sexually transmitted diseases
 Providing substitution opioid drugs, such
as methadone and buprenorphine for
heroin users.
 Providing counseling services, peer
education and outreach
 promoting public policies conducive to
protecting the health of populations at
risk1.
Harm Reduction and Public Health:
"Harm Reduction is an exemplar of a
mainstream public health intervention"2.
Public health is concerned about protecting the
individuals' and populations' health through
surveillance, identification and management of
risks to health3,4.
Contemporary public health views risk and
health decision-making as a responsibility of
health conscious individuals whilst also
emphasizing the significance of the social
environment in producing harm and in shaping
the capacity of individuals and communities to
avoid risk2,4,5. Mainstream public health
approaches thus recognizes the need to create
‘enabling environments’ to reduce risk and to
change behavior, by strengthening community
actions and creating public policies which
support and promote health6. Europe is one of
the regions that is most supportive of Harm
HARM REDUCTION
Reduction policies and practices. Harm
Reduction is a mainstream drug policy and the
reduction of drug harms is a feature of the
public health objectives of all the European
Union Member States2.
In 2003, the European Council adopted a
recommendation to prevent and reduce healthrelated
harms
associated
with
drug
dependence and it provided a framework for
action to assist member states to develop
strategies to reduce and prevent drug-related
harms through the implementation of Harm
Reduction services for problem drug users.
The recommendation also sought to reduce the
number of drug-related deaths and extent of
health damage, including that related to HIV,
hepatitis B (HBV), hepatitis C (HCV) and
tuberculosis (TB) 7.
Harm Reduction strategies such as needle and
syringe distribution and collection programs
(NSPs) and substitution therapy are associated
with reductions in HIV incidence and drugrelated morbidity. In several settings Harm
Reduction programs have been combined with
voluntary counseling, testing services and
antiretroviral therapy, thus improving access
to medical care for injection drug users (IDUs)
and resulting in reduction in risky behaviors
2,8- 13
.
Minimizing the risk of drug-related harms is
thus a key public health issue, both in
protecting the health of drug users and in
protecting the wider community.
Lessons from Spain:
In the early 1990's Spain had the largest
number of AIDS (Acquired Immune
Deficiency Syndrome) cases related to the
injection of illicit drugs in Europe14. There
were strict laws which limited access to opioid
agonist maintenance treatments (OAMT), such
as methadone maintenance treatment (MMT),
in Spain during the 1980s.
Treatment programs at that time followed a
drug-free approach that promoted abstinence.
Residential facilities were managed by people
who were not health professionals, and
retention rates in treatment were low15,16.
Consequently the mortality among illicit
opioid users and other illicit drug users was
high17.
The spread of HIV infection promoted a
change in legislation in Spain with new laws
introduced in the 1990's changing the drugfree approach of treatment to one focused on
Harm Reduction17. This facilitated an
expansion of opioid agonist maintenance
treatment (OAMT) in all regions of Spain.
Methadone was available in the public health
system free of charge, and was also available
in private practice17.
After the change in legislation it was reported
that there was a large increase in the number
of patients receiving metha-done maintenance
treatment (MMT), there was a 125% increase
in methadone centers, and a significant
increase in the availability of MMT in
prisons17. Syringe provision started in 1989,
but it increased consider-ably during 1995–
1999. By 2012 Spain had seven supervised
injection centers. Retroviral treatment was
widely available free of charge for all HIVpositive in Spain since 1996 and its use was
associated with a reduction in progression to
AIDS and a reduction in AIDS-related
mortality17,18.
Since 1999, Spain has been one of the
countries with the highest levels of OAMT
coverage in the world19. By 2010 OAMT
coverage had reached 60%20.
The change to a Harm Reduction approach in
Spain and the expansion of the OAMT
coverage was associated with an increase in
retention in treatment programs and a parallel
reduction in morbidity and mortality. The
death rate per 1000 person years reduced from
59 in 1992 to 16 in 199917,18. In addition, there
was a steady decline in the number of new
HIV cases related to illicit drug injection and
an improvement in health-related quality of
life for individuals dependent on illicit
heroin17.
Harm Reduction in Muslim Countries:
In their paper, "Emerging HIV Epidemics in
Muslim Countries", Todd et al, discussed the
emerging HIV epidemic, the cultural responses and the changing government policies to
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014 123
HARM REDUCTION
Harm Reduction strategies in three Muslim
countries, namely Iran, Malaysia and
Afghanistan8.
It was reported that Iran had a punitive
approach towards drug use which started in
the Khomeini regime and continued until the
mid-1990s. The response to drug use and drug
trafficking was prison time and corporal
punishment in all cases.
This was accompanied by an increase in the
overall use of drugs and a shift from opium to
heroin use and from smoking to injecting
drugs.
Furthermore, the incarceration of large
numbers of drug users, resulted in prison
crowding, and created an ideal environment
for injecting and sharing of needles, which
facilitated widespread HIV transmission. The
compulsory abstinence-based programs in the
rehabilitation camps were associated with high
relapse rates and risky behavior. By 2001, it
was estimated that there were between
200,000 and 300,000 IDUs in Iran, and the
estimated prevalence of HIV among the
incarcerated population was 7% to 20%,
between 1999 and 20028,21-24.
Political and religious leaders in Iran
recognized that incarceration and abstinence
only treatment models were not successful in
addressing the continued increase in the
number of drug users and the rise in the rates
of HIV among injection drug users. This led to
a review of government policy and subsequently various Harm Reduction strategies were
introduced,
including
drop-in
centers,
triangular clinics, substitution therapy and
outreach based needle and syringe distribution
and collection programs8,22,25.
Malaysia previously had a similar punitive
approach to drug use as Iran, with drug
traffickers receiving mandatory capital
punishment, imposed rehabilitation, imprisonment and corporal punishment for convicted
drug users. This led to wide-spread stigma and
avoidance of services by drug users due to fear
of legal repercussions. Religious and political
leaders also initially opposed Harm Reduction
strate-gies8,25,26.
Malaysia's zero tolerance approach to drug use
failed to curb the problem, and there was a
124 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
rapid increase in IDUs through the 1990's with
the associated risky behaviors such as sharing
needles, resulting in an HIV epidemic among
IDUs.
It was estimated that by the early 2000s 75%
of all HIV cases were detected among IDUs26.
The accelerated HIV epidemic and evide-nce
of successful Harm Reduction models in other
countries led to the Malaysia's Ministry of
Health investing in Harm Reduction programs
such as condom and needle distribution and
methadone main-tenance8,26,27. In their paper
Todd, et al stated that "Afghanistan is at risk
for a concentrated HIV epidemic due to
multiple factors, including high rates of risky
behaviors, low HIV knowledge, abject poverty
and unemployment, large influxes of former
refugees and displaced people into urban areas
with infrastructure unable to support the
population, and psychological changes related
to conflict and displacement resulting in
greater propensity to engage in drug use"8.
The National Drug Control Strategy for
Afghanistan, approved by President Karzai in
2003, endorsed Harm Reduction intervenetions, including needle and syringe
exchange and distribution as a means to
prevent transmission of blood-borne infections among IDUs8,28.
The challenge of Harm Reduction
Strategies in Islamic countries:
The challenge of Harm Reduction in Muslim
countries is that the use of intoxicants and
extramarital relations are clearly forbidden in
Islam and this has been used as a justification
by some, not to distribute sterile needles and
condoms, as it implies an approval for this
illicit behavior. Others believe that infected
IDUs should be punished and isolated from
society and that no investment should be made
towards such individuals29.
In Malaysia there was opposition to Harm
Reduction programs from religious leaders
and the Islamic community. The Prime
Minister of Malaysia, however, supported
Harm Reduction as did the Institute for
Islamic Understanding of Malaysia, which
declared that Harm Reduction was a public
HARM REDUCTION
health issue which did not violate shari’ah
law8,30.
Similarly, in Afghanistan, religious leaders
who are a powerful advocacy group, believe
that abuse of drugs is completely forbidden,
and that substitution therapy or use of opioids
in the treatment of addiction is not acceptable,
as Islam requires total sobriety8,31.
Police harassment, community disapproval,
lack of community support, limited Harm
Reduction activities and delays in governments' recognition and response to intravenous
drug use have been associated with continued
risky injecting behavior and increasing HIV
rates8,11,25,32,33.
Islamic Jurisprudence
And Harm Reduction:
The abstinence only approach to drug
addiction has been unsuccessful in stemming
the spread of HIV among injecting drug users
(IDUs) and the punitive approach to drug
addiction in Muslim countries was counterproductive. On the other hand, Harm
Reduction programs have been found to be
efficacious as a public health intervention, in
both Western and Muslim countries. However,
social, cultural and religious beliefs have
adversely affected the implementation of these
programs in certain regions.
Harm Reduction strategies include providing
the addict with substitute opioid drugs, clean
needles and syringes, drug consumption rooms
and condoms. Islam however, prohibits the use
of intoxicants and premarital and extramarital
sex. This has been used as a justification
against the implementation of Harm Reduction
strategies by some, because they view this as
approving and facilitating practices which are
prohibited in Islam. Thus, in certain countries
and among certain communities a conflict
exists between the need to implement and
support Harm Reduction strategies and the
social, religious and cultural inhibitions to its
implementation.
This also presents the Muslim health
practitioner, practicing in these regions, with a
dilemma. The Muslim health practitioner
needs to respond to the growing problem of
drug addiction and its related harms, but the
Islamic prohibitions and the negative beliefs of
religious leaders in particular regions make it
difficult to do so.
In the following section we would like to
present our understanding of the concept of
Harm Reduction in light of the Islamic
jurisprudence. It is not our purpose to delve
into the minutiae of Islamic law, nor is it our
intention to formulate a formal fatwah (Islamic
legal opinion) which for an Islamic Jurist may
be a relatively straightforward matter.
Rather, our aim is to discuss the broad Islamic
jurisprudence principles and textual evidences
(Quran and Hadith) that could be applied to
this issue for the purpose of enlightening the
Muslim health practitioner who may be
delivering such services, and for the Muslim
patient who may be a recipient of Harm
Reduction interventions.
Thus, when examining this issue, the Islamic
legal framework is our main theoretical point
of departure for the justification of using Harm
Reduction strategies as a public health
intervention.
We shall therefore start by explaining what we
mean by Maqasid al-Shariah (Objectives of
the Islamic jurisprudence) and how scholars
use it as the basis of rulings. This method is
known as the Maqasid school of thought.
The Maqasid School of Thought:
Sheikh Yusuf al-Qaradawi, and Muslim
scholars like Tariq Ramadan and Hashim
Kamali are among the contemporary scholars
that call for the revival of Ijtihad within the
framework of Maqasid al-Shari’ah. Ijtihad
refers to the use of reason in the application of
Islamic law in a contemporary social context.
These scholars hold the view that it is not
sufficient for verdicts to be passed purely on
the basis of classical legal texts, or apply qiyas
(analogical reasoning) only on the basis of the
Quran and Hadith. Instead, they postulate that
one has to also take into account the
Objectives of the Islamic Law. This approach
is not inconsistent with the approach of the
Four Imams; albeit that they applied it in an
intuitive way. Imam al-Ghazali (d. 1111) was
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014 125
HARM REDUCTION
the first to explicitly identify the Objectives of
the Law, and to place them into five
categories34.
Maslahah (public welfare) refers to anything
that is either useful (manfa’ah) or warding off
something harmful (madarrah), and this can
be achieved by preserving the Objectives of
the Law, which consists of the following five
principles (usul) in order of rank.
1. Preserving religion (din).
2. Preserving life (nafs).
3. Preserving intellect or reason (‘aql).
4. Preserving progeny (nasl).
5. Preserving property or wealth (mal).
What ensures the preservation of these five
principles (usul) is maslahah; what goes
against their preservation is mafsadah34,35.
Al-Ghazali went beyond the reading of rulings
of the classical scholars, and expected that the
jurists, in providing new rulings to new
situations, should constantly keep in mind the
higher Objectives of the Law. Al-Ghazali’s
main question is: “how one can remain faithful
to the objectives of scriptural sources when
implementing legal rulings (al-fiqh) in the
field of social affairs and interpersonal
relations (al-mu’amalat)” 35. This fresh
approach enabled the legal scholars to not only
be faithful to the texts, but also to be confident
and flexible with the new social contexts in
which they found themselves.
The main philosophical point of departure for
the maqasid school of thought is that all
commands and prohibitions contained in the
revealed text and in the sunnah are intended to
promote the good and to benefit the human
beings, and to protect them from evil, harm
and suffering. The objectives of the Law
should be harmonized with their contexts,
thus, texts should be examined in the light of
public interest. Al-Shatibi introduced a sixth
objective, dignity/honour (al-‘ird). Al-Shatibi
adopted a strict conservative approach with
respect to belief and worship, but adopted a
flexible approach when it came to human
relations (mu’amalat). He pointed out that
although an action may be permissible,
recommended, objectionable or even unlawful
in itself, its status can change according to the
126 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
context in which it is considered and
evaluated. This point can be applied to eating
pork, which is normally prohibited, but in the
absence of other food, it is permitted for the
sake of preserving one’s life35.
It is in this context that we wish to pose the
following question: Is it permissible to provide
addicts with substitute drugs which are
potentially addictive and intoxicating?. Is it
permissible to teach addicts safer ways to
administer drugs, to provide them with clean
syringes and needles, and to provide condoms
to unmarried drug users? These are practices
which are not normally permitted in Islam, but
they are used in Harm Reduction strategies to
minimize the risks that addicts pose to
themselves and to the wider society.
The Objectives of the Law (Maqasid alShari’ah) are meant to promote good and to
prevent harm. These are universal principles to
be shared by all, and so should be considered
when implementing the rulings derived from
texts. This school of Maqasid provides an
ethical framework through which we can
approach the question of Harm Reduction. We
should therefore distinguish what is beneficial
from what is harmful; and if what is beneficial
requires that we need to use substances that
are unlawful (haram), or to promote practices
that are not usually condoned in Islam, such as
providing unmarried drug users with condoms,
then we should be absolutely clear that in
approving the use of the unlawful substances
and practices, it will be beneficial to the
society as a whole. If it benefits the society in
general, and it prevents harm to the general
public then we have a clear case of supporting
such interventions.
The modern approach to Harm Reduction is
concerned with the alleviation of suffering of
the patient, and in this respect it is in
consonance with the Objective of the Law, but
Muslim health practitioners have to also know
whether what they are doing will earn the
pleasure of Allah (‫ )ﷻ‬or not. It is within this
spirit that we want to provide an Islamic
perspective to the issue of Harm Reduction.
The Islamic approach is not purely utilitarian,
but seeks to find biomedical solutions to
problems that are logically consistent with the
HARM REDUCTION
Objectives of the law and the Islamic
metaphysical framework.
Maslahah (public welfare):
As mentioned, maslahah is achieved when any
of the five Objectives of the Law are fulfilled,
and in the interest of maslahah one ruling may
be harmful in one instance and beneficial in
another. Kamali states: “The masalih (plural
of maslahah), can neither be enumerated nor
predicted in advance as they change according
to time and circumstances. Thus a law may be
beneficial at one time and harmful at another;
and even at one and the same time, it may be
beneficial under certain conditions, but prove
to be harmful in other circumstances”36.
Scholars have quoted the following Qur’anic
verses in support of maslahah:
ِ 
ِ َ َ‫" َوَﻣﺎ أ َْر َﺳﻠْﻨ‬
"‫ﻴﻦ‬
َ ‫ َر ْﺣ َﻤﺔً ﻟﻠ َْﻌﺎﻟَﻤ‬‫ﺎك إﻻ‬
"And we have not sent you (O Muhammad)
except as a mercy to the worlds"37.
‫ﺼ ـ ُﺪوِر‬
 ‫ َﻤــﺎ ﻓِــﻲ اﻟ‬‫ ُﻜـ ْـﻢ َو ِﺷ ـ َﻔﺎء ﻟ‬‫رﺑ‬ ‫ﻣــﻦ‬ ٌ‫ﻣ ْﻮ ِﻋﻈَـﺔ‬ ‫ـﺎءﺗْ ُﻜﻢ‬
َ ‫ـﺎس ﻗَـ ْﺪ َﺟـ‬
ُ ‫ـ‬‫ـ َﻬــﺎ اﻟﻨ‬‫"ﻳَــﺎ أَﻳ‬
ِ
ِ
"‫ْﻤ ْﺆﻣﻨﻴﻦ‬
ُ ‫ﻠ‬‫َو ُﻫ ًﺪى َوَر ْﺣ َﻤﺔٌ ﻟ‬
"O mankind, there has to come to you
instruction from your Lord and healing for
what is in the breasts and guidance and mercy
for the believers"38.
ِ
ِ
"... ‫ﺴ َﺮ‬
ْ ُ‫ﺴ َﺮ َوﻻَ ﻳُ ِﺮﻳ ُﺪ ﺑ ُﻜ ُﻢ اﻟْﻌ‬
ْ ُ‫ﻪُ ﺑ ُﻜ ُﻢ اﻟْﻴ‬‫ ﻳُ ِﺮﻳ ُﺪ اﻟﻠ‬..."
"Allah intends for you ease and does not
intend for you hardship"39.
Thus, one should not stand in the way of
assisting humanity towards lifting them out of
suffering, nor of obstructing their healing.
Qualities of mercy and compassion are divine
qualities that we are encouraged to emulate in
order to attain nearness to Allah (‫)ﷻ‬.
Scholars have also quoted the following
Ahadith or prophetic sayings in support of
maslahah36.
"No harm shall be inflicted or reciprocated in
Islam"40.
"He (the Prophet (‫ )ﷺ‬only chose the easier
of two alternatives, so long as it did not
amount to a sin" 41.
"Muslims are bound by their stipulations
unless it be a condition which turns a halal
into haram or a haram into a halaal"42.
These ahadith provide justification for jurists
to consider what is beneficial, provided that it
does not conflict with the Qur’an and Hadith.
This permits Muslim jurists to take advantage
of the concessions in the law based on the
following hadith:
"God loves to see His concessions are
observed, just as He loves to see His strict
laws are obeyed" 36,43.
The Hadith quoted above, pertaining to the
easier of the two alternatives, is significant as
the immediate and total abstention of
intoxicants for a number of individuals is far
more difficult than a gradual reduction.
As pointed out earlier, some Muslim countries
had a punitive approach to drug addiction and
they adopted an abstinence only approach, but
this was not effective, particularly in curbing
the harms associated with injection of drugs,
rather it exacerbated the problem. They later
introduced Harm Reduction strategies, such as
providing addicts with substitute drugs and
clean syringes and needles which proved to be
more effective. Here the Fiqh principle of the
lesser of the two evils (akhaf al-dararayn)
would apply, that is, it is permissible to
provide the unlawful substance to the addict in
order to reduce the harms and risks that the
addict poses to him/herself and to the wider
society. Another fiqh principle that can be
applied is "necessity makes what is forbidden
permissible"35. With the Harm Reduction
approach, addicts may not achieve total
abstinence, and they may still indulge in drug
use, but they do so in a less risky manner, thus
minimizing the harms to themselves and
others.
Furthermore, by utilizing the Harm Reduction
approach, there is a greater likelihood that the
addict will be retained in treatment; be more
willing to engage with health professionals
and may be more receptive to Islamic
psychological therapy which may motivate
them towards total abstinence. Islamic
psychotherapy requires separate discussion,
but suffice it to say that ideally it should go
hand in hand with medication.
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014 127
HARM REDUCTION
As mentioned above, Maslahah pertains to the
welfare of the society as a whole, and the
Harm Reduction approach fulfils this
objective. The research evidence has proven
that it reduces the risks and harms to the
individuals, and consequently to the society.
The risky behavior of the drug addict, if not
curbed, can adversely affect the society
through crime, loss of employment, increased
healthcare costs, breakdown of family
relations, and the spread of diseases. When
viewed from this perspective, Harm Reduction
is a better alternative to total and immediate
abstention. Needless to say, we cannot rule out
total abstinence as an option. If it works for an
individual, it should be applied.
Shifting the focus to the Objectives of the Law
allows us to view the matter in a broader
ethical perspective.
This would facilitate a more constructive and
harmonious understanding between the
Muslim jurists and medical-scientific community and it would allow Muslim jurists to pass
rulings that are more flexible and realistic to
our contemporary context.
All legal rulings that are clear and decisive in
the Qur’an, are applicable for all times.36 The
prohibition of alcohol falls under this
category, but when it comes to preservation of
life, when there is no alternative, concessions
have to be made, as in the case of consuming
pork when no other food is available.
With respect to alcohol, even if permissible
drinks are available, some jurists have made
concessions where alcohol is used for
medicinal purposes. Drug-abuse, like wine,
leads to intoxication, so it is clearly prohibited
in Islam. This is applicable to the individual,
but when the use of these substances has
implications for cure, and for the potential
preservation of human life, or for benefit to
the society as a whole, then that may be a
different matter.
Substance abuse, can adversely affect the
objectives of Islamic Jurisprudence, which are
there to protect the individual’s life, religion,
progeny, wealth, intellect, and even dignity.
Addicts are likely to neglect their religious
practices, place their lives and those of others
at risk, compromise their intellect, destroy
128 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
their families, and lose their wealth, property
and dignity. If Harm Reduction strategies can
prevent such harms to the individual and to the
society then they can be made permissible on
the grounds that they are fulfilling the
Objectives of Islamic Jurisprudence.
A Graduated Approach:
During the early period of Islam, there was a
graduated approach to reducing the use of
alcohol amongst the population, rather than an
immediate and absolute prohibition. This is
evidenced by the extended period over which
the verses which dealt with alcohol
(intoxications) were revealed and the content
of the verses.
The first verse coveys the message that there is
more harm than good in alcohol:
ِ
ِ ‫ ـ‬‫ـﻞ ﻓِﻴ ِﻬ َﻤ ــﺎ إِﺛْـ ٌـﻢ َﻛﺒِﻴ ـ ٌـﺮ َوَﻣﻨَ ــﺎﻓِ ُﻊ ﻟِﻠﻨ‬
‫ـﺎس‬
َ ْ‫ﻚ َﻋـ ـ ِﻦ اﻟ‬
َ َ‫ﺴـ ـﺄَﻟُﻮﻧ‬
ْ َ‫"ﻳ‬
ْ ‫ﺨ ْﻤـ ـ ِﺮ َواﻟ َْﻤ ْﻴﺴـ ـ ِﺮ ﻗُـ‬
ِ
"... ‫ـ ْﻔ ِﻌ ِﻬ َﻤﺎ‬‫َوإِﺛْ ُﻤ ُﻬ َﻤﺎ أَ ْﻛﺒَـ ُﺮ ﻣﻦ ﻧ‬
"They ask you about wine and gambling. Say,
in them is great sin and [yet, some] benefit for
people. But their sin is greater than their
benefit"44.
The next verse regarding alcohol warned the
believers not to attend prayers while
intoxicated.
ِ
‫ـﻰ ﺗَـ ْﻌﻠَ ُﻤــﻮاْ َﻣــﺎ‬
 ‫آﻣﻨُــﻮاْ ﻻَ ﺗَـ ْﻘ َﺮﺑُــﻮاْ اﻟ‬
َ ‫ﻳﻦ‬
َ ‫ﺼــﻼ َة َوأَﻧــﺘُ ْﻢ ُﺳ ـ َﻜ‬
َ ‫ـ َﻬــﺎ اﻟــﺬ‬‫"ﻳَــﺎ أَﻳ‬
َ ‫ـ‬‫ﺎرى َﺣﺘ‬
"...‫ﺗَـ ُﻘﻮﻟُﻮ َن‬
"O you who have believed, do not approach
prayer while you are intoxicated so that you
know what you are saying45.
The believers would thus have had to reduce
the frequency and quantity of their alcohol
consumption if they wanted to attend prayers
without being intoxicated.
Finally, only during the Medina period was the
conclusive command prohibiting alcohol
revealed:
ِ
ِ
‫ﻣ ْـﻦ‬ ‫ـﺲ‬
َ ْ‫ َﻤﺎ اﻟ‬‫آﻣﻨُﻮاْ إِﻧ‬
ُ ‫ـﺎب َواﻷَ ْز‬
ُ ‫َﻧﺼ‬
َ ‫ﺨ ْﻤ ُﺮ َواﻟ َْﻤ ْﻴﺴ ُـﺮ َواﻷ‬
َ ‫ﻳﻦ‬
َ ‫ـ َﻬﺎ اﻟﺬ‬‫"ﻳَﺎ أَﻳ‬
ٌ ‫ﻻم ِر ْﺟ‬
ِ
ِ َ‫ﺸ ْﻴﻄ‬
ِ ْ َ‫ﺎن ﻓ‬
 ‫َﻋ َﻤ ِﻞ اﻟ‬
"‫ﺤﻮ َن‬
ُ ‫ ُﻜ ْﻢ ﺗُـ ْﻔﻠ‬‫ﺎﺟﺘَﻨﺒُﻮﻩُ ﻟ ََﻌﻠ‬
"O you who have believed, indeed, intoxicants,
gambling, [sacrificing on] stone alters [to
other than Allah], and divining arrows are but
defilement from the work of Satan, so avoid
them that you may be successful" 46 .
HARM REDUCTION
Yusuf bin Mahk narrated that Aisha (RA), the
mother of the believers said:" If the first thing
to be revealed was: "Do not drink alcohol" the
people would have said:"We will never leave
alcohol", and if it had been revealed, "Do not
commit fornication" they would have said "we
will never give up fornication"47.
The consumption of alcohol was widespread
practice amongst the pre-Islamic Arabs and
according to the narration from Aysha (RA)
had alcohol been prohibited from the outset,
the immediate response from the people would
have been negative, and they would not have
desisted from this practice and it may have
prevented them from accepting Islam. The
Quranic verses and the narration of Aisha
(RA) indicate that the methodology adopted in
the early stages of Islam when dealing with the
use of intoxicants was quite similar to the
modern day Harm Reduction approach. Both
approaches did not have abstinence as the
primary goal and they allowed individuals to
continue using intoxicants for a rather long
period of time. This facilitates the long-term
engagement of those individuals during which
the focus is on motivating them to change, but
without compelling or imposing changes on
them from the start. From an Islamic
perspective, the gradual prohibition of alcohol
allowed people to initially accept Islam
without having to change their drinking
behavior and it provided the population time
to work on strengthening their belief and faith
(inner change) so that they were ready to give
up alcohol when the laws prohibiting its use
were revealed (external change).
In a similar manner contemporary health
professionals who adopt the Harm Reduc-tion
approach use various Harm Reduction
strategies, motivational interviewing techniques and other psychological techniques to
gradually shift the addict from a state of high
risk use to using substances in a less risky
manner, from using substances frequently to
less frequent use and from having a chaotic
lifestyle to having more stability.
It is essential that ordinary people do not
confuse this temporary permissibility to use
drugs in a specific context with the usual
Islamic legalization which prohibits the use of
intoxicants. There is no dispute in Islam about
the prohibition of intoxic-ants such as alcohol
or drugs and no Muslim can be excused from
abusing them, but here again, we have to
consider the intentions of the Islamic law
which is to protect the individual and the
society. Addicts are responsible for their
actions and the use of intoxicants is prohibited
and sinful in Islam, but we also approach the
matter from the point of view that addiction is
an illness, a disease, thus the addict requires
treatment and not punishment. Treatment for
addiction can include Harm Reduction
strategies, thus from a Shari’ah point of view,
this makes the impermissible, permissible.
Furthermore, Islam teaches us compassion
towards the sick, no matter the cause of their
sickness and it is not the duty of the health
practitioner to pass moral judgments, but only
to care for the patient.
Conclusions:
First we discussed the principles of the Harm
Reduction and presented evidence of its
efficacy as a public health intervention in nonMuslim and Muslim countries. We also
pointed out that a punitive and abstinence only
approach which was implemented by some
countries was not only unsuccessful, but was
also associated with greater harms. Despite the
efficacy of Harm Reduction strategies, it had
been a challenge to implement it in certain
regions, due to opposition from religious
leaders. We then discussed the Islamic
theoretical legal framework and the higher
objectives of the Shari’ah. We explored how
this could be applied to the Harm Reduction
approach and we demonstrated that Harm
Reduction is consistent with the philo-sophy
and the higher objectives of Islamic law. The
Muslim doctors and patients should thus have
a clear conscience that they are acting within
the Islamic legal framework. With regards to
the prescribing of such substances, the
consumption of it and the promotion of
practices which reduces harms to the
individual and to the wider society. In an ideal
Muslim society, we envisage that addicts
should be managed in a comprehensive
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014 129
HARM REDUCTION
program that integrates medical, psychological
and spiritual care, with the aim of motivating
and supporting individuals to change their
behavior and restoring their moral and
spiritual values so that they may ultimately
achieve complete abstinence. Such programs
would need to be accessible, non-judgmental,
offer incen-tives, and provide a degree of
supervision to ensure retention in treat-ment,
minimize non compliance and reduce the risks
of those individuals to themselves and to the
wider society.
As Muslim scientists and health professionnals we practice in a dynamic environment
where we are routinely presented with novel
information and evidence from research,
which shapes our ever changing practices, and
as a result we are confronted by many new
ethical and moral dilemmas. We thus need an
appropriate and ongoing dialogue with
Muslim jurists, particularly where there is a
lack of agreement or understanding on
contemporary issues. As scientists and health
professionals we need to understand that,
when issuing a fatwa, Muslim jurisprudence
scholars have Shari’ah-related considerations
that may be not always clear to us. However,
we hope that when considering contemporary
issues like Harm reduction, Muslim scholars
would take account of all of the relevant
factors and evidences, and respond to these
contemporary challenges, not through rigid
following of mathahibs, but by also keeping in
mind the higher principles of the Shariah and
the relevance of the Qura’n and Hadith in
relation to the new contexts and contemporary
challenges, when passing verdicts on such
matters. We believe that there needs to be a
harmonious, integrated, dialectical and
dynamic relationship, between the Quran and
Hadith and the context (i.e. the contemporary
challenges that faces this Ummah) so that
novel rulings and solutions could be found,
which fulfils the objectives of the Shari’ah.
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33. Rhodes T, Mikhailova LA, Sarang A, et al.: Situational
factors influencing drug injection, risk reduction, and syringe
exchange in Togliatti City, Russian Federation: a qualitative
study of micro risk environment. SocSci Med 2003, 57:39–54.
34. Al-Ghazali.al-Mustafa min ‘ilm al-usul(The Essentials of
the Islamic Legal Theory). Baghdad. Muthanna.1970.
35. Ramadaan T, Radical Reform: Islamic Ethics and
Liberation. Oxford University Press. 2009.
36. Kamali, MH. Principles of Islamic Jurisprudence. Islamic
Text Society. Cambridge.
1991.
37. Glorious Quran, Surah al-Anbiya’a: 21:107.
Translation: Sahih International. available at:
www.quran.com. (accessed 20 February 2014).
38. Glorious Qur’an, Surah Younis, 10:57.
Translation: Sahih International. Available at:
www.quran.com. (accessed 20 February 2014).
39. Glorious Qur’an surah Al-Baqara 2:185.
Translation: Sahih International. available at:
www.quran.com. (Accessed 20 February 2014).
40. IbnMajah, Sunan, hadith 32 www.islaam.net (accessed 7
July 2014).
41. Sahih al-Bukhari, 4.230: 3560.
42. Abu Dawud, sunan, hadith 3587.
43. Narrated by Imam Ahmad , hadith 5839.
44. Glorious Qur’an Surah Al-Baqara 2:219.
Translation: Sahih International. Available at:
www.quran.com. (accessed 20 February 2014).
45. Glorious Qur’an, Surah Al-Nissa’a 4: 43.
Translation: Sahih International. Available at:
www.quran.com. (accessed 20 February 2014)
46. Glorious Qur’an. Surah Al-Maeda’a 5:90.
Translation: Sahih International. Available at:
www.quran.com. (accessed 20 February 2014).
47. Al Bukhari vol 6; hadith 515.
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014 131
132 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVES ON PROPHYLAXIS
AND THERAPY OF ADDICTION
Mahmoud Abu Dannoun*
Abstract:
Addiction, or substance dependence, is a global dilemma affecting societies in varying
degrees with grave consequences on health, psychosocial and economic aspects.
Worldwide programs to prevent or to manage addiction have been, to a large extent,
disappointing with no light at the end of the tunnel.
In this paper, the salient features of substance abuse, their main underlying causes, as
well as the social, medical and governmental responses and attitudes of prophylaxis and
management of addiction will be reviewed.
The Islamic approach to alcohol, the earliest addictive substance, will be illustrated, as an
example of a historical effective success.
Keywords: Addiction, alcohol abuse, Islamic Shari’ah.
Introduction:
Allah (‫ )ﷻ‬created humans in the best of
moulds with perfection of structure and
function of all organs, and delicate balance
between its various components including
microconstituents. This perfection includes
brain functions with various intercellular
neurotransmitters1 and other factors. The
brain performs various functions utilizing
an intricate and extensive number of cells
and factors, with extremely delicate
systems, the breakdown of any of them, by
any kind of imbalance, will induce
functional derangements of thinking,
emotion, memory, concentration, perception or hallucination2.
Proper and balanced nutrition, and vascular
nourishment of the brain, are major factors
that maintain normal brain function3. Any
unhealthy addition, such as a medication or
a psychotropic substance causes significant
derangements and deleterious influences
on brain functions4.
*Dr. Mahmoud Abu Dannoun
Consultant Psychiatrist
Ex-Director of the National Center for Mental Health
Amman-Jordan
E-mail:[email protected]
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014 133
ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVES
Substance addiction is an outcome of the
effects of a certain drug as the body
systems have to adjust to the substance by
incorporating it into “normal” body
functioning5. The opioids, as an example,
produce their effects by binding to
different types of receptors in the central
nervous system (CNS).
Endogenous
opioid
peptides
(i.e.
enkephalins, endorphins and others) appear
to function as natural ligands for opioid
receptors. There is evidence that these
natural opioid peptides are involved in the
production of euphoria, analgesia and other
effects of the opioids6. This state creates
the conditions of tolerance and withdrawal.
Tolerance is the process by which the body
continually adapts to the substance and
requires increasingly larger amounts to
achieve the original affects. Withdrawal
refers to physical and psychological
symptoms experienced upon reducing or
discontinuing the substance.
These symptoms generally include, but
are not limited to anxiety, irritability,
intensive craving for the substance, nausea,
hallucinations, headaches, cold sweats and
tremors. Once physical dependence has
been established, a strong desire emerges
to avoid the negative affective states
associated with withdrawal. Withdrawal
symptoms are usually severe and
intolerable, and manifest the opposite
feelings of the original effects of the
addictive drug6. There is ongoing scientific
debate on biological mechanisms of
addiction. Genetics, family history, mental
and personality disorders, environmental
factors and social interactions are among
various theories of addiction7, which are
continuously evolving. Several brain
regions are involved in the biological
mechanisms of addiction. Mentally
effective substances are subdivided into
three main categories8:
134 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
CNS depressants, e.g. alcohol, opiates,
sedatives and hypnotics.
 CNS stimulants, e.g. amphetamines.
 Hallucinogens, e.g. Lysergic acid
diethylamide (LSD).
Addictive substances are also divided into
natural substances (alcohol, opiates,
cannabis), and synthetic (sedatives and
analgesic medications).

An epidemiological overview:
Since the dawn of history, man embarked
on consumption of addictive substances,
starting with alcohol. Whenever a new
addictive substance is discovered and used,
man diligently propagated it, included it in
industries, marketing and business
transactions. Man also surrounded such
substances with rituals, rites and traditions.
In contemporary times, humanity is
witnessing the worst and the largest
numbers of addicted individuals and
addictive substances.
Media, advertisement, feasibility of travel
and transport and mounting psychological
pressures provide major incentives to
addiction.
Some
individuals
with
psychological and psychiatric disturbances
usually resort to addictive substances in
attempts to rid themselves of their
symptoms, such as anxiety9-11, or to avoid
consulting a psychiatrist in order to avoid
stigmatization.
Medical practitioners may also play a
negative role by over-prescribing of
sedatives, hypnotics, stimulants and
analgesics. The most significant factor,
however, is the abundant availability, as
well as the accessibility of some major
addictive substances. Alcohol is one major
example. Many societies look upon
drinking alcoholic beverages as normal
and socially acceptable behavior. Even in
many Muslim countries, alcohol factories,
sale of these beverages in restaurants and
ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVES
cafes is widespread, with nominal and
ineffective restrictions. Only very few
countries have legislations to ban alcohol.
Various types of tobacco smoking are
alarmingly widespread, even among
younger age groups and women.
Qat in Yemen and some other countries, is
widely available, and its use is established
as an acceptable and common social habit.
It is disturbing to note the widespread use
of these freely available and accessible
addictive materials to younger age groups,
even teenagers. This is attributable to the
influence of bad company (peer pressure),
and the youngsters' desire of experimentation.
In USA, a survey was conducted from
Casa, Columbia, by the National Survey on
American Attitudes on Substance Abuse
XVII: Teens12, published in August 2012.
This survey aimed to identify the
situations,
individual
and
family
characteristics, and social factors that are
associated with teen drug abuse and
addiction. Its primary purpose was to track
attitudes of teens and those, like parents,
who have the greatest influence on whether
teens will smoke, drink, get drunk, use
illegal drugs, or abuse prescription drugs.
CASA Columbia’s teen surveys have
consistently found that the family is
fundamental to keeping children away
from tobacco, alcohol and illegal drugs.
Teen drug abuse plays a major role in
addiction. People who do not use tobacco,
alcohol or illegal drugs or misuse
prescription drugs before age 21 are
virtually certain never to do so. This report
outlines several teen drug abuse facts and
teen drug abuse statistics.
The survey found that 86% of American
high school students said that some
classmates drink, use drugs and smoke
during the school day. Additionally, 44%
of high school students knew a student
who sold drugs at their school. Asked what
drugs students sold on school grounds,
91% said marijuana, 24% said prescription
drugs, 9% said cocaine and 7% said
ecstasy. The survey also revealed that 52%
of high school students said that there was
a place on school grounds or near school
where students can go to use drugs, drink
or smoke during the school day, and 36%
said it was easy for students to use drugs,
drink or smoke during the school day
without getting caught. 75% of 12-to-17year-olds said that seeing pictures of teens
partying with alcohol or marijuana on
Facebook, MySpace or another social
networking site encouraged other teens to
want to party like that. 45% of teens have
seen pictures on social networking sites of
other teens getting drunk, passing out or
using drugs, and 47% of teens who have
seen these pictures said that it seemed like
the teens in the pictures were having a
good time.
There is no doubt that legislations and law
enforcement are instrumental in curbing
the spread of the addiction phenomenon,
provided the drugs are legally prohibited
and their availability and accessibility are
curtailed. Otherwise law enforcement will
have limited impact.
The Islamic Response and Guidance in
Elimination of Addiction:
In the early days of Islam, addiction was
rampant in Makkah society and the rest of
Arabian Peninsula. At that time the
addictive substance was alcohol, which
was abundantly available in view of easy
access, and abundance of natural substrates
from food materials such as dates, grapes,
barley and others. These easily available
and inexpensive materials provided for
deep rooted traditions of consumption,
enjoyment, rituals and lack of concern to
the harms alcohol inflicts on the body and
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014 135
ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVES
mind. With the advent of Islam, alcohol
consumption was a subject matter of the
Islamic guidance for protection and
remedy of its various evils, taking in
consideration the long term rigorous
traditional endorsement of its use in
society. Alcohol was dealt with as a
prominent and rampant example of other
addictive substances that appeared in
succession in future times.
Islamic
teachings came in a gradual manner with
guidance exposing its various vicious side
effects in various dimensions. The initial
step of Islamic guidance was directed
towards cognitive understanding of its
harmful effects in the face of general and
widespread conviction that alcohol is both
nutritious, healthy and joyous. The first
Qur’anic verse that was revealed on that
topic classified food materials into those
that fall under good subsistence (rizk
hasan), vs (rizk that is not hasan) to which
alcohol belongs. Alcohol was classified as
an intoxicating material.
ِ
ِ ِ
ِ ‫ات اﻟﻨ‬
ِ ‫"وِﻣﻦ ﺛَﻤﺮ‬
ِ ‫ﺨ‬
‫ن‬ ِ‫ﺴﻨًﺎ إ‬
ََ َ
َ ‫ﺨ ُﺬو َن ﻣْﻨﻪُ َﺳ َﻜ ًﺮا َوِرْزﻗًﺎ َﺣ‬‫ﻴﻞ َواﻷَ ْﻋﻨَﺎب ﺗَـﺘ‬
ٍ
ِ

"‫ﻚ ﻵﻳَﺔً ﻟ َﻘ ْﻮم ﻳَـ ْﻌﻘﻠُﻮ َن‬
َ ِ‫ﻓِﻲ ذَﻟ‬
“And from the fruits of the date-palm and
the vine you get out (intoxicating) drink
and good food: behold, in this also is a
sign
for
those
who
are
wise
13
(intellectuals)” .
From this verse, it became clear that the
basic effect of alcohol is its intoxicating
effect. That was the underlying basis on
which Muslim jurists established the ruling
of alcohol prohibition (tahrim). On that
basis, the same rulings were applied to any
other substance that causes intoxication,
disturbance of cognition and consciousness. Such ruling is applied to all these
substances based on their effects, with no
regards to their chemical structure, or other
laboratory or scientific means of
characterization.
136 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
This was followed by the Qur’anic
response to the posed notions of the
apparently positive or useful benefits of
alcohol. These are sedation, relief of
tension,
improving
sleep,
stress
amelioration, appetite improvement, in
addition to other materialistic/financial
benefits such as securing jobs in alcohol
preparation and market-ing….etc. The
Glorious Qur’an responds to all of that in a
clear and expressive manner:
ِ ‫ْﺨ ْﻤ ِﺮ َواﻟ َْﻤ ْﻴ ِﺴ ِﺮ ﻗُ ْﻞ ﻓِﻴ ِﻬ َﻤﺎ إِﺛْ ٌﻢ َﻛﺒِ ٌﻴﺮ َوَﻣﻨَﺎﻓِ ُﻊ ﻟِﻠﻨ‬
‫ﺎس‬
َ ‫ﻚ َﻋ ِﻦ اﻟ‬
َ َ‫"ﻳَ ْﺴﺄَﻟُﻮﻧ‬
ِ
"....‫ـ ْﻔ ِﻌ ِﻬ َﻤﺎ‬‫َوإِﺛْ ُﻤ ُﻬ َﻤﺎ أَ ْﻛﺒَـ ُﺮ ﻣﻦ ﻧ‬
They ask you concerning wine and
gambling. Say: In them is great sin, and
some benefits for mankind, but their sin is
greater than the benefit…..”14.
This Qur’anic verse does not negate the
benefits of alcohol, but it places that in the
overall balance of minimal positive vs.
major negative aspects. It asserts that the
destructive effects surpass any benefit and
confirms its classification as not to be a
good subsistence.
This balancing is valid at all times, in view
of proven harmful effects caused by
alcohol on the physical, psychological,
mental and socio-economic status of the
addicted and their families.Alcohol abuse
is also responsible for mental breakdown,
increased crime rates, including rape, and
incest, as well as increased road accidents
commonly resulting in fatalities. Human
experience reveals major preponderance of
economic losses that far exceed any gains
from manufacturing and marketing of this
substance.
Later on, with the gradual Qur’anic
approach of eliminating alcohol, and
parallel to building up of the new Muslim
personality with new Islamic value system
in faith, commitment and behavior, the
glorious Qur’an provided the next step:
ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVES
ِ
 ‫آﻣﻨُﻮاْ ﻻَ ﺗَـ ْﻘ َﺮﺑُﻮاْ اﻟ‬
ْ‫َﻤﻮا‬
َ ‫ﻳﻦ‬
ُ ‫ﻰ ﺗَـ ْﻌﻠ‬
َ ‫ﺬ‬‫ـ َﻬﺎ اﻟ‬‫"ﻳَﺎ أَﻳ‬
َ ‫ﺼﻼةَ َوأَﻧﺘُ ْﻢ ُﺳ َﻜ َﺎرى َﺣﺘ‬
"....‫َﻣﺎ ﺗَـ ُﻘﻮﻟُﻮ َن‬
“You who believe! Approach not prayers
with a mind befogged (intoxicated) so that
you can understand (comprehend) all that
you say (in prayer)…..” 15
This new step represented a new stage with
significant prophylactic and therapeutic
dimensions. It is known that alcohol halflife in the blood is approximately six
hours. For the faithful who wants to
perform his regular timed daily prayers,
most of which are approximately 2 to 4
hours apart from noon to evening, has not
to consume alcohol except following
Isha’a prayer (late evening) or following
the fajr (dawn) prayer. This means
elimination of drinking episodes, which
will interrupt the addiction requirements of
around 4 drinks per day as a minimum
down to only two, which may ease the,
transition to abstinence with minimal
withdrawal sequelae. In doing so, it
becomes easier on individuals to free
themselves from withdrawal consequences,
as opposed to abrupt cessation which may
result in grave consequences, including the
possibility of lethal delirium tremens 16.
This stage of gradual discontinuation came
in parallel with the progress in nurturing
and building of the sound Muslim
personality with genuine faith (iman),
sound behavior (suluk), and proper outlook
to the paradigm of human life on this earth
and the hereafter.
The fourth, and final stage came as a
distinct and decisive commandment, with
the Qur’anic revelation:
ِ
ِ
‫ﻻم‬
َ ‫ َﻤﺎ اﻟ‬‫آﻣﻨُﻮاْ إِﻧ‬
ُ ‫ﺎب َواﻷَ ْز‬
َ ‫ْﺨ ْﻤ ُﺮ َواﻟ َْﻤ ْﻴﺴ ُﺮ َواﻷ‬
ُ ‫َﻧﺼ‬
َ ‫ﻳﻦ‬
َ ‫ـ َﻬﺎ اﻟﺬ‬‫"ﻳَﺎ أَﻳ‬
ِ
ِ ‫ﺸﻴﻄ‬
ِ َ‫َﺎن ﻓ‬
"‫ﺤﻮ َن‬
ْ  ‫ﻣ ْﻦ َﻋ َﻤ ِﻞ اﻟ‬ ‫ﺲ‬
ْ
ُ ‫ ُﻜ ْﻢ ﺗُـ ْﻔﻠ‬‫ﺎﺟﺘَﻨﺒُﻮﻩُ ﻟ ََﻌﻠ‬
ٌ ‫ِر ْﺟ‬
“You who believe! intoxicants (Khamralcohol) and gambling, dedication of
stones, and divination by arrows, are
abominations of Satan’s handwork:
Eschew (avoid) such (abomination) that
you may prosper”17.
 ‫ َﻤﺎ ﻳُ ِﺮﻳ ُﺪ اﻟ‬‫"إِﻧ‬
‫ْﺨ ْﻤ ِﺮ‬
َ ‫ﻀﺎء ﻓِﻲ اﻟ‬
َ ‫ﺸ ْﻴﻄَﺎ ُن أَن ﻳُﻮﻗِ َﻊ ﺑَـ ْﻴـﻨَ ُﻜ ُﻢ اﻟ َْﻌ َﺪ َاوةَ َواﻟْﺒَـ ْﻐ‬
ِ ‫ﺼ‬
ِ
"‫ﻣﻨﺘَـ ُﻬﻮ َن‬ ‫ﻼة ﻓَـ َﻬ ْﻞ أَﻧﺘُﻢ‬
 ‫ ِﻪ َو َﻋ ِﻦ اﻟ‬‫ﺪ ُﻛ ْﻢ َﻋﻦ ِذ ْﻛ ِﺮ اﻟﻠ‬ ‫ﺼ‬
ُ َ‫َواﻟ َْﻤ ْﻴﺴ ِﺮ َوﻳ‬
“Satan’s plan is (but) to excite enmity and
hatred between you, with intoxicants
(Khamr, alcohol) and gambling, and
hinder you from the remembrance of Allah,
and from prayer: Will you not then
abstain?”18.
Choosing the word (avoid) has more
significance than other expressions such
as: (do not drink it), or (stay away from it).
Avoidance includes the meanings of
avoiding to manufacture, sell, buy,
consume, or socialize with individuals
while engaged in drinking, or even looking
at the substance.
These Qur’anic verses associated alcohol
(Khamr) along with other major vices and
deviations, such as gambling, stone
casting, hatred, enmity and social
disruptions, as instigations from Satan.
This concept was deeply established in the
conscious, mind and conduct of Muslim
individuals and societies ever since. An
“Internal” barrier became deep-rooted at
all times.
This major turn of events was so decisive.
Alcohol was absolutely eliminated from
the Muslim society. The faithful
committed early Muslims responded
obediently. Whatever alcoholic beverages
were stored in their homes were disposed
of. Whatever jars and various containers
that used to be filled with alcohol were
destroyed. They spilled alcohol in the
roadsides of Medina, while chanting
prayers and expressions of obedience and
faith19.
Islam follows a similar approach towards
any other addictive substance that impairs
brain function, by elimination of their
existence in society, in addition to building
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014 137
ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVES
internal human barrier towards their use.
This undertaking contrasts with what we
witness nowadays where inefficient and
ineffective policies are based on
“limitations” of the substance in certain
places and age groups, which does not
effectively combat the addiction problem.
Islam established a road map to deal with
addictive substances along the following
lines:
1.Alcohol was considered a standard
criterion to judge possible addictive
substances as either permitted (halal)
prohibited (harm) or abhorred (makruh).
2.The underlying reason upon which a
ruling is adopted toward any possible
addictive substance, is its actual intoxicant
influence. Any substance that imparts
similar effects on man’s mental processes,
cognition consciousness and ability to
perform his roles in this life, will acquire
the same ruling as that of alcohol. The
legal maxims applied in this context are:
“Any intoxicant is khamr (alcohol) and any
khamr is haram (prohibited)"20.
“Any substance that causes intoxication if
taken in large quantities is prohibited
(haram) even if consumed in small
quantities" 21.
Intoxication, being a significant cause of
harm, whether known, unknown, or
expected, falls under the broader legal
maxim "No harm and no infliction of
harm”22.
3.The concept of prohibition (tahrim) in
Islam is linked to faith and its
manifestations, such as the prayers, zakat
…etc. The faith authority or infleunce is a
strong basis for the faithful (believer) to
avoid addictive substances.
Islam established maqasid al-Shari’ah (the
purposes of Islamic Law). These are:
protection of religion, life, mind, progeny
and wealth23. Any intoxicant substance
which may negatively impact any of these
138 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
purposes (maqasid) is prohibited (haram)
by analogy (qiyas)24.
Islam establishes the faith concept as the
main prophylaxis against addiction. Faith
and religious commitment stand as
guardians that links alcohol and other
intoxicants to evil behavior, low morality
and poor manners.
In a hadith narrated by Uthman ibn A'ffan
(RA), the Prophet (‫ )ﷺ‬said:
  ‫ن ر‬ ‫ أ‬،‫ أم ا‬ ‫ا ا‬‫"ا‬
‫ر‬ ‫ إ‬‫ر‬  ‫أة‬‫ ا‬ ،ّ 
،‫ر‬   ،‫دة‬ ‫ك‬ ‫ إ‬: 
‫أة‬‫ ا‬‫ إ‬‫ ا‬ ،‫ دو‬‫ أ‬ ‫ د‬ 
 ‫ وﷲ‬‫ إ‬: ، ‫ط‬‫م و‬ ‫ھ‬ ‫و‬
‫ه‬‫ ھ‬ ‫ب‬ ‫ أو‬  ‫ د‬‫دة و‬ ‫د‬
‫ا‬‫ ھ‬  :‫ل‬ .‫م‬‫ا ا‬‫ ھ‬ ‫ً أو‬ ‫ا‬
‫ و‬ ‫ و‬ ‫م‬  :‫و‬‫ ز‬:‫ل‬ ،ً ‫ا‬
‫ن‬‫ ا‬  ‫ وﷲ‬ ،‫ا ا‬ ،‫ا‬
." ‫ھ‬‫ج أ‬ ‫ أن‬ ‫ إ‬،‫ب ا‬‫و‬
“Avoid Khamr (alcohol) because it is the
mother of all wickedness. In past
generations there was a devout man who
was approached by a seducer woman who
sent her maid to summon him for
testimony. When he responded and entered
the woman’s home, the maid led him in
and locked every door behind him until he
ended up to a glowing woman, with a boy
and an alcohol container. The woman
explained she did not summon him for
testimony, and instead she gave him the
choice of committing adultery with her, or
to drink the wine, or to kill the boy. He
choose drinking wine, cup after cup, and
ended up in committing adultery with her
and killing the boy. Avoid khamr
(alcohol), for faith and drinking alcohol
will never be combined unless one of them
expels the other 25.
Islam imposes a worldly punishment of
whipping for drinking alcohol. The
Prophet (‫ )ﷺ‬said:
“Flog (punish by whipping) any person
who drinks Khamr (alcohol)” 26.
ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVES
The Prophet (‫ )ﷺ‬warned alcohol
drinkers with punishment in the Hereafter,
in the hadith:
‫ت‬ ‫ وإن‬ ‫ة أر‬    ‫ب ا‬  "
 ‫ و‬،"... ‫ب ﷲ‬ ‫ب‬ ‫ن‬ ،‫ر‬‫ ا‬‫د‬
‫ رد‬  ‫ ﷲ أن‬ ً  ‫ن‬ ‫د‬ ‫"وإن‬:‫ا‬
‫ رد‬‫ و‬:‫ل‬‫ ا‬ ‫ و‬،"‫م ا‬ ‫ل‬‫ا‬
."‫ر‬‫ ا‬‫رة أھ‬" :‫ل‬ ،‫ل‬‫ا‬
“Whoever drinks khamr (alcohol), his
prayers for 40 nights will not be accepted.
If he dies, he will enter hell fire, and if he
repents,
Allah
will
accept
his
27
repentance… .
The Hadith ends by:”And if he goes back
to drinking, Allah will make him drink
from “radghat al khabal” on the day of
judgment” 27.
When the prophet (‫ )ﷺ‬was asked about
“radghat al-khabal”, the Prophet said: “It
is the extract of the people of hell fire”.
The Prophet (‫ )ﷺ‬made it one of his
directives (wassiyyah) to some of his
companions:
“Do not make any partners to Allah, even
if you were torn to pieces or burnt, and do
not drink khamr”28.
In another hadith, the Prophet (‫)ﷺ‬
responded to an inquiry about whether
khamr could be used as medicine: “ It is a
malady (disease) and not a remedy”29.
Where Islamic Approach Succeeded and
Others Failed?
The success of Islam in eradicating the
alcohol habit and substance addiction in
general, is manifested by the fact that
Muslim societies have been largely free
from addiction throughout history. Even at
times when Islamic ideology lost its
leadership role due to political and
socioeconomic deterioration in many
countries, most Muslim societies continued
to be relatively safe and immune to the
various disasters of addiction. Only limited
instances of addiction remain in Muslim
societies, with negative and condemning
attitudes towards any individual who
commits this rejected aberration.
In the USA, there was a determined trial
to legally ban alcohol and to impose
abstention throughout the country from
1919 to 1933. Unfortunately this attempt
ended up in disastrous failure 30-31.
Most countries of the world, have “given
up” combating alcohol use and its
consequences. Alcohol consumption is
legalized, with practically nominal, largely
fruitless restrictions, such as avoiding
alcohol while driving, prohibiting the sale
of alcoholic drinks to minors (below
certain ages)…etc.
Lack of commitment by the governments
and individuals, alcohol industry influence
and advertisement are among the main
factors of failure to combat alcohol
dependence in the communities. This
resulted in overwhelming disastrous
consequences on individuals, societies,
national health, socioeconomic and other
parameters.
It is an irony to note the liberalization and
legalization of alcohol, while trying to
combat other addicting substances which
pose less deleterious consequences than
alcoholic beverages.
The following may be illustrative of the
differences between the Islamic and nonIslamic styles of approach:
( 1 ) Islamic approach prevents the
occurrence of addiction by stressing the
individual internal motives of faith, and
outlook to a righteous life. Islam aims at
establishing a sound lifestyle of humans
and their societies on this earth, to rid them
from any behavior, habit or substance that
curtail their roles in this life, including any
material that impairs cognition and
hampers humans from performing their
sound and constructive roles towards
themselves, their societies and humankind
in general. It is noteworthy that, in spite of
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014 139
ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVES
various current political and socioeconomic influences, Muslim societies, from
different regions of the world that vary in
their racial / ethnic backgrounds and have
different cultures, are the least affected by
the problem of addiction, among all world
nations. When African American (black
American) prisoners with various addiction
problems embrace Islam there was a
remarkable change in their behaviors.
Many of them turned away from drug
addiction and crime, and were resurrected,
as James Baldwin wrote in his book: The
Fire Next Time32 about his fellow black
Americans:
“And now, suddenly people who have
never before been able to hear this
message of Islam, hear it and believe it,
and are changed …. (Islam) has been able
to do what generations of welfare workers
and committees, resolutions and reports
and housing projects and playgrounds have
failed to do: to heal and redeem drunkards
and junkies, to convert people who have
come out of prisons and keep them out, to
make them chaste, and women virtuous,
and to invest both male and female with
pride and serenity that hang about them
like unfailing light” 32.
One of the main points in Islamic dealing
with substance abuse is the issue of easy
availability of the substance, within reach
of people, which represents a formidable
obstacle in all efforts to combat the
problem.
In this regards, one of the principal pillars
of the Islamic approach to eradicate
substance addiction was to prevent the
very existence of the substance in society.
Taking alcohol as an example, its
manufacturing, marketing, selling, buying,
and any dealings was prohibited and
condemned, with no exception.
The Islamic approach is based on both the
“internal” value-based motives, and the
“external” punishment based ones.
140 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
Building the internal value system, based
on faith, purity, injunction of what is
beneficial and fair, rejecting of all evil,
harmful and reprehensible actions, and
seeking the pleasure of Allah (‫ )ﷻ‬in all
endeavors…..are all instrumental in
nurturing human beings’ immunity to all
kinds of ill-behaviors.
The Muslim society, composed of such
individuals, strongly rejects substance
addiction behaviors. Any individual who
has any dealings with addictive substances
is looked upon as “anti-society culture”
that is an outcast. This overwhelming
social factor stands strongly and
effectively as a guard. And when this is
combined with the non-availability/
accessibility, all bases of success are
guaranteed.
This
approach
is
contrasted
to
contemporary
dealings
by
various
authorities
which
are
based
on
governmental laws and regulations with
various limitations and exceptions in the
context of free availability of substances,
such as alcohol, tobacco, and in some
countries, other addiction substances as
well.
The example of alcohol is more manifest.
With its free availability and accessibility,
current regulations in most countries
around the world, prohibit its sale below
certain age limits, e.g. 18 years of age.
Such youngsters could easily obtain it from
their peers who are above that age limit or
from their own homes, and pursue the
addiction path from that early age.
Moreover, the contemporary ban on most
addictive substances, excluding alcohol, is
a confusing and inefficient approach that
contradicts logic and medical basic facts33,
in view of the significant and widespread
complications of alcohol in all strata of
societies.
ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVES
Substance abuse:
A disease or behavioral breakdown?
Whether addiction as an illness, or a
behavioral breakdown has significant
implications in legal, ethical and social
contexts, but should not have any influence
on medical care and rehabilitation.
Contemporary western-oriented approaches towards substance addiction is
based, to a large extent, on the concept that
it is a disease that needs therapy.
Significant concessions are practiced to
drug addicts including free provision of
opiate derivatives, clean syringes to inject
drugs, condoms to minimize HIV/AIDS
and other infections. All such measures are
provided to the addicts if they demand
them. They could abandon anti-addiction
programs as they deem suitable to them,
and revert back to the substances of their
choice. Added to the other drawback of
availability of alcohol, tobacco and, in
some countries, cannabis, is the lack of
real effective programs to rehabilitate
addicts and eradicate addiction.
All that represents the superficiality and
ineffectiveness of this approach, as
evidenced by what is manifest in the world
scene.
The
following
considerations
are
illustrative of the implications of looking at
the addiction dilemma as merely an
“illness”:
 Tolerance and permissiveness towards
addicts to pursue and persist in
obtaining addiction substances to
maintain satisfaction, without fearing
significant punitive measures.
 Minimization of society and state
responses towards addiction. Addicts
are looked upon as victims who are not
fully responsible for their acts.
 Lack of legally-binding anti-addiction
programs, with steady and determined
approaches, is a sign of superficiality
and lack of effective programs.
 Liberalization of patients commitment
to anti-addiction programs will
continue to boost drug trafficking and
profiteering
Unlike this approach, the Islamic outlook
does not neglect the medical, psychosocial
and rehabilitation needs of drug addicts. It,
however, considers substance abuseaddiction as a devious behavior and
ethical-religious disobedience which is
self-inflicted by the individuals. The
addictive behavior is a result of their own
decisions and their insistence to pursue it
with disregard to advice, education,
religious and social norms. These
considerations render them liable for
punitive measures in this life and in the
Hereafter.
Recognized Therapeutic measures should
be mandatory with the aim at complete
abstention. Specialized centers, with
qualified and dedicated personnel should
take proper care to guarantee that therapy,
which may be gradual and long-term,
should end up by complete reform.
Punitive measures to deviators and those
who revert back to addiction should be
pursued in a dedicated, persistent and
controlled manner.
Proper punitive measures should be legally
applied against traffickers, and distributors.
In conclusion, the Islamic approach to the
substance abuse-addiction problem has
unique features in aspects of prophylaxis
and management. This is manifested by the
recorded historical success of this
approach in its dealing with alcohol abuse
in the early Medina society. This approach
is based on both “internal” faith-based
values, as well as “external” measures,
including health care systems and societystate punitive-based parameters. The
Islamic approach has resulted in the
achievement of a society with record
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014 141
ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVES
freedom
from
addiction
and
its
ramifications in Muslim communities,
despite many current adverse circumstances.
References:
1.Kaplan and Sadicks, Synopsies of psychiatry, Williams
and Wilkens, 2002-Lippncott, pp 93-94.
2. Ibid, pp 96-97..
3. Bevridge KC, Food reward- brain substates of wanting
and liking, 1996.
4. Ameri A, The effect of Cannanioids on the brain.
Progress in Neurology 1999.
5. Torres G, Horowitz TM (1999). “Drugs of abuse and
brain gene expression”. Psychosom Med 61 (5): 630-50.
PMID
10511013
(www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10511013).
6. Reference # 1, pp 1286.
7.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addiction
8.Diagnostic criteria DSMSTO
And: Goodman and Gliman: The Pharmacological Basis
of pharmacology, 1992.
9. WHO- Neuroscience psychoactive substance use and
dependence.
10. Ali Kamal (Arabic): Al-Idman, Bab al-Abath bil Aql,
1994, Al-Mussasah Al-Arabiyyah Li Al-Dirasat walNashr, pp 115.
11. Hassan Naser Bokely (Arabic): Al-Idman, 1988, Dar
al-Maamoon Li al-Turath. P16.
12. National Survey of American Attitudes on Substance
Abuse XVI: Teens and Parents.
http://www.casacolumbia.org/addictionresearch/reports/national-survey-american-attitudessubstance-abuse-teens-2012
13. Glorious Qur’an, Al-Nahl 16:67.
14. Glorious Qur’an, Al-Baqarah 2: 219.
15: Glorious Qur’an: Al-Nisa’a: 4:43
16. Reference #10, p241.
17. The Glorious Qur’an, Al Maedah 5:90.
18. The Glorious Qur’an, Al Maedah 5:91.
19. Sahih Muslim, Narrated by Anas, No. 3669.
20: Sahih Al-Bukhari, Kitab al-Wadu, N. 239.
21: Sunan Ibn Majah, No. 3392.
22: Sunan Ibn Majah, vol. 2, 1953, No. 784
23. Al-Shatibi (d. 790/1388), al-Muwafaqat fi ashShariah, 1975, vol. 2: 8-11, P. 10.
24. Abdul Wahab Khallaf, Usul Al-Fiqh (Arabic), Dar alKutub al-Ilmiyyah-Beirut-Lebanon, 2006. PP40.
25. Sunan al Nassae, 8/315, Sahih Sunan Al-Nasae 3/46,
no. 5236.
26: Abu Dawod, Kitab al Hudud, No. 4485.
27: Sunan Ibn Majah, Kitab al-Ashribah, No. 3377.
28. Ibid, Hadith narrated by Abi al-Dardaa, Bab al-Sabr
ala al Bala’a, No. 4034.
29. Abu Dawod, Al-Tib. No. 3873, Tirmidi, No. 2147.
30. Miles S., learning about alcohol. Washington DC:
American Association for Health, Physical Education and
Recreation- A national affiliate of the National Education
Association. 1974:12.
142 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
31. Albar MA. Contemporary Topics in Islamic
Medicine, 1995, Saudi Publishing and Distribution
House, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, pp 13-19.
32: Baldwin J., The Fire Next Time. London: Penguin
Books 1962: 39-68.
33. Reference # 10, and Baye I Chodse, Evolution of
International drug control, 1999, P 383.
ISLAMIC RELIGIOUS INPUT IN THE TREATMENT
AND REHABILITATION OF DRUG ADDICTION:
EXPERIENCES FROM MALAYSIA
Mahmood Nazar Mohamed* and Sabitha Marican**
Abstract:
Drug addiction is a chronic relapsing disease which can be treated. Treatment
however is dependent on many variables, the drug of choice, degree of drug use,
individual and personality characteristics such as religiosity, community and
environmental factors, familial and social support, employment and many more.
Many countries employ the supply and demand reduction strategies, some of which
are successful, and some are not. The advent of HIV-AIDS in the 80’s forced
treatment specialists to look at other alternatives. Harm reduction offers a pragmatic
approach, however, it remains controversial. Drug Substitution Therapies for people
using opioids have proven to be more effective with other non medical approaches
such as contingency management, behavioral interventions and spiritual/religious
enhancement. This paper reports the experience of Malaysia in providing Islamic
religious input to drug treatment and rehabilitation programs in government and non
government facilities.
Keywords: Drugs, addiction, treatment, rehabilitation, drug policy, Islam, harm
reduction, spiritual therapy, religion.
Introduction:
Treating a chronic relapsing disease is
not a simple undertaking. It involves the
illness itself, behavioural and psychological components, belief system and
spirituality1.
Many treatment providers reported
significant relapse rates among those
undergoing treatment, especially for
addiction to psychoactive substances.
Illnesses like asthma and hypertension
have 50-70% relapse rate, type I Diabetes
has 30-50% relapse rate (for example,
lack of diabetes control due to lack of
compliance with lifestyle modification
and proper therapy, leads to relapse of
symptoms), whereas drug addiction has a
relapse rate of 40-60%2.
* Mahmood Nazar Mohamed
Professor of Psychology
Cyberjaya University College of Medical
Sciences (CUCMS)
Cyberjaya, Malaysia.
E-mail: [email protected]
However, all of these illnesses, especially
drug addiction, can be treated with a
combination of treatment modalities and
approaches1,3. There are basic principles
to drug treatment that healthcare
providers must understand in order to
provide adequate treatment and rehabilitation.
One important fact is that no single
treatment is appropriate for all
individuals. Effective treatment attends
to multiple needs of the individual, not
just his or her drug use. In addition,
treatment and service plans must be
continuously assessed to ensure that the
particular plan meets the person’s
changing needs1.
** Sabitha Marican
Associate Professor, Public and Social
Policy
Faculty of Economics and Administration
University Malaya, Malaysia
E-mail: [email protected]
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014 143
ISLAMIC RELIGIOUS INPUT - MALAYSIA
When a client is ready for treatment,
remaining in treatment for an adequate
period of time is critical for treatment
effectiveness. Many believe that medical
detoxification can help, however it is
only the first stage of addiction treatment
and by itself does little to change long
term drug use2. Counseling and behavioral therapies are critical components of
effective treatment for addiction2,4.
Medication is an important element of
treatment for many patients. Treatment
should provide assessment for HIV, TB
and other infectious diseases5. It is also
important to know that recovery can be a
lifelong process with relapses and require
multiple treatments1.
treatments were given, albeit they were
still limited6,7. At that time supply and
demand reduction approach was adopted
as the national anti-drugs strategy. In the
past decade, on the average, the
Malaysian authorities
arrested around
thirty two thousand drug addicts in the
country (about 55% - 60% were relapse
cases) each year. This number has
significantly decreased in these past
years to about 22,811 cases in 2006,
14,489 in 2007, 11,194 in 2011, and
9,015 in 2012. Further reductions in the
numbers of addicts identified every year
demonstrate that the present strategies
undertaken by the Malaysian government
has taken effect 6,8.
Drug Addiction in Malaysia:
Supply reduction:
The drug problem in Malaysia has been
recognized since the pre-independence
days. Most of the drug addicts used
opiates, specifically opium that was
brought in from China and the Golden
Triangle area (Thailand, Myanmar and
PR Laos). In the 1960’s, influences from
the ‘hippie’ Western culture reached the
shores of Malaysia with marijuana and
other psychedelic drugs primarily used
by the American servicemen. The 70’s
saw the introduction of heroin and
morphine into the country, and drug
addiction
reached
an
epidemic
proportion6. In 1983, drugs and drug
addiction was declared a national
security problem.
A national drug treatment program was
set up to provide mandatory treatment to
drug dependents. Many Compulsory
Centers for Drug Users (CCDUs) were
set up to provide treatment, which was
largely based on psychosocial and
military model, where little focus was
given to addiction treatment and
treatment of other ailments5. It was not
until the 1990’s that drug addiction was
accepted as a chronic relapsing disease.
Drug addicts were accepted as patients
that must be treated and alternative
Usually, the first approach to drug
control is supply reduction. Simply put,
the supply of the psychoactive substances
to the affected population must be
intercepted and terminated. Supply
reduction focuses on law enforcement
activities to suppress or disrupt production and distribution of drugs. Legal
measures are used by all countries to
control or eliminate the availability of
illicit drugs. Some supply reduction
strategies employed are6,9:
(i) Source-country control such as crop
destruction and replacement,
(ii) Interdiction of supply into end
countries,
(iii) Police enforcement of supply and
possession, and
(iv) Regulatory policies to restrict
prescription of opioids.
Efforts on reducing the supply of drugs
into Malaysia were initiated long before
the independence of the country. These
efforts were directed to the control of the
import, sales and use of opium. Several
laws were enacted with punitive
consequences and capital punishment for
involvement in trafficking, using or
abusing drugs. There are five main Acts
that relate to drugs in Malaysia6.
144 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
ISLAMIC RELIGIOUS INPUT - MALAYSIA
The first is the "Dangerous Drugs Act",
1952. It is the major legislation in
relation to drug control in Malaysia. This
Act is very extensive covering aspects of
offences, procedures and evidence. It
provides for mandatory death sentence
for drug trafficking offences6. The
second is the "Dangerous Drugs (Special
Preventive Measures) Act", 1985 (The
DDA-SPM) aimed at enhancing the
effectiveness of countermeasures taken
by the relevant authorities against those
who are involved in drug trafficking. It
empowers the government to detain
anyone suspected of being a trafficker
without having to bring the suspect to
any court of law6. The third is the
"Dangerous
Drugs
(Forfeiture
of
Property) Act", 1988 (The DDA-FoP)
empowers the relevant authorities to
trace, freeze and forfeit assets of
convicted drug traffickers6. The forth is
the "Poisons Act", 1952. This act
controls the import and sale of “poisons”
which refer to any substance specified in
the Poisons List and includes any
mixture, preparation, solution or natural
substance containing such substance
other than an exempted preparation or an
article or preparation included for the
time being in the Second Schedule of the
Act. Many precursors to AmphetamineType-stimulants (ATS) are controlled by
this Act6. The fifth Act is the "Drug
Dependants (Treatment and Rehabilitation)" Act, 1983 that provides for both
mandatory treatment and rehabilitation of
any person who has been certified as
drug dependent as well as for voluntary
treatment and rehabilitation. The period
of treatment and rehabilitation at a
rehabilitation center is for two (2) years.
This
institutional
treatment
and
rehabilitation is followed by after care
for another two (2) years6. Finally there
is the "AADK Act", 2004. This Act
specifies the role of the "National Anti
Drugs Agency (NADA)" in Malaysia. It
empowers NADA for enforcement6.
These laws were enacted from 1952 up to
2004 and several agencies, primarily the
Royal Malaysian Police, were given the
authority and mandate to implement
these laws. It overlaps with the second
strategy, which is demand reduction in
the 80’s to manage and reduce the drug
problem in the country. To date, there are
no major changes made to these laws,
however, there have been evident shifts
in the policy on treatment and
rehabilitation of drug offenders.
Demand Reduction:
Prior to introducing medications for the
treatment of drug use and abuse in
Malaysia,
the
authorities
placed
significant amount of effort to reduce the
demand towards these illicit substances6.
Demand reduction refers to efforts aimed
at reducing public desire for illegal and
illicit drugs i.e. to reduce use and abuse
of, and demand for, narcotic drugs and
psychotropic substances4,10.
Demand reduction seeks reduction of
abuse directly through prevention and
treatment.
First, demand reduction approach
provides training and capacity building to
prevent the onset of substance use and
abuse.
Secondly, prevention is achieved by
intervening at "critical decision points" in
the lives of vulnerable populations to
prevent both first use and further use.
Thirdly, it provides effective abstinencebased treatment programs for drug
dependents.
Fourth,
it
broadens
education and increases public awareness
of the consequences of drug use/abuse.
Fifth, it builds a coalition to mobilize the
local and the international community,
and finally it promotes research on the
effectiveness of these and other
programs4,9-12.
In general, the practice of demand
reduction includes the school, workplace
and the community. Prevention in school
settings consists of introducing basic
knowledge about, substance use, misuse,
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014 145
ISLAMIC RELIGIOUS INPUT - MALAYSIA
life skills, and positive relationships. It
also includes early intervention program,
and preventive screening13. Prevention at
the
workplace
basically
includes
programs such as drug-free workplace
policy and guidelines, employee participation, voluntary and random testing for
drugs, drug and addiction counseling,
early
intervention,
treatment
and
rehabilitation. Continuous or random
monitoring is often built into the human
resource policy of the organization6.
Community - based prevention programs
are often the most difficult because they
cover a plethora of settings, sub-cultures,
ethnic back-grounds and other variables.
What is often done is mobilizing
community leaders and members to be
aware of the drug situation, collaborative
effort with enforcement agencies to
reduce the demand for drugs, and a
multitude of other drug free community
efforts6. In Malaysia, several efforts are
being undertaken by both the government
and community to provide institutional
based treatment. The government
established 12 abstinence-based Cure and
Care Clinics that provide voluntary drug
treatment and 28 mandatory treatment
centers. In addition, there are 30
treatment centers operated by NGOs and
the private sector14. There are also
community-based rehabilitation programs in 93 districts in the country that
focus on individual, group and family
counseling, health and welfare services,
Family Association (FA), Narcotic
Anonymous (NA), Alcoholic Anonymous (AA) meetings, job placement,
religious
programs
and
career
development of the affected population.
This includes 18 government halfway
houses and service centers, 4 main drug
related NGOs providing communitybased outreach, relapse prevention and
career development programs, support
and assistance from more than 50 civil
societies to aid in the reentry of
recovering
drug
dependents
into
6,14
society . The supply and demand
146 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
reduction strategies have contributed
significantly to the reduction in numbers
of drug dependents arrested by the
authorities.
Figure 1 shows that among the 60%
heroin addicts in the country, the number
detained every year has reduced from
23,723 in 1995 to 7,963 in 2006, just
about one year before Drug Substitution
Therapy (DST) became in full use in
Malaysia8.
Harm reduction:
The introduction of “Harm Reduction” in
Malaysia is based on the realization of
the limitations of supply and demand
reduction approaches that were practiced
between the 1970’s and mid 2010’s15. In
short, harm reduction is “policies and
programs which attempt primarily to
reduce the adverse health, social and
economic consequences of mood altering
substances to individual drug users, their
families and the communities” 16. There
are many approaches that can be
included as harm reduction practices
such as advocacy and ‘capacity building’ which are conducted through
forums, seminars, media, training study
tours, research and publication16,17. Most
of the services provided under the
umbrella of harm reduction are clientfriendly. They use the multi-sectoral and
community based approach to implement
harm reduction. They establish Practical
Guidelines and Standard Operating
Procedures (SOPs) to guide implementtation on the ground. They emphasize
‘evidence-based’ program implementtation, effective monitoring and tracking
programs16. There are several outcomes
to harm reduction practices. These are
reduction of substance use, not sharing
needles specifically for the recipients of
Needle Syringe Exchange Program
(NSEP), greater concern towards one’s
health, decrease in illegal activities,
longer retention in treatment programs,
increased gainful employment and
ISLAMIC RELIGIOUS INPUT - MALAYSIA
increase in income. A study by Marsch
found that there are significant reduction
in the engagement in unlawful activities
after six and 12 months of Opiate
Substitution Therapy (OST)18. Figure 2
also shows marked improvement in
reducing drug use, reduction in HIV risk
behavior, and reduction in illegal
activities from the time of admission to
the OST program, six months after the
program and 12 months after the
program19.
This means that once persons addicted to
opiates took opiate substitution medication such as methadone, they will not
look for drugs (heroin or morphine) to
satisfy their cravings, thus will not
engage in criminal activities in order for
them to obtain these drugs. Harm
reduction has helped to curtail the HIVAIDS epidemic. Two categories of
affected population were identified and
focused upon, the sex workers and drug
addicts20. For sex workers, the primary
interventions are preventive education
and condom distribution16. For drug
addicts, Drug Substitution Therapy
(DST) and Needle Syringe Exchange
Programs (NSEP) were introduced16,20-22.
These initiatives were introduced in
Malaysia to curb the HIV epidemic and
drug use15.
Medical Treatment of Drug Addiction:
Harm reduction approaches such as OST
and NSEP were not practiced in
Malaysia during the supply-demand
reduction era. However, on 13 Jan 2005,
the Deputy Prime Minister announced in
the National Council for the Eradication
of Drugs (MTMD) meeting that the use
of Methadone to treat drug dependents
has been endorsed by the government6.
Methadone
Maintenance
Therapy
(MMT) programs were started in October
2005. For Phase 1, it was conducted in 8
hospitals, 2 health clinics, and 8 private
clinics which involved 1,240 opiate
dependents in 4 zones (north, south, east
and west) of peninsular Malaysia. Soon
to follow was the NSEP program. New
HIV cases decreased since it was first
detected in 1986 (Figure 2)15.
Since then, more opiate users and addicts
have been given the Methadone
Maintenance Therapy. Other substitutes
were also provided such is Buphrenorphine / Subutex and Subutex plus
Naloxone (Suboxone). However, these
are substitutes for opiates, whereas no
substitution medications are available for
other substances of abuse20.
Many studies found that giving
substitutes together with behavioural and
psychosocial interventions yielded better
results22,23. Harm reduction initiatives
that are supported by counseling,
especially motivational in nature, can
mould a person’s behavior change to a
specific target23. A person on MMT, for
example, given the proper counseling can
direct his behavior to finding better jobs,
engaging in community activities, taking
care of his health, and becoming more
aware of his medications as compared to
a person that is on MMT alone.
Counseling also includes spiritual input,
i.e. encouraging the patient to perform
his religious duties according to his
faith24,25. What is important is that harm
reduction initiatives can put a user on a
platform where other services that
enhance abstinence can be provided to
him on the long run15. Religiosity seems
to be one of the important factors that is
present in recovering drug users who
have maintained abstinence for a long
time25,26.
Islamic Religious input:
It is very clear that many religions of the
world oppose the use of intoxicating
substances6,26. Among those which
clearly declared this opposition is Islam,
which prohibits the use of drugs except
those which are medically prescribed6.
The Glorious Quran states
“O you who believe! Liquor, gambling,
idols and divining arrows are but
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014 147
ISLAMIC RELIGIOUS INPUT - MALAYSIA
abominations and Satanic devices. So
turn wholly away from each of them that
you may prosper. Satan desires only to
create enmity and hatred between you by
means of liquor and gambling and to
keep you back from the remembrance of
Allah and from Prayer. Will you then
desist?” 28. Prophet Muhammad‫ﷺ‬
said, 'Every intoxicant is Khamr
(alcohol) and all Khamr is Haram
(unlawful or not permitted) ' 29. The very
argument that was used against such
intoxicating substances is that all drugs
enable people to escape from real life
which would mean that they cannot serve
Allah ‫ﷻ‬. As such, people who use any
type of non-medicinal substance will
have to return to the path of Allah ‫ﷻ‬6.
Malaysia, being a Muslim majority
country emphasized spiritual rehabilitation in most of its social, behavioral and
correctional programs. This can be seen
in all government programs and many
others operated by NGOs and private
institutions5,30.
For government-based programs, most of
the educators, teachers, counselors and
therapists are being provided by the
Department of Islamic Development,
Malaysia (JAKIM) and the State
Religious Council / Authorities.
Thus teachings of Islamic religion and
good values are done by certified
religious teachers. Also, drug rehabilitation programs obtain assistance from
local religious leaders, Ulama, and
Imams of the mosques to interact with
residents in the center to prepare them to
re-enter society. Drug users from other
religious groups also receive inputs from
their respective religious personnel.
At the triage department of government
treatment centers, drug dependents are
detained for 2 weeks following the court
order for assessment, evaluation and
relocation. Minimum religious inputs are
provided there because of the short
detainment period. Religious teachers
from JAKIM encourage detainees to
148 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
perform their 5 times obligatory daily
prayers in their holding rooms.
Assessments are conducted by JAKIM
officers on religious understanding,
knowledge and practice starting from the
Shahadah and covering all the basics of
Islam.
Following up at the rehabilitation
institution, there are assessments and
evaluations done to match clients’ needs
and
interests
according
to
the
requirements of the basic knowledge and
values of Islam. Religious practices
provided at these centers, among others
are, mandatory prayers, reading the
Qur’an, sunnat prayers, zikr (remembrance of Allah ‫ )ﷻ‬and learning of the
hadith, celebrating Islamic events,
religious classes, talks and a choice of
careers pertaining to religious practice.
There are several spiritual enhance-ment
programs at the government drug
treatment institutions that include the
followings:
(i) Spiritual and self-introspection.
(ii) Religious educational classes such as
tawhid (unity of God), fiqh (Islamic
jurisprudence), akhlaq (morals), alQur’an, al-Hadith.
(iii) Learning the stories of Prophet
Muhammad (‫)ﷺ‬., the caliphs and
sahabah.
(iv) Subh (morning) and Maghrib
(evening) religious programs and talks.
(iv) The religious test (tasmi’) in order to
qualify for advancement to the next
phase of treatment.
There are also annual Islamic programs
and celebrations such as, celebration of
the beginning and year end, du'aa
(supplication) at the beginning of Islamic
calendar year (1st Muharram), Mawlid al
Rasul (the Prophet's birthday on 12
Rabi’ul
awwal),
Isra’and
Mi’raj
(ascension to heaven on 27 Rajab), nisfu
Sha'ban (15 Sha’ban), Ihya’ (celebrating)
Ramadan (1-30 Ramadan), nuzul alQuran (27 Ramadan), ‘Eidul- Fitr (1
Shawwal), and ‘Eidul- Adha (10
Zulhijjah). Celebrating these programs
ISLAMIC RELIGIOUS INPUT - MALAYSIA
are often done with family members and
significant others in order to facilitate the
family’s involvement in the treatment
program.
There are also special programs that are
included in the Islamic activities calendar
of the nation. These are Islamic current
issues Forum (with local television
stations, Janazah (funeral) course, nashid
competition (religious songs), hifz
(memorization)
al-Quran
program,
tilawah (proper recitation) of al-Quran
program, and Friends of the Mosque
program (a joint program with
JAKIM)30.
Spiritual-based Relapse Prevention
Program in Community Settings:
When recovering drug users leave the
institutional drug treatment programs,
most of them will still need guidance to
be able to re-enter the society1,9,11. Many
will use the government facilities, such
as the drop-in and community servicecentres (CCSC), community courses and
other community-based programs to
regain confidence. Here, there are a
multitude of programs that they can
follow, one of which is the religious
program as illustrated in Table 1-6.
Most of the community-based programs
also contain the following:
(i) Taqwa (righteousness) enhancement
program.
(ii) Salat program.
(iii)Capacity- building and enhancement.
(iv) Spiritual and religious recovery
mentoring.
(v) Visits of the community religious
leaders.
(vi) Imam and mu'adhin workshop.
(vii) Dawah methodology courses. These
are often done with collaboration of the
local religious heads in the community30.
What is the outcome of these inputs?
National Anti - Drug Agency (NADA)30,
in its implementation documents stated
that the desired outcomes would be
clients that perform the religious
practices in their everyday life, clients
that practice Islam as a way of life.
Religion can steer clients away from
negative life influences and decisions.
There are some improvements of the
clients’ physical, social and spiritual
quality of life. The question is how to
measure these outcomes in a short time
frame.
A study at 10 community-based Cure and
Care Service Center (CCSC) in 2012
showed that there are positive changes
perceived by the clients after they
undergo at least 12 months of religious
programs as part of their rehabilitation23
(Table 2).
In this study, model A is the CCSC
program operated by government officers
(NADA), CCSC model B is operated
together by government (NADA) and
NGOs, and Model C program is operated
by NGOs. Respondents were interviewed
based on a dichotomous rating of ‘Yes’
and ‘No’ to the items listed in Table 2.
They were asked to recall back to the
days when they were using drugs, and
compare to the present situation. Almost
in all models, there have been positive
changes on many of the indicators.
Specifically, religious indicators such as
“perform
prayers
regularly”
and
“practice religious teachings” showed the
largest and more significant perceived
change before they enter the rehabilitation program and after the program,
respectively from 36% to 93% and 29%
to 88%. Most of the religious programs
are being conducted by officers from the
Department of Islamic Development,
Malaysia (JAKIM) and these positive
perceptions among residents can be
attributed to its positive outcomes.
Conclusions:
The inclusion of religion and spirituality
into drug treatment has been found to
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014 149
ISLAMIC RELIGIOUS INPUT - MALAYSIA
have a positive effect onto the lives of
the recovering drug addicts. There has
been an increase in church attendance
that was associated with reduction in
cocaine use5, and regular performance of
one’s religious obligations22.
Such a positive effect, though not
widespread, has helped to improve the
quality of life of recovering drug
addicts24-26.
There are studies that
showed good outcomes to the religious
programs conducted in Malaysia21-23,
however there are also many studies that
showed little change over a longer period
of time5,11. These studies also pointed out
those religious inputs must be conducted
together with other evidence-based drug
treatment modalities. When the religious
program is conducted in isolation it was
shown to be of little effect1,11 as
compared to when it is conducted along
with
other
programs
such
as
detoxification, behavioral interventions,
therapeutic communities, and later on
MMT and other OSTs.. From these
studies and a multitude of unrecorded
experiences of conducting religious
programs, there are lessons that can be
learnt from Malaysia.
Since many drug users/addicts have
limited knowledge of religion, and are
much less practicing it, many treatment
experts believe that religion is quite
‘alien’ to the lifestyle of a drug addict.
Relearning religion and religious values
is imperative and it has to be done at a
slow pace22.
Treatment providers and specialists also
commented that rejection, lack of
commitment, non-adherence to programs
and negative defense mechanisms are
common especially among the hardcore
addicts. Acceptance is much higher with
younger clients and those who do not
experience severe dependency. This
would be a good group to start a religious
program22, 25.
Introduction of religious teachings
should be at the level suitable to the
subjects’ needs and preparedness.
150 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
Education should start at the appropriate
level rather than assuming that they
know everything. Inputs that are too
demanding or complex would only be
met with rejection22,23.
Thus teaching religion, its values and
practice without proper assessment of the
client’s needs is counterproductive. The
Alcohol, Smoking and Substance
Involvement Screening Test (ASSIST)
can be used as a guide for placement of
clients into specific programs17. Peereducators can be used to guide clients
into the programs, and at the same time
to avoid coercion23. Also the use of
motivation-enhancement techniques to
move clients up the ladder of religious
values and practice are more effective
than following a structured and fixed
program. Guidance and counseling is
necessary to motivate clients towards
religion, its values and practices. Clients
who reject religious teachings can and
will influence others to reject the
program in many ways.
There must be allocations for group
discussion sessions on the recovering
addicts'
experience
in
learning/
relearning religion, what are the ups and
downs23. Encourage clients to choose
what they want to learn with a given
menu. Assess their achievements and
give reports /encouragement.
Finally, healthcare providers must adhere
to the Principles of Drug Addiction
Treatment (PODAT)1. If religious/
spiritual therapy is to be used, medical
and behavioral therapy must be
integrated to provide a holistic drug
treatment strategy.
References:
1. NIDA. Principles of drug addiction treatment: A
research-based guide. National Institute on Drug
Abuse, National Institutes of Health, U.S. Department
of Health and Human Services, 1999.
2. McLellan AT, Lewis DC, O'Brien CP, Kleber HD.
Drug dependence, a chronic medical illness:
implications for treatment, insurance, and outcomes
evaluation, JAMA, 2000, Oct 4,284(13):1689-95
3. Volkow ND, Chang L. Wang GJ, Fowler JS,
Franceschi D, Sedler M. Gatley M. Miller E.
ISLAMIC RELIGIOUS INPUT - MALAYSIA
Hitzemann R. Ding YS. Logan J. Loss of Dopamine
Transporters in Methamphetamine Abusers Recovers
with Protracted Abstinence, The Journal of
Neuroscience, 2001, December, 21(23): 9414-9418.
4. Carroll KM. Onken LS. Behavioral therapies for
drug abuse. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 2005,
168(8):1452–1460.
5. Fu JJ. Bazazi AR. Altice FL. Mohamed MN.
Kamarulzaman A. Absence of Antiretroviral Therapy
and Other Risk Factors for Morbidity and Mortality in
Malaysian
Compulsory Drug
Detention
and
Rehabilitation Centers. 2012, PLoS ONE 7(9): e44249.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0044249.
6. Mahmood NM. Penyalahgunaan dadah: Aspek
Undang-undang, Rawatan, Pemulihan dan Pencegahan.
Kuala Lumpur: EduSystem Sdn Bhd, 2009.
7. Noor Zurina MR. Rusdi AR. Mohamed MN. Habil
H. Treating heroin addiction: Bridging the past and
future. A Malaysian experience, Asia-Pacific
Psychiatry, 18 APR 2012, DOI: 10.1111/j.17585872.2012.00194.x
8. National Anti Drugs Agency. 10 years statistics of
Drug Use in Malaysia: 1995-2006. Putrajaya: NADA,
2007.
9. Miller MM. Traditional approaches to the treatment
of addiction. In: A.W. Graham and T.K. Schultz (eds.),
Principles of Addiction Medicine (2nd ed.).
Washington, D.C.: American Society of Addiction
Medicine, 1998.
10. Tongue E, Turner D. Treatment options in
responding to drug misuse problems. ONDCP Bull
Narcotics Issue 1-001. 1988.
11. Mahmood NM, Yahya D, Dzahir MK. The practice
of TC in 5 ASEAN Countries, Paper presented at the
XXIII World Federation of Therapeutic Community
Conference, New York, NY: September 1-5, 2006.
12. McLellan AT. Arndt IO. Metzger D. Woody GE.
O’Brien CP. The effects of psychosocial services in
substance abuse treatment. The Journal of the
American Medical Association, 1993, 269(15):1953–
1959.
13. Simpson DD. Joe GW. Fletcher BW. Hubbard RL.
Anglin MD. A national evaluation of treatment
outcomes for cocaine dependence. Arch Gen Psych,
1999, 56: 507-514.
14. Mahmood NM. Drug situation in Malaysia: Trends,
incidences and anti-drug strategies. Indian J Psychol,
January (Special Issue), 2012, 71-82.
15. Ministry of Health, Malaysia, The Global AIDS
Response Progress Report 2012, Putrajaya: MoH,
2012.
16. International Harm Reduction Associations (2008).
www.ihra.org
17. Sangeeth K. Hafidah M. Mahmood NM. Projek
perintis program rawatan terapi gantian (RTG)
menggunakan methadone di Pusat Khidmat AADK.
Jurnal Antidadah Malaysia (Malaysian Anti-Drug
Journal), 2009, 5, 79-108.
18. Marsch, LA. Efficacy of the MMT program.
Addiction, 1998, 93(4), 515-532.
19. DASA. Preliminary findings of OST, Washington
State Outcome Project, 2002.
20. Mahmood NM. Hassan A. Faisal HI. Ahamad J.
Estimation of drug users and IDUs in Malaysia, Sintok:
Universiti Utara Malaysia Publisher, 2005.
21. Mahmood NM. Dzahir K. Drug substitution
therapy: Success and limitations of the methadone and
buphrenorphine maintenance program.
Jurnal
Antidadah Malaysia (Malaysian Anti-Drug Journal),
2007, 1: 25-72.
22. Mahmood NM. MMT and Psychosocial
Intervention program among drug dependents
undergoing mandatory community supervision: A 12months pilot project, Paper presented at 2010 ISAM
Conference, Milan 4-7 October 2010.
23. Mahmood NM. Sabitha M. Positive outcomes of
Cure and Care Service Centers (CCSC): A communitybased treatment program in Malaysia, International
Journal of Prevention and Treatment of Substance Use
Disorder, March, 2012, 1, 2, 71-83.
24. Fiellin DA. Pantalon MV. Chawarski MC. Moore
BA. Sullivan LE. O’Connor PG. Schottenfeld RS.
Counseling plus buprenorphine/naloxone maintenance
therapy for opioid dependence. The New England
Journal of Medicine, 2006, 355(4):365–374.
25. Gorsuch RL. Religious aspects of substance abuse
and recovery. Journal of Social Issues, 1994, 51, 65–
83.
26. Miller WR. Integrating spirituality into treatment.
Washington,
DC:
American
Psychological
Association,1999.
27. Pardini DA. Plante TG. Sherman A. Stump JE.
Religious faith and spirituality in substance abuse
recovery: Determining the mental health benefits.
Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 2000,19, 347–
354.
28. The Glorious Qur’an, Al-Maeda 5: 91-92.
29. Sahih Al-Bukhary, Vol 7, Book C9, No, 481-494,
www.iium.edu.my/deed/hadith/bukhari/069_sbt.html
30. National Anti Drugs Agency, Annual Report 2012,
Bangi: NADA, 2012.
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014 151
ISLAMIC RELIGIOUS INPUT - MALAYSIA
Figure 1: Number of heroin addicts arrested by the authorities from 1995 –
20068
Total number of heroin addicts arrested by the authorities
Per Cent of heroin addicts arrested to the total number of drug addict arrested
each year
(Permission to use obtained from National Anti-Drugs Agency, Malaysia, 2014)
Figure 2: Changing percentages of HIV cases due to intravenous drug use (IDU)
and those due to sexual encounters from 1990 to 2010
(Permission to use obtained from Ministry of Health, Malaysia, 2014).
152 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
ISLAMIC RELIGIOUS INPUT - MALAYSIA
Table 1: Some of the Community-Based Islamic Programs and Expected
Outcomes
No.
Program/activities
Objective
1
Halaqah
Provide continuous religious classes to recovering
drug addicts and their families, besides group
meetings to enhance recovery
2
Islamic art and culture
Provide Islamic entertainment, arts and culture for
recovering drug addicts
3
Ibadat camp
To provide an intensive program to study fard ‘Ain
and fard Kifayah to recovering drug addicts
4
Mosque as foster
parents
To aid recovering drug addicts and their families in
the recovery process by using the spiritual approach
5
Friends of the mosque
To encourage recovering drug addicts to be close to
the mosque institution. It can act as a temporary
shelter for them when they re enter the community
6
Volunteer work in the
community mosque
To encourage recovering drug addicts to contribute
back to the society besides preparing them to be
reintegrated back into the community
7
Outreach to other drug
addicts
Outreach work to recovering or drug addicts and
families in the community
Table 2: Measuring outcomes at 10 Cure and Care Community Centers
(CCSCs).
Pre-post Interview
Model A
at CCSC
Pre
Model
Post
Indicators of
B
Model
Post
Pre
C
Post
Pre
Change
Maintain good
relations
with parents
Maintain good
relations
with siblings & other
family member
Involved in societal
Voluntary program
Perform prayers
95
63.1%
121
84.6%
76
55.9%
92
70.2%
17
50.0%
22
64.7%
100
48.0%
2130
87.2%
87
64.0%
108
79.4%
19
55.9%
28
82.4%
80
53.7%
55
131
87.3%
140
65
48.1%
69
104
76.5%
121
15
44.1%
15
25
73.5%
28
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014 153
ISLAMIC RELIGIOUS INPUT - MALAYSIA
Pre-post Interview
Model A
at CCSC
Pre
Model
Post
Indicators of
B
Model
Post
Pre
C
Post
Pre
Change
regularly
Practice religious
teachings
Learn to increase
knowledge
154 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
36.9%
57
38.0%
47
31.3%
93.3%
118
78.7%
81
54.0%
51.1%
45
33.3%
38
27.9%
89.6%
88
65.2%
68
50.0%
44.1%
10
29.4%
5
14.7%
82.4%
30
88.2%
18
54.5%
ISLAMIC PSYCHO-SPIRITUAL THERAPY (PST):
PANACEA FOR THE DRUG DEPENDENT
Mohamed Hatta Shaharom*
Abstract:
Islamic Psycho-spiritual Therapy (PST) has its roots well embedded in the spiritual
foundation of the Qur’an and the Sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad (‫)ﷺ‬. Islamic PST
is the embodiment of everything that is permissible and potentially possible in the
methodologies of the spiritual treatment of the believer, within the confines of the
Shari`ah (Divine Law). The upholding of the principle of tawhid (the Oneness of Allah
(‫ )ﷻ‬is of prime importance in this therapy. What is basic in Islamic PST is that it is a
healing technique that transfers the individual from the realm of ill health to the realm of
wellbeing in a manner that is Godly (Rabbani). It also involves the assessment of the
patient’s religiosity. In the process, the individual is brought closer to Allah ‫ﷻ‬. In the
treatment of many who are dependent on alcohol and psychoactive substances, Islamic
PST has been proven to be effective.
Keywords: Allah (‫)ﷻ‬, Muhammad (‫)ﷺ‬, Islam, Muslim, , psycho-spiritual, therapy,
religiosity, meditation, , addiction.
Introduction
From the 1950s to the 1990s, the total
number of books, chapters and journal
articles
that
included
topics
on
psychotherapy, religiosity and religious
belief in their titles and abstracts has risen
from 86 to 330, totaling 774. Of these, five
controlled studies examined how religion
could be used in psychotherapy to treat
clients1. The Muslim Ummah (nation) of
today is blessed with the presence of
Muslim psychotherapists who strive to be
Shari`ah (Divine Law)-compliant in their
practice. Islamic Psycho-spiritual Therapy
(PST) must first of all be free of un-
Islamic and atheistic influences.
As a methodology, Islamic PST should be
able to incorporate the different theories of
psychotherapies that are not inherently
anti-religion and anti-spirituality, Islamizing them in the process. As the Ummah’s
need for Islamic PST increases, the
training of therapists and counselors in
Islamic PST must be enhanced.
In its contemporary forms, Islamic PST
has its roots well embedded in the spiritual
foundation of the Glorious Qur’an and the
Sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad (‫)ﷺ‬.
* Prof. Mohamed Hatta Shaharom
Consultant Psychiatrist And Founding Dean- Faculty of Medicine
Cyberjaya University College of Medical Sciences, Malaysia
And Adjunct Professor of Psychiatry,
University Kebangsaan Malaysia (National University of Malaysia).
E-mail: [email protected]
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014 155
ISLAMIC PSYCHO-SPIRITUAL THERAPY
Islamic PST is the embodiment of everything that is permissible and potentially
possible in the methodologies of the
spiritual treatment of the believer.
While approaches of Islamic PST can be
varied, they must always be within the
The five daily compulsory prayers
prescribed by Islam are adequate spiritual
enforcers for the practicing believer. It is a
constant psycho-spiritual reminder, a light
physical exercise and a social strengthening effort, all rolled into one. The focusing
on and mentioning of the name of Allah
and reciting His beautiful names are
among the most effective of meditation
techniques to countless Muslims throughout the ages. When the need and situation
arises, Islamic PST needs to be coupled
with pharmacotherapy.
What is basic in Islamic PST is that it is a
healing technique that transfers the
individual from the realm of ill health to
the realm of wellbeing in a manner that is
Godly (Rabbani). In the process, the
individual is brought closer to Allah.
This dual function is unique to Godconsciousness in Islam and Islamic PST.
Thus, while it is health giving to the
believer, Islamic PST enhances the
believer’s state of Godliness. It should be
stressed that Islamic PST is part of a
therapeutic process that is based on a holistic paradigm. While the therapist and the
client dwell into the psychological and the
spiritual domains of life, the physical and
the social domains must not be neglected.
In brief, a four-domain (bio-physical,
psychological, social and spiritual) assessment of the human being is of great
importance before treatment commences.
It is only through this approach that one
can identify the diseased or imbalanced
domains2. Islamic ethics in PST must be
strictly observed, just as in other forms of
therapies instituted by any Muslim
therapist. Islamic ethics in therapies
156 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
confines of the Shari`ah, the sacred law of
Islam. The upholding of the principle of
tawhid is of prime importance in this
therapy, like in any area of the lives of the
Muslim client (patient) and therapist.
include universal ethics of good practice.
One significant difference between Islamic
and non-Islamic ethics is the sitting
arrangement of the therapist and his
patient. When it involves a therapist and a
client of the opposite sex, therapy is best
done in a room with a glass window or a
glass door so both can be seen from the
outside. When there is a chaperone, this
requirement does not apply.
Measurement of Religiosity:
Since Islam is a structured religion, it is
recommended that the status of the client’s
religiosity at the commencement and the
termination of therapy be recorded. The
different levels of religiosity can be
measured by a well-structured Islamic
religiosity scale. An example is the
author’s Hatta Islamic Religiosity Scale
(HIRS) which measures the religiosity of
the client undergoing therapy.
This involves the scoring of the client’s:
▪ Basic Islamic knowledge, and
▪ Practice of basic Islamic rituals.
Guided by the different scores of the scale,
the therapist is able to advise the client on
the progress of the therapy and its religiospiritual impact.
During this process of guidance and
advice, the therapist must not impose his
own high standards of Islamic knowledge
and practice. He must not be seen as
judgmental even though the client is a
sinner according to basic Islamic standards
and a weakling as far as Islamic
commitments are concerned. However, it
must be noted that the HIRS does not
attempt to measure the faith (iman) of the
ISLAMIC PSYCHO-SPIRITUAL THERAPY
client or any Muslim, for the faith of any
Muslim or believer is only known to Allah
‫ﷻ‬. It is immeasurable by any human
inventory or questionnaire. On the other
hand the manifestations of an individual’s
faith are evident in his daily commitments
and undertakings3.
Therapist and Client: Requirements
a. The Therapist:
Since Islamic PST is essentially a psychoreligious therapy, the therapist must be a
practicing Muslim. To him, observing the
basic tenets of Islam is not a problem but a
pleasure, for he yearns for the pleasure of
Allah ‫ ﷻ‬through his attitudes and deeds.
He is known as an ethical practitioner who
inspires his clients in things spiritual and
moral. He has his clients’ trust as he guides
them with hope and faith on the road
towards health. Therapy is a humbling
experience for both therapist and client,
regardless of whether it ends in success or
failure. His client’s experiences before and
during therapy remind the therapist that
life is always full of challenges that can
devastate or elevate the morale of the
individual. This humility guards the
successful healer from the onslaught of
ostentation and boastful pride. He
constantly reminds himself that in reality,
healing does not come from him but from
Allah (‫ )ﷻ‬the Almighty, the Ultimate
Healer, according to the following
Qur’anic verse:
“And when I fall ill, He restores me to
health”4.
b. The Client:
Since Islamic PST involves religious
principles, the client undergoing it has to
be a Muslim. He must be willing to be
guided psycho-spiritually by the therapist
and let the blessings of Allah be showered
upon them. He is the one who is in need of
help. The therapist’s appreciation of the
client’s reliance on him must be realized
through an ethical mutual emotionalspiritual relationship that will primarily
benefit the client. If the client is a nonMuslim, the Muslim therapist can still
discuss religio-spiritual issues that can help
the client's progress towards recovery as
long as the therapist is not seen as
imposing Islamic principles on the client.
Consent from the client on this technique
must be obtained at the outset. The
therapist must not be seen as taking
advantage of the therapy to proselytize.
Therapist and Client: Differences:
Being co-religionists, the main similarity
that exists between the therapist and the
client is their religion. In fact, it functions
as the bulwark against further deterioration
of the client’s health while it acts as a
savior for the client’s waning spirit,
troubled
emotion
and
challenged
cognition.
Among the characteristics of an efficient
therapist is an unwavering belief in
Allah(‫)ﷻ‬, good Islamic knowledge and
practice, and praiseworthy character traits.
In contrast, the client may be well
equipped with or deficient in Islamic
knowledge and practice. His character can
be commendable or otherwise. In brief, it
is helpful for the client to feel that the
therapist is better than him in terms of
Islamic
knowledge
and
practice.
Otherwise, he may lack the confidence in
his therapist. And this will disrupt the
smooth progress of the therapy.
Methods and Contents:
As the name implies, Islamic PST involves
the client’s cognition and emotion (both
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014 157
ISLAMIC PSYCHO-SPIRITUAL THERAPY
are compositions of human psychology)
and his spiritual state.
Methods and approaches may vary from
one therapist to another and from one
school of PST to another. But the
principles and contents of Islamic PST do
not differ, i.e. they should not conflict with
Islamic principles of human psychology
and spirituality. Forbidden theories of
psychology, like the many aspects of
Freudian sexual interpretations of human
developmental theory, are excluded. The
therapist must be aware of anti-religious
trends in psychological theories and
therapies that, for instance, reduce man to
the level of the mice in the Skinner box or
the dog of Pavlov. These non-Islamic
schools of psychology oppose the attempt
to find the Godliness in man’s life and
efforts.
Islamic PST maintains that man is the most
supreme of the creatures of Allah. Man
enslaves himself only to Allah (‫)ﷻ‬.
Islamic PST is a means to aid the wayward
slave of Allah. If he deviates from the path
of Allah (‫ )ﷻ‬and falls into the abyss of
error or even disbelief, Islamic PST offers
the helping hand. Islamic PST elevates him
to his former station of fitrah, the original
unblemished state of Godliness of every
human being before he becomes corrupted
by his own worldly desires and satanic
influences.
Daily Prayers:
In many structured religious traditions,
there are prescribed daily prayers to be
performed by the devout believer. The
belief in the hereafter provides an
unending hope for salvation. In the
hereafter is found the eternal reward or
punishment of all strivings during this
transitory earthly life. The five daily
compulsory prayers prescribed by Islam
are adequate spiritual enforcers for the
158 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
practicing believer. It is a constant psychospiritual reminder, a light physical exercise
and a social strengthening effort, all rolled
into one. It is best when done
congregationally at any clean place,
outdoors or indoors, and in mosques or in
family homes. When any of the daily
prayers is performed individually, the
spiritual rewards and blessings are inferior
as compared to the congregational prayer.
Of course, performing the individual
prayer is much better than neglecting it
totally.
Apart from these compulsory prayers,
there are supererogatory prayers for special
occasions that would cleanse and
strengthen the soul of the believer.
They draw him closer to Allah. These
include prayers in times of need and
hardship and during moments of
thanksgiving and joy. Practicing the
compulsory five daily prayers is extremely
important during the duration of Islamic
PST or outside that duration of therapy.
If the client is not used to perform all the
five daily prayers, he must be encouraged
to perform at least one to four of them. It is
commendable for the client to perform
suitable supererogatory prayers to buttress
his increasing spiritual strength. It is also
appropriate for the therapist to become the
imam (prayer leader) of the client should
they perform the congregational prayer
together.
Meditation:
The essence of meditation is the focusing
of one’s attention on one thing at a time.
Different religious traditions vary in their
approaches to meditation. Often the
meditator repeats, either aloud or silently, a
syllable, word, or group of words. In the
Hindu tradition, the Sanskrit term for this
ISLAMIC PSYCHO-SPIRITUAL THERAPY
kind of meditation is called mantra. To
anchor the attention, one gazes at a fixed
object such as a flame or flower. Others
find focusing on the rising and falling of
their own breaths as a convenient and
relaxing point of focus.
It is the nature of the mind to go astray and
not stay concentrated. Myriads of thoughts
easily appear and seemingly interfere with
the meditation. By repeating this one
moment of awareness (noticing the thought
and then refocusing the attention),
gradually the meditator will realize that:
 It is impossible to worry, fear, or hate
when the mind is thinking about
something other than the object of
these emotions;
 The diverse contents of the mind can
really fit into a few simple categories,
such as grudging thoughts, fearful
thoughts; etc.
 We act in certain ways due to thoughts
that have become habitual thought
patterns and perception;
 Thought and emotion are not
permanent since they pass into and out
of our body and mind; and
 Life will be lived to its fullest with
equanimity and level-headedness when
we are awake to what is happening
right now5.
c. Invocations and Remembrance:
In Islam, the focusing on and mentioning
of the name of Allah (the name of the
essence of God) and reciting His beautiful
names [al-asma’ al-husna ( Beautiful
Names or Attributes)] are among the most
effective of meditation techniques to
countless Muslims throughout the ages.
This act of remembrance of Allah (‫)ﷻ‬
(dhikr Allah) can be practiced anywhere
and at any time. It has brought solace to
many a troubled soul and offered hope to
those who had been momentarily displaced
from the sphere of hopeful determination
due to their forgetfulness of Allah (‫ )ﷻ‬in
the face of intense personal suffering6.
In this spirit, even beyond mandatory
religious rituals, seemingly mundane
activities like carrying out a respectable
job or singing in front of an audience are
considered Godly. This is as long as they
are executed out of sincerity to Allah (‫)ﷻ‬
and the carrying out of these acts is in
accordance with Islam. The therapist must
be aware that psychotherapy comes in
different forms in Islam, and among them
are music and singing therapies. As in
other life activities, there must be no free
mixing of the sexes. Allah's Beautiful
Names (Attributes) can be memorized and
recited at any time. The therapist should be
able to choose for the client the appropriate
name(s) to be memorized and recited as
part of the therapeutic process. For
instance, the name al-Razzaq (the
Provider) is appropriate for a client who
experiences mild anxiety and/or mild
depression while he is engrossed with
unnecessary worries about his financial
needs. Among the assortment of
collections of prayers from the Glorious
Qur’an and the supplications of the
Prophet Muhammad (‫)ﷺ‬, selections
from the following scholar-compilers
would be directly relevant for clients
undergoing Islamic PST:
 Al-adhkar of al-Nawawi7, and
 Al-ma’thurat of al-Banna8.
Qur’anic Healing:
Among the many Qur’anic verses that are
relevant to the healing process are:
“Those who believe (in the Qur’an), those
who follow the Jewish scriptures, and the
Sabeans and the Christians, whoever
believes in Allah and the Last Day and
work righteously, on them shall be no fear,
nor shall they grieve”9.
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014 159
ISLAMIC PSYCHO-SPIRITUAL THERAPY
“When My slaves ask you concerning Me,
I am indeed close to them, I respond to the
prayer of every suppliant when he calls on
Me; let them also listen to My call and
believe in Me, that they may walk in the
right way”10.
The client is also made aware of the fate
that befalls unfortunate souls who deny
Allah’s (‫ )ﷻ‬truth. In reality, the Glorious
Qur’an ascertains that they have a disease
in their hearts. This is essentially a spiritual
illness that must be prevented from
afflicting any believer.
“In their hearts is a disease and Allah
increases their disease, and grievous
suffering awaits them because they are
false (to themselves)”11.
Islamic PST facilitates the introspection
process on the part of the client. If he
discovers that he is suffering from a
spiritual disease, the therapist would be
able to help him get through his ordeal and
get rid of the illness. Even if he is afflicted
by a mild spiritual discomfort, it would be
helpful if he/she strives to prevent the
occurrence of the illness.
Sickness as Expiation of Sins:
Islam has a unique perspective regarding
physical and mental illnesses. While
seeking treatment is a commendable effort,
the sick person must understand and accept
the fact that the expiation of some sins
takes place during illnesses as clearly
described in the following Hadith:
Abu Sa‘id al-khudari and Abu Huraira
narrated that the Prophet (‫ )ﷺ‬said:"No
fatigue, nor disease, nor sorrow, nor
sadness, nor hurt, nor distress befalls a
Muslim, even if it were the prick he
receives from a thorn, but that Allah
expiates some of his sins for that12".
Psychological Disorders:
Relevant prayers must be recited by the
160 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014
patient suffering from a psychological or
psychiatric disorder. If the client is
mentally unfit to pray for himself, his nextof-kin (e.g. parent or sibling) and the
community should pray (supplicate) for
him/her. Among the common psychiatric
disorders (DSM-IV-TR criteria)13 that are
known to afflict patients are:
 Anxiety disorders.
 Depression.
 Mania.
 Schizophrenia.
 Substance dependence and abuse.
Adjunct Therapy:
There would be situations when Islamic
PST needs to be coupled with pharmacotherapy. Islam, viewing the patient as a
whole individual, does not negate the role
of other forms of permissible therapy
beyond the psycho-spiritual. Adjunct
therapy that is coupled with Islamic PST is
also permissible in Islam for as long as it
does not contradict the Shari`ah.
Addictive Behaviour:
Terms related to drug and alcohol
addiction are dependence and misuse.
Addictive behavior related to the misuse of
psychoactive substances is associated with
excessive behavioral patterns that are
detrimental to the individual’s health14. For
more than a decade, convincing studies
have shown the relationship between
environmental stimuli and the craving for
the drug among drug users as compared to
non-users. Neurophysiological responses
included elevated heart rate, strong
craving, and Positron Emission Transaxial
Tomography (PET) scans revealing
increased activity in the brain’s limbic
region. Thus psychological experiences
can be associated with brain regions
identified by brain imaging techniques15.
ISLAMIC PSYCHO-SPIRITUAL THERAPY
Comorbidity:
It is common for drug users to have
multiple medical problems. For instance,
psychiatric comorbidities with attendant
dependency are not infrequent. Coupled
with this challenge, the demanding or helprejecting nature of the drug dependent
populations may drain staff of clinical
emergency departments16.
Non-hospital therapeutic groups whose
interest and cooperation can complement
the services of conventional Western
hospital care are welcome to serve and
alleviate the stress on medical services.
Looking back at the holistic model of
managing the drug abuser, the psychosocial aspect must not be overlooked when
the psychospiritual domain is looked into.
Punishment (which is the psychosocial
aspect of the outcome) must be meted out
to abusers who break the law. But efforts
to help them overcome their addiction
must not be neglected.
Concluding Remarks:
For Muslim drug abusers and addicts, the
psycho-spiritual method has been shown to
be helpful in their efforts to overcome the
problem while they return to the path of a
practising Muslim. Whether it is in South
Africa17, Malaysia18 or Indonesia19 psychospiritual approaches have been successful.
However two main issues need further
attention:
1. Empirical studies on the methodologies
and outcomes must be enhanced to
ensure the approaches meet basic
international standards of therapy and
research.
2. It must always be ascertained that
therapies that employ sufi dhikr and
other spiritual techniques must abide
with Islamic Shari`ah principles.
Prayers are not only confined to Islam and
its therapeutic domain. Since time
immemorial, prayers have been found to
be part of the treatment armamentarium of
many a civilization and culture. By the end
of the 20th Common Era century, Western
researchers have noted the incompleteness
of medical therapy without the prescription
of prayers20.
The Muslim client has every opportunity to
benefit from Islamic PST. For the nonMuslim believers of God, they can also
gain from a PST that is managed by a welltrained Muslim therapist. Meditation and
prayers are necessary in the management
of the cacophony of post-modern social
disorder. They are able to help us retain
our sanity in facing the challenges of life.
Without them, we stand to lose our
psycho-spiritual bearing.
Islamic PST has its relevance in treating
those who are dependents on and involved
in the misuse of psychoactive substances.
References:
1.Stevan Nielsan, W Brad Johnson, Albert Ellis, 2001.
Counseling and Psychotherapy with Religious Persons: A
Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy Approach. London:
Lawrence Erlbaum, p ix.
2. Mohamed Hatta Shaharom, 2009. Allah: A
Psychospiritual Contemplation on His Name. Kuala
Lumpur: CERT Publications, pp 155-157.
3. Hanafiah M Salleh, S Mohamed Hatta, et al., 2000.
Hatta Islamic Religiosity Scale 1996 (HIRS) – A
Reliability and Validity Study. Malaysian Journal of
Psychiatry Vol. 8, No. 1, March 2000: 5-14.
4. The Glorious Qur’an, Ash-Shu‘ara’ (The Poets) 26:80.
5. Martha Davis, Elizabeth Esheman, Matthew McKay,
1988. The Relaxation & Stress Reduction Workbook.
Oakland, CA: New Harbinger, pp 37-38.
6. Mohamed Hatta Shaharom, 2007. 7-Day Stress Relief
Plan. Kuala Lumpur: CERT Publications, pp 50-51.
7. Al-Adzkar Imam an-Nawawi (Malay-Indonesian
Translation with Original Arabic Text) Jakarta,
Indonesia: Pustaka as-Sunnah, 2006.
8. Al-Ma'thurat of Imam Shahid Hasan al-Banna (English
Translation with Original Arabic Text) Swansea, UK:
Awakening Publications 2nd Edition, 2007.
9. The Glorious Qur’an, Al-Ma’idah (The Table Spread)
5:69.
10. The Glorious Qur’an, Al-Baqarah (The Heifer)
2:186.
11. The Glorious Qur’an, Al-Baqarah (The Heifer) 2:10.
FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014 161
ISLAMIC PSYCHO-SPIRITUAL THERAPY
12. Sahih al-Bukhari, Hadith 545 (Vol. 7), Book 70:
Patients.
Wister
Hadith.
http://www.gowister.com/sahihbukhari-7-545.html.
Retrieved 26 May 2013.
13. American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual-IV (Text Revision, 2000), cited in
Mohamed Hatta Shaharom, 2007. 7-Day Stress Relief
Plan. Kuala Lumpur: CERT Publications, pp 38-42.
14. G Hussein Rassool, 2009. Alcohol and Drug Misuse:
A Handbook for Students and Health Professionals.
London: Routledge, p 7.
15. Stephen A Maisto et al., 2011. Drug Use and Abuse.
Belmont: Wadsworth, p 63.
16. Richard Gallagher et al, 2010. Addiction and
Emergency Psychiatry. In David Bariser and Ricardo
Castaneda. Clinical Addiction Psychiatry. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, p 228.
17. Selma Cook. The Islamic Approach to Overcoming
Addiction.
http://www.thekhalids.org/index.php/newsletterarchive/810-islamic-approach-to-overcoming-addiction
(Retrieved 25 April 2014).
18. Dini Farhana Baharuddin, Abd. Halim Mohd. Hussin,
Melati Sumari et al. Developing A Family Intervention
Model For the Treatment and Rehabilitation of Drug
Addiction.
http://acreda.usim.edu.my/aktiviti-acreda/kajian-acreda;
http://www.sinarharian.com.my/rencana/bimbinganterapi-psikospritual-1.169732;
http://www.alhidayahmedic.com/coretan-hj-lokman/rawatan-ketagihan-dadah
(Retrieved 28 May 2014).
19. Subandi Taufik, Achmad DP, Fuad Hamsyah.
Returning to God: The Role of Dhikr (A Sufi Meditation)
Practice in Treating Drug Addicts in Indonesia.
http://psikologi.ugm.ac.id/uploads/resources/File/Databas
e%20Penelitian%20Dosen/dhikr_drug.pdf (Retrieved 28
May 2014).
20. Dadang Hawari, 2002. Dimensi Religi Dalam Praktek
Psikiatri Dan Psikologi (The Religious Dimension in
Psychiatric and Psychological Practice). Jakarta: Fakultas
Kedokteran Universitas Indonesia (Medical Faculty,
University of Indonesia), pp 182-191.
162 FIMA YEAR BOOK 2014