Download Functions of the Digestive System

PowerPoint® Lecture Slide Presentation
by Patty Bostwick-Taylor,
Florence-Darlington Technical College
The Digestive
System and
Body
Metabolism
14
PART A
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Bellwork §  Is the use of animals for dissec5on/research ethical? End
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Question Formulation
§  Ask as many questions as you can
§  Do not stop to discuss, judge, or answer the
questions
§  Write down every question exactly as it is stated
§  Change any statement into a question
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All-Record Round Robin-Questions
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Improve Your Questions
§  Categorize questions as close-ended or openended
§  Change questions from one type to another
§  Ex: Are you feeling better today?
§  Ex: How did you and your best friend meet?
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Prioritize Questions
§  Choose the three most important questions
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Unit 7: Digestive and Urinary System
§  SWBAT analyze the structure and function of the
digestive system and urinary system, diagnose
abnormalities, and explain their effect on individuals
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The Digestive System Functions
§  Homeostatic Functions
§  Ingestion—taking in food
§  Digestion—breaking food down both
physically and chemically
§  Absorption—movement of nutrients into the
bloodstream
§  Defecation—rids the body of indigestible
waste
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Lesson 1
§  SWBAT identify components of digestive system
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Organs of the Digestive System
§  Two main groups
§  1. Alimentary canal (gastrointestinal or GI
tract)
§  Continuous coiled hollow tube
§  These organs ingest, digest, absorb,
defecate
§  2. Accessory digestive organs
§  Includes teeth, tongue, and other large
digestive organs
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Organs of the Digestive System
Figure 14.1
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Organs of the Alimentary Canal
§  Mouth
§  Pharynx
§  Esophagus
§  Stomach
§  Small intestine
§  Large intestine
§  Anus
§  Total Length?
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1. Mouth (Oral Cavity) Anatomy
§  Lips —protect the anterior opening
§  Cheeks—form the lateral walls
§  Hard palate—forms the anterior roof
§  Soft palate—forms the posterior roof
§  Uvula—fleshy projection of the soft palate
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Mouth (Oral Cavity) Anatomy
Figure 14.2a
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Mouth (Oral Cavity) Anatomy
Figure 14.2b
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TimePairShare
§  How does the mouth help with digestion?
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Mouth Physiology
§  Mastication (chewing) of food
§  Mixing masticated food with saliva
§  Initiation of swallowing by the tongue
§  Allows for the sense of taste
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2. Pharynx Anatomy
§  Connects mouth and esophagus
§  Nasopharynx—not part of the digestive system
§  Oropharynx—posterior to oral cavity
§  Laryngopharynx—below the oropharynx and
connected to the esophagus
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Mouth (Oral Cavity) Anatomy
Figure 14.2a
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Pharynx Physiology
§  How does the pharynx help with digestion?
§  Serves as a passageway for air and food
§  Food is propelled to the esophagus by two
muscle layers
§  Longitudinal inner layer
§  Circular outer layer
§  Food movement is by alternating contractions of
the muscle layers (peristalsis)
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3. Esophagus Anatomy
§  Anatomy
§  About 10 inches long
§  Runs from pharynx to stomach through the
diaphragm
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Esophagus Anatomy and Physiology
§  How does the esophagus help with digestion?
§  Physiology
§  Conducts food by peristalsis (slow rhythmic
squeezing)
§  Passageway for food only (respiratory system
branches off after the pharynx)
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Layers of Alimentary Canal Organs
§  Four layers
§  Mucosa
§  Submucosa
§  Muscularis externa
§  Serosa
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Layers of Alimentary Canal Organs
Figure 14.3
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Layers of Alimentary Canal Organs
§  Mucosa
§  Innermost, moist membrane consisting of
§  Surface epithelium
§  Small smooth muscle layer
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Layers of Alimentary Canal Organs
Figure 14.3
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Layers of Alimentary Canal Organs
§  Submucosa
§  Just beneath the mucosa
§  Soft connective tissue with blood vessels,
nerve endings, and lymphatics
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Layers of Alimentary Canal Organs
Figure 14.3
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Layers of Alimentary Canal Organs
§  Muscularis externa—smooth muscle
§  Inner circular layer
§  Outer longitudinal layer
§  Serosa—outermost layer of the wall contains
fluid-producing cells
§  Visceral peritoneum
§  Parietal peritoneum
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Layers of Alimentary Canal Organs
Figure 14.3
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Bellwork
§  In what layer do you find the circular and
longitudinal muscle?
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4. Stomach Anatomy
§  Regions of the stomach
§  Left side
§  Cardiac region—near the heart
§  Fundus—expanded portion lateral to the cardiac
region
§  Body—midportion
§  Pylorus—funnel-shaped terminal end
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Stomach Anatomy
Figure 14.4a
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Stomach Anatomy
§  Located on the left side of the abdominal cavity
§  Food enters at the cardioesophageal sphincter
§  Food empties into the small intestine at the
pyloric sphincter (valve)
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Stomach Anatomy
Figure 14.4a
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Stomach Anatomy
§  Rugae—internal folds of the mucosa
§  External regions
§  Lesser curvature—concave medial surface
§  Greater curvature—convex lateral surface
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Stomach Anatomy
Figure 14.4a
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Stomach Anatomy
Figure 14.4b
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Stomach Anatomy
§  Layers of peritoneum attached to the stomach
§  Lesser omentum—attaches the liver to the lesser
curvature
§  Greater omentum—attaches the greater curvature
to the posterior body wall
§  Contains fat to insulate, cushion, and protect
abdominal organs
§  Has lymph nodules containing macrophages
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Stomach Anatomy
Figure 14.5b
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Stomach Anatomy
Figure 14.5a
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Stomach Physiology
§  How does the stomach contribute to digestion?
§  Temporary storage tank for food
§  Site of food breakdown
§  Chemical breakdown of protein begins
§  Delivers chyme (processed food) to the small
intestine
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Structure of the Stomach Mucosa
§  Mucosa is simple columnar epithelium
§  Mucous cells—produce a sticky alkaline mucus
§  Gastric glands—situated in gastric pits and
secrete gastric juice
§  Chief cells—produce protein-digesting enzymes
(pepsinogens)
§  Parietal cells—produce hydrochloric acid
§  Enteroendocrine cells—produce gastrin
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Structure of the Stomach Mucosa
Figure 14.4c
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Structure of the Stomach Mucosa
Figure 14.4d
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Bellwork
§  What are the different types of cells found in the
stomach?
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Lesson 1
§  SWBAT identify components of digestive system
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5. Small Intestine
§  The body’s major digestive organ
§  Site of nutrient absorption into the blood
§  Muscular tube extending from the pyloric
sphincter to the ileocecal valve
§  Suspended from the posterior abdominal wall by the
mesentery
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Stomach/Small Intestine Anatomy
Figure 14.4a
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Subdivisions of the Small Intestine
§  Duodenum
§  Attached to the stomach
§  Curves around the head of the pancreas
§  Jejunum
§  Attaches anteriorly to the duodenum
§  Ileum
§  Extends from jejunum to large intestine
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Small Intestine Physiology
§  How does the small intestine contribute to
digestion?
§  Majority of chemical digestion occurs in the small
intestine
§  Enzymes are produced by
§  Intestinal cells
§  Pancreas
§  Pancreatic ducts carry enzymes to the small
intestine
§  Bile, formed by the liver, enters via the bile
duct
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Chemical Digestion in the Small Intestine
Figure 14.6
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Small Intestine Anatomy
§  Three structural modifications that increase
surface area
§  Microvilli—tiny projections of the plasma
membrane (create a brush border appearance)
§  Villi—fingerlike structures formed by the
mucosa
§  Circular folds (plicae circulares)—deep folds
of mucosa and submucosa
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Small Intestine Anatomy
Figure 14.7a
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Small Intestine Anatomy
Figure 14.7b
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Small Intestine Anatomy
Figure 14.7c
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Bellwork
§  What are the 3 parts of the small intestine?
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6. Large Intestine Anatomy
§  Larger in diameter, but shorter in length, than the
small intestine
§  From ileocecal valve to anus
§  First part of intestine is cecum
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Large Intestine
Figure 14.8
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Large Intestine Anatomy
§  Appendix
§  Accumulation of lymphatic tissue that sometimes
becomes inflamed (appendicitis)
§  Hangs from the cecum
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Large Intestine Physiology
§  How does the large intestine contribute to the
digestive system?
§  Absorbs water
§  Eliminates feces
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Large Intestine
Figure 14.8
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Large Intestine Anatomy
§  Colon
§  Ascending—travels up right side of abdomen
§  Transverse—travels across the abdominal cavity
§  Descending—travels down the left side
§  Sigmoid—enters the pelvis
§  Rectum and anal canal—also in pelvis
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Large Intestine Anatomy
§  Anus—opening of the large intestine
§  External anal sphincter—formed by skeletal
muscle and under voluntary control
§  Internal involuntary sphincter—formed by
smooth muscle
§  These sphincters are normally closed except
during defecation
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Large Intestine Anatomy
§  No villi present
§  Goblet cells produce alkaline mucus which
lubricates the passage of feces
§  Muscularis externa layer is reduced to three bands of
muscle called teniae coli
§  These bands cause the wall to pucker into haustra
(pocketlike sacs)
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Large Intestine
Figure 14.8
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RallyRobin- Dream Spring Break Spots
§  Provide examples
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RallyRobin- Order of Food Passage
§  Provide examples
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Accessory Digestive Organs
§  Teeth
§  Salivary glands
§  Pancreas
§  Liver
§  Gallbladder
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Teeth
§  Function is to masticate (chew) food
§  Humans have two sets of teeth
§  Deciduous (baby or “milk”) teeth
§  20 teeth are fully formed by age two
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Teeth
§  Permanent teeth
§  Replace deciduous teeth between the ages of
6 and 12
§  A full set is 32 teeth, but some people do not
have wisdom teeth (third molars)
§  If they do emerge, the wisdom teeth appear
between ages of 17 and 25
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Classification of Teeth
§  Incisors—cutting
§  Canines—tearing or piercing
§  Premolars—grinding
§  Molars—grinding
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Human Deciduous and Permanent Teeth
Figure 14.9
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Regions of a Tooth
§  Crown—exposed part
§  Enamel—hardest substance in the body
§  Dentin—found deep to the enamel and forms
the bulk of the tooth
§  Pulp cavity—contains connective tissue,
blood vessels, and nerve fibers
§  Root canal—where the pulp cavity extends
into the root
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Regions of a Tooth
§  Neck
§  Region in contact with the gum
§  Connects crown to root
§  Root
§  Cementum—covers outer surface and
attaches the tooth to the periodontal
membrane
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Regions of a Tooth
Figure 14.10
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Salivary Glands
§  Three pairs of salivary glands empty secretions
into the mouth
§  Parotid glands
§  Submandibular glands
§  Sublingual glands
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Salivary Glands
Figure 14.1
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Saliva
§  Mixture of mucus and serous fluids
§  Helps to form a food bolus
§  Contains salivary amylase to begin starch
digestion
§  Dissolves chemicals so they can be tasted
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Pancreas
§  Extends across the abdomen from spleen to
duodenum
§  Produces a wide spectrum of digestive enzymes
that break down all categories of food
§  Enzymes are secreted into the duodenum
§  Alkaline fluid introduced with enzymes neutralizes
acidic chyme coming from stomach
§  Hormones produced by the pancreas
§  Insulin
§  Glucagon
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Pancreas
Figure 14.1
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Pancreas
Figure 14.6
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Functions of the Digestive System
Figure 14.13 (1 of 3)
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Functions of the Digestive System
Figure 14.13 (2 of 3)
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Functions of the Digestive System
Figure 14.13 (3 of 3)
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Liver
§  Largest gland in the body
§  Located on the right side of the body under the
diaphragm
§  Consists of four lobes suspended from the diaphragm
and abdominal wall by the falciform ligament
§  Connected to the gallbladder via the common hepatic
duct
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Liver
Figure 14.1
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Liver
Figure 14.5
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Bile
§  Produced by cells in the liver
§  Composition is
§  Bile salts
§  Bile pigments (mostly bilirubin from the
breakdown of hemoglobin)
§  Cholesterol
§  Phospholipids
§  Electrolytes
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Bile
§  Function—emulsify fats by physically breaking
large fat globules into smaller ones
§  Provides more surface area for enzymes to digest
fats
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Gallbladder
§  Sac found in hollow fossa of liver
§  When no digestion is occurring, bile backs up the
cystic duct for storage in the gallbladder
§  When digestion of fatty food is occurring, bile is
introduced into the duodenum from the
gallbladder
§  Gallstones are crystallized cholesterol which can
cause blockages
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Gallbladder
Figure 14.6
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Enzymes
§  Lipases
§  Peptidases
§  Amylase
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Digestive System Physiology
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Lesson Plan-2
§  SWBAT compare and contrast physical chemical
digestion
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Functions of the Digestive System
§  1. Ingestion—getting food into the mouth
§  2. Propulsion—moving foods from one region of
the digestive system to another
§  Peristalsis—alternating waves of contraction
and relaxation that squeezes food along the GI
tract
§  Segmentation—moving materials back and
forth to aid with mixing in the small intestine
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Functions of the Digestive System
Figure 14.12
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Functions of the Digestive System
§  3. Food breakdown as mechanical digestion
§  Examples:
§  Mixing food in the mouth by the tongue
§  Churning food in the stomach
§  Segmentation in the small intestine
§  Mechanical digestion prepares food for further
degradation by enzymes
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Functions of the Digestive System
§  3b Food breakdown as chemical digestion
§  Enzymes break down food molecules into
their building blocks
§  Each major food group uses different enzymes
§  Carbohydrates are broken to simple
sugars
§  Proteins are broken to amino acids
§  Fats are broken to fatty acids and alcohols
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Functions of the Digestive System
Figure 14.13 (1 of 3)
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Functions of the Digestive System
Figure 14.13 (2 of 3)
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Functions of the Digestive System
Figure 14.13 (3 of 3)
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Functions of the Digestive System
§  4. Absorption
§  End products of digestion are absorbed in the
blood or lymph
§  5. Defecation
§  Elimination of indigestible substances from
the GI tract in the form of feces
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Functions of the Digestive System
Figure 14.11
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Control of Digestive Activity
§  Mostly controlled by reflexes via the parasympathetic
division
§  Chemical and mechanical receptors are located in
organ walls that trigger reflexes
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Control of Digestive Activity
§  Stimuli include
§  Stretch of the organ
§  pH of the contents
§  Presence of breakdown products
§  Reflexes include
§  Activation or inhibition of glandular secretions
§  Smooth muscle activity
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Digestive Activities of the Mouth
§  Mechanical breakdown
§  Food is physically broken down by chewing
§  Chemical digestion
§  Food is mixed with saliva
§  Starch is broken down into maltose by salivary
amylase
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Activities of the Pharynx and Esophagus
§  These organs have no digestive function
§  Serve as passageways to the stomach
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Deglutition (Swallowing)
§  Buccal phase
§  Voluntary
§  Occurs in the mouth
§  Food is formed into a bolus
§  The bolus is forced into the pharynx by the
tongue
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Deglutition (Swallowing)
§  Pharyngeal-esophageal phase
§  Involuntary transport of the bolus
§  All passageways except to the stomach are
blocked
§  Tongue blocks off the mouth
§  Soft palate (uvula) blocks the nasopharynx
§  Epiglottis blocks the larynx
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Deglutition (Swallowing)
§  Pharyngeal-esophogeal phase (continued)
§  Peristalsis moves the bolus toward the
stomach
§  The cardioesophageal sphincter is opened
when food presses against it
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Deglutition (Swallowing)
Figure 14.14a–b
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Deglutition (Swallowing)
Figure 14.14c–d
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Food Breakdown in the Stomach
§  Gastric juice is regulated by neural and hormonal
factors
§  Presence of food or rising pH causes the release of
the hormone gastrin
§  Gastrin causes stomach glands to produce
§  Protein-digesting enzymes (Pepsin)
§  Mucus
§  Hydrochloric acid
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Food Breakdown in the Stomach
§  Hydrochloric acid makes the stomach contents
very acidic
§  Acidic pH
§  Activates pepsinogen to pepsin for protein
digestion
§  Provides a hostile environment for
microorganisms
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Digestion and Absorption in the Stomach
§  Protein digestion enzymes
§  Pepsin—an active protein-digesting enzyme
§  Rennin—works on digesting milk protein in
infants, not adults
§  Alcohol and aspirin are the only items absorbed in the
stomach
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Functions of the Digestive System
Figure 14.13 (1 of 3)
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Functions of the Digestive System
Figure 14.13 (2 of 3)
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Functions of the Digestive System
Figure 14.13 (3 of 3)
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Propulsion in the Stomach
§  Food must first be well mixed
§  Rippling peristalsis occurs in the upper stomach
§  The pylorus meters out chyme into the small
intestine (30 mL at a time)
§  The stomach empties in 4–6 hours
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Propulsion in the Stomach
Figure 14.15a–c
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Bellwork
§  What is the order of food flow through the body?
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Digestion in the Small Intestine
§  Pancreatic enzymes play the major digestive
function
§  Help complete digestion of starch (pancreatic
amylase)
§  Carry out about half of all protein digestion
§  Digest fats using lipases from the pancreas
§  Digest nucleic acids using nucleases
§  Alkaline content neutralizes acidic chyme
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Functions of the Digestive System
Figure 14.13 (1 of 3)
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Functions of the Digestive System
Figure 14.13 (2 of 3)
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Functions of the Digestive System
Figure 14.13 (3 of 3)
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Absorption in the Small Intestine
§  Water is absorbed along the length of the small
intestine
§  End products of digestion
§  Most substances are absorbed by active
transport through cell membranes
§  Lipids are absorbed by diffusion
§  Substances are transported to the liver by the
hepatic portal vein or lymph
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Small Intestine Anatomy
Figure 14.7b
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Small Intestine Anatomy
Figure 14.7c
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Propulsion in the Small Intestine
§  Peristalsis is the major means of moving food
§  Segmental movements
§  Mix chyme with digestive juices
§  Aid in propelling food
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Segmentation
Figure 14.12b
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Food Breakdown and Absorption
in the Large Intestine
§  No digestive enzymes are produced
§  Resident bacteria digest remaining nutrients
§  Produce some vitamin K and B
§  Release gases
§  Water and vitamins K and B are absorbed
§  Remaining materials are eliminated via feces
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Food Breakdown and Absorption
in the Large Intestine
§  Feces contains
§  Undigested food residues
§  Mucus
§  Bacteria
§  Water
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Propulsion in the Large Intestine
§  Sluggish peristalsis
§  Mass movements
§  Slow, powerful movements
§  Occur three to four times per day
§  Presence of feces in the rectum causes a
defecation reflex
§  Internal anal sphincter is relaxed
§  Defecation occurs with relaxation of the
voluntary (external) anal sphincter
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§  http://www.linkstudio.info/images/portfolio/
medani/digestivesystem.swf
§  http://www.cengage.com/biology/
discipline_content/animations/
digestion_absorption.html
§  http://nutrition.jbpub.com/resources/
animations.cfm?id=3
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Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Biochemistry: Essentials for Life
§  Organic compounds
§  Contain carbon
§  Includes carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic
acids
§  Inorganic compounds
§  Lack carbon
§  Tend to be simpler compounds
§  Includes water, salts, and some acids and bases
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Metabolism
§  Chemical reactions necessary to maintain life
§  Catabolism—substances are broken down to
simpler substances; energy is released
§  Anabolism—larger molecules are built from
smaller ones
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Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 2.13a
Chemical Reactions
§  Dehydration synthesis—monomers or building
blocks are joined to form polymers through the
removal of water molecules
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Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 2.13b
Chemical Reactions
§  Hydrolysis—polymers are broken down into
monomers through the addition of water
molecules
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Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Bellwork
§  What are the three steps of cellular respiration?
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Name the process
Chemical energy (high-energy electrons)
CO2
Glycolysis
Glucose
Cytosol
of cell
Pyruvic
acid
CO2
Mitochondrion
Chemical energy
Krebs
cycle
Electron transport
chain and oxidative
phosphorylation
H 2O
Mitochondrial
cristae
Via oxidative
phosphorylation
ATP
ATP
ATP
Figure 14.19
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Carbohydrate Metabolism
§  Carbohydrates are the body’s preferred source to
produce cellular energy (ATP)
§  Glucose (blood sugar) is the major breakdown
product and fuel to make ATP
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Cellular Respiration
§  Oxygen-using events take place within the cell to
create ATP from ADP
§  ATP can be broken down to release energy for
cellular use
§  Energy produced by these reactions adds a
phosphorus to ADP to produce ATP
§  Also produces CO2 and H20
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Carbohydrate Metabolism
Figure 14.18
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Cellular Respiration
Chemical energy (high-energy electrons)
CO2
Glycolysis
Glucose
Cytosol
of cell
Pyruvic
acid
CO2
Mitochondrion
Chemical energy
Krebs
cycle
Electron transport
chain and oxidative
phosphorylation
H 2O
Mitochondrial
cristae
Via oxidative
phosphorylation
ATP
ATP
ATP
Figure 14.19
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Metabolic Pathways Involved in
Cellular Respiration
§  Glycolysis—energizes a glucose molecule so it
can be split into two pyruvic acid molecules and
yield ATP
§  Occurs in cytosol
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Cellular Respiration
Chemical energy (high-energy electrons)
Mitochondrion
Glycolysis
Glucose
Cytosol
of cell
Pyruvic
acid
Mitochondrial
cristae
ATP
Figure 14.19, step 1
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Glycolysis
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Metabolic Pathways Involved in
Cellular Respiration
§  Krebs cycle
§  Occurs in the mitochondria
§  Yields a small amount of ATP
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Cellular Respiration
Chemical energy (high-energy electrons)
CO2
Glycolysis
Glucose
Cytosol
of cell
ATP
Pyruvic
acid
CO2
Mitochondrion
Chemical energy
Krebs
cycle
Mitochondrial
cristae
ATP
Figure 14.19, step 2
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Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Metabolic Pathways Involved in
Cellular Respiration
§  Electron transport chain
§  Hydrogen atoms removed during glycolysis
and the Krebs cycle are delivered to protein
carriers
§  Hydrogen is split into hydrogen ions and
electrons in the mitochondria
§  Electrons give off energy in a series of steps
to enable the production of ATP
§  ATP synthase
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Metabolic Pathways Involved in
Cellular Respiration
Figure 14.20a
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Cellular Respiration
Chemical energy (high-energy electrons)
CO2
Glycolysis
Glucose
Cytosol
of cell
Pyruvic
acid
CO2
Mitochondrion
Chemical energy
Krebs
cycle
Electron transport
chain and oxidative
phosphorylation
H 2O
Mitochondrial
cristae
Via oxidative
phosphorylation
ATP
ATP
ATP
Figure 14.19
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Site of Electron Transport Chain
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Bellwork
§  How do you get energy from the food you eat?
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Spring Break
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Discuss how food is digested in your body
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Bellwork- How do you get energy from the food you
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Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Lesson Plans
§  SWBAT identify components of digestive system
§  SWBAT compare and contrast physical chemical
digestion
§  SWBAT explain how urine is formed
§  SWBAT analyze how the urinary system maintains
water and acid levels levels
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Paired Discussion
§  1. What is a nutrient?
§  2. Name as many nutrients as possible.
§  What is each used for?
§  In what foods can each be found?
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Bellwork
§  What are the major nutrients? What are sources
of each?
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Nutrition
§  Nutrient—substance used by the body for growth,
maintenance, and repair
§  Major nutrients
§  Carbohydrates
§  Lipids
§  Proteins
§  Water
§  Minor nutrients
§  Vitamins
§  Minerals
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Five Basic Food Groups and
Some of Their Major Nutrients
Table 14.2 (1 of 2)
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Five Basic Food Groups and
Some of Their Major Nutrients
Table 14.2 (2 of 2)
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USDA Food Guide Pyramid
Figure 14.17
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Crash Course
§  https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=H8WJ2KENlK0
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Dietary Sources of Major Nutrients
§  Carbohydrates
§  Most are derived from plants
§  Exceptions: lactose from milk and small
amounts of glycogens from meats
§  Lipids
§  Saturated fats from animal products
§  Unsaturated fats from nuts, seeds, and
vegetable oils
§  Cholesterol from egg yolk, meats, and milk
products
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Dietary Sources of Major Nutrients
§  Proteins
§  Complete proteins—contain all essential
amino acids
§  Most are from animal products
§  Legumes and beans also have proteins, but
are incomplete
§  Vitamins
§  Most vitamins are used as coenzymes
§  Found in all major food groups
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Dietary Sources of Major Nutrients
§  Minerals
§  Play many roles in the body
§  Most mineral-rich foods are vegetables,
legumes, milk, and some meats
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Important Organic Compounds
§  Carbohydrates
§  Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
§  Include sugars and starches
§  Classified according to size
§  Monosaccharides—simple sugars
§  Disaccharides—two simple sugars joined by
dehydration synthesis
§  Polysaccharides—long-branching chains of
linked simple sugars
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Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 2.14a–b
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Figure 2.14c
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Figure 2.14d
Carbohydrate Uses
§  Primary energy source for the body (4 kcal/gram)
§  Calorie is measure of amount of energy
§  Excess glucose is stored as glycogen and then as
fat
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Important Organic Compounds
§  Lipids
§  Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
§  Carbon and hydrogen outnumber oxygen
§  Insoluble in water
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Crash Course
§  https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=H8WJ2KENlK0
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Lipids
§  Common lipids in the human body
§  Neutral fats (triglycerides)
§  Found in fat deposits
§  Source of stored energy
§  Composed of three fatty acids and one glycerol
molecule
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Glycerol
3 fatty acid chains
Triglyceride, or neutral fat
(a) Formation of a triglyceride
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3 water
molecules
Figure 2.15a
Saturated vs. Unsaturated
§  Saturated fatty acids contain only
single covalent bonds
§  Unsaturated fatty acids contain one or
more double covalent bonds
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Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 2.16a
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Figure 2.16b
Lipids
§  Common lipids in the human body (continued)
§  Phospholipids
§  Contain two fatty acids rather than three
§  Form cell membranes
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Polar “head”
Nonpolar “tail”
Phosphorus-containing
group (polar end)
Glycerol
backbone
2 fatty acid chains
(nonpolar end)
(b) Phospholipid molecule (phosphatidylcholine)
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Figure 2.15b
Lipids
§  Common lipids in the human body (continued)
§  Steroids
§  Include cholesterol, bile salts, vitamin D,
and some hormones
§  Cholesterol is the basis for all steroids
made in the body
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Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 2.15c
Crash Course
§  https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=H8WJ2KENlK0
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Lipid Uses
§  Insulation and Protection of Body Organs
§  Build Myelin Sheaths and Cell Membranes
§  Can be used as a fuel source (9kcal/g)
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Proteins
§  Amino acid structure
§  Contain an amine group (NH2)
§  Contain an acid group (COOH)
§  Vary only by R groups
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Amine
group
Acid
group
(a) Generalized
structure of all
amino acids
(b) Glycine
(the simplest
amino acid)
(c) Aspartic acid
(an acidic
amino acid)
(d) Lysine
(a basic
amino acid
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(e) Cysteine
(a sulfurcontaining
amino acid)
Figure 2.17a-e
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(a) Primary structure. A
protein’s primary structure
is the unique sequence of
amino acids in the
Amino
polypeptide chain.
acids
Hydrogen bonds
Amino
acids
(b) Secondary structure.
Two types of secondary
structure are named
alpha-helix and betapleated sheet. Secondary
structure is reinforced by
hydrogen bonds. Dashed
lines represent the
hydrogen bonds in this
figure.
Alphahelix
β-pleated sheet
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Figure 2.18a-b
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 2.18c-d
Protein Uses
§  Structural proteins
§  Appear in body structures
§  Examples include collagen and keratin
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Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 2.19a
Proteins
§  Globular proteins
§  Also known as functional proteins
§  Function as antibodies or enzymes
§  Can be denatured
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Heme group
Globin
protein
(b) Hemoglobin molecule composed of the
protein globin and attached heme groups.
(Globin is a globular or functional protein.)
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Figure 2.19b
Enzymes
§  Act as biological catalysts
§  Increase the rate of chemical reactions
§  Bind to substrates at an active site
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Energy is Water is
absorbed; released.
bond is
H 2O
formed.
Substrates (S)
e.g., amino acids
+
Product (P)
e.g., dipeptide
Peptide
bond
Active site
Enzyme-substrate
complex (E-S)
Enzyme (E)
1 Substrates bind to active
site. Enzyme changes shape
to hold substrates in proper
position.
2 Structural changes
occur, resulting in the
product.
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Enzyme (E)
3 Product is released.
Enzyme returns to
original shape, ready
to catalyze another
reaction.
Figure 2.20
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Regulation of Pancreatic Juice Secretion
§  Release of pancreatic juice into the duodenum is
stimulated by
§  Vagus nerve
§  Local hormones
§  Secretin
§  Cholecystokinin (CCK)
§  Hormones travel the blood to stimulate the pancreas
to release enzyme- and bicarbonate-rich product
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Regulation of Pancreatic Juice Secretion
§  Secretin causes the liver to increase bile output
§  CCK causes the gallbladder to release stored bile
§  Bile is necessary for fat absorption and absorption
of fat-soluble vitamins (K, D, A)
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Regulation of Pancreatic Juice Secretion
Figure 14.16
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Hormones and Hormonelike Products
that Act in Digestion
Table 14.1 (1 of 2)
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Hormones and Hormonelike Products
that Act in Digestion
Table 14.1 (2 of 2)
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Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Parasites
§  Organisms such as protozoa (one-celled animals),
worms, or insects that must live on or inside a
human or other organism to survive.
§  An animal or plant harboring a parasite is called
its host.
§  Parasites live at the expense of the host and may
cause illness.
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Digestive System Abnormalities
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Giardia
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Tapeworm
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Digestive Disorders
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Peptic Ulcer
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Peptic Ulcers
§  Painful sores in the lining of the stomach or
duodenum
§  Cause: Acid in the digestive tract eats away at the
inner surface of the esophagus, stomach or small
intestine. The acid can create a painful open sore
that may bleed.
§  Bacteria, Medicine
§  Symptoms: Burning Pain, Vomiting, Bleeding
§  Treatment: Antibiotic, Acid Production Blocking
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Diarrhea
§  Bowel movements that are loose and watery
§  Cause: Viral Infection, Bacterial Infection from
Food that cause inflammation of intestines
§  Symptoms: Dehydration, Electrolyte Imbalance
§  Treatment: Drink Fluids and Antidiarrheal
medicine
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Constipation
§  When bowel movements become less frequent or
difficult
§  Causes: Inadequate water intake, fiber intake,
stress etc.
§  Treatment: Fruits, Water, Laxatives
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Heartburn
§  Occurs when stomach acid backs up into the
esophagus
§  Symptoms: Burning Sensation, Nausea/Vomiting,
Trouble Swallowing
§  Treatment: Antiacids, Acid inhibitors
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Cholecystectomy
§  Gallbladder removal
§  Necessary upon presence of gallstones that
inflame gallbladder
§  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rPuYHj1IDKc
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Review Guide
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings