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Transpersonal Psychology - Forerunners
Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882): American writer, poet, and philosopher.
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A leader of neo-Kantian Transcendentalism: spirituality grounded on the inner, the
suprasensual, the nonrational; rationalist thought and religion was “corpse-cold.”
“Self-reliance”: attaining higher states on one’s own initiative.
Strongly influenced by the Vedas and the Bhagavad-Gita.
Theorized an Oversoul of ultimate nonduality.
William James (1842-1910): American philosopher and psychologist.
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The first psychologist to study spirituality with the tools of science (influenced Jung).
Wrote about “the transmarginal” instead of “the unconscious.”
Anticipated much of modern psychology: depth, humanistic, existential, Jung,
transpersonal, behavioral.
Against conceptual systems (“Damn the Absolute!”) in favor of personal experiments.
Radical empiricism: knowledge based on direct experience.
Rudolf Steiner (1861-1925): Austrian esoteric educator and writer, founder of anthroposophy.
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Also looked into Goethean science, founded Waldorf schools and biodynamic agriculture.
Anthroposophy: an investigation of the spiritual world from which the material world came;
a “spiritual science” as an alternative to theosophy (which he departed over the deification of
young Krishnamurti).
Thinking and research as tools to achieve supersensory awareness of the spiritual realm.
Attacked by Hitler even though his ranking of races put whites at the top.
Key books: The Philosophy of Freedom, Theosophy, Knowledge of Higher Worlds
Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902): Hindu reformist, bringer of yoga and Advaita Vedanta to the
West.
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Founder of the socially active Ramakrishna Mission in India.
Made a huge impression at the ecomenical Parliament of Religions, Chicago, 1893, on
Hinduism’s behalf.
Inspirer of India’s liberation movement; emphasized education and social betterment.
Religion as a universal experience of a higher reality: a “science of consciousness.”
Key books: Raja Yoga, Pathways to Joy, Complete Works.
Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki (1870-1966): Japanese writer, translator, and interpreter of Zen.
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Practiced zazen (although not a formal monk), Mahayana Buddhism, Theosophy.
Brought Zen westward and translated the Tao Te Ching and other Eastern works.
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Nondual experience (satori) at the heart of all genuine religions. Emphasized satori’s
differences from intellectual understanding and research.
Corresponded with many teachers and contemplatives (e.g., Thomas Merton, Jung).
Key books: An Introduction to Zen Buddhism, Essays in Zen Buddhism.
Sri Aurobindo (1872 – 1950): guru, poet, Indian independence leader, founder of Integral Yoga.
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The cosmos was created by an involution (narrowing of focus) of the Supermind (an
Emersonian go-between mediating the Absolute Brahman and the phenomenal world).
Evolution: from matter to life to mind to the Supramental (all spirit), with each stage
including its predecessor. Integral Yoga’s goal: supramentalization (unity/transcendence)
into the creation of a new species via a hierarchy of luminous transitional human beings.
Enlightenment and involvement in the world are not necessarily in conflict. Key tool of
evolution: Integral Yoga to bring the divine down to earth, surrender to it.
Societies evolve spiritually in stages (The Human Cycle). Goal: freedom from death.
Mirra “The Mother” Richard set up the International Center of Education, Auroville.
Key books: The Life Divine, The Synthesis of Yoga, The Supramental Manifestation Upon Earth.
Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961): Swiss psychiatrist and founder of Analytical Psychology.
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He actually called it Complex Psychology. Also coined “New Age.”
Researched the archetypes, dreams, the shadow, and the collective unconscious.
Researched and catalogued many spiritual systems, Eastern and Western.
Huge influence on transpersonal thought (e.g., complex = COEX systems).
Key books: Man and His Symbols, Answer to Job, Archetypes of the Collective Unconscious.
Ananda Coomaraswamy (1877-1947): Ceylonese philosopher, art historian, and perennialist.
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Curator and contributor to the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston.
Introduced to Hindu gods by his mother; schooled in England.
Sought to demonstrate the underlying unity of Plato and Vedanta.
Spent most of his life explaining Asian art and culture to the West.
One of the founders of Integral Traditionalism (Perennalism), the idea of a timeless wisdom.
Key books: The Dance of Shiva, Guardians of the Sun-Door, Time and Eternity
Robert Assagioli (1888-1974): Italian psychiatrist and founder of psychosynthesis.
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Among Freud’s first adherents; did his dissertation on psychoanalysis.
Psychosynthesis: a forerunner of the human potential movement; an empirical and
existential attempt to make of one’s subpersonalities a cohesive self that includes the spiritual
dimension (“height psychology”). This core self is uncovered by disidentifying with the
contents of the personality.
Higher and lower unconscious.
Key books: Psychosynthesis, Transpersonal Development, The Act of Will
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Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (1888-1975): Neo-Vedantan philosopher and second president of India.
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Sought to found the philosophy of religion on experience (traditional Vedanta emphasizes
knowledge and revelation instead), as in his reinterpretation of the Upanishads.
Wanted to build bridges between India and the West where he was educated. Particularly
fond of the Western idealists like Kant, Plato, and Plotinus. Reformed Indian education.
Through writings and lectures he made the world aware of the worth and complexity of his
version of Indian philosophy. Brought it into widespread academic respectability.
Was president when India fought against China and Pakistan.
Key books: Indian Philosophy, The Philosophy of the Upanishads, Eastern Religions and Western
Thought
Paramahansa Yogananda (1893-1952): Kriya Yoga guru and founder of Self-Realization Fellowship.
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Among the first to bring yoga to the West (1920).
Direct experience of God through breath-based “scientific” yoga techniques.
Strongly emphasized the guru-student relationship.
Embalmed at Forest Lawn.
SRF now suing Ananda for claims that SRF has censored/distorted the original teachings.
Key books: Autobiography of a Yogi
Jiddu Krishnamurti (1895-1986): Indian philosopher and educator.
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Identified in boyhood as the World Savior, removed from his family.
Dissolved the Order of the Star in 1929: “Truth is a pathless land.”
Relentless critic of depending on anyone else: “Please don’t quote, Sir.”
Shamanic experiences recorded in his notebooks.
Falling out with Rajagopal led to the creation of the Krishnamurti Foundation.
Key books: You Are the World, The Wholeness of Life, The Awakening of Intelligence.
Abraham Maslow (1908-1970): American co-founder of humanistic psychology.
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Hierarchy of Needs, Self-Actualization (ill while he wrote about it), Peak Experience.
Called for a “transpersonal psychology” to study “meta-needs” and higher functioning.
Differentiated the experiential from the legalistic wings of religion.
A very revealing and at times bitter personal journal.
Key books: The Higher Reaches of Human Nature, Toward a Psychology of Being
Allan Watts (1915-1973): English philosopher, writer, and former Episcopalian priest.
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Interpreter of Zen and Chinese thought. (No formal Zen training.)
Emphasis on experiencing without submitting to authority.
We are God playing “hide and seek.”
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Wanted to bridge East and West but emphasized the spiritual superiority of the East.
Lived on a houseboat in Sausalito, died on Mount Tamalpais.
Key books: The Wisdom of Insecurity, The Book, Psychotherapy East and West, The Way of Zen
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi (1917-2008): Indian guru who founded Transcendental Meditation.
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TM®: twice a day for 20 min., $2,500 to learn one’s unique mantra. Taught Deepak Chopra.
Introduced TM® to the West. It took off via the Beatles and research showing the calming
effects of meditation. Also promoted Yogic Flying but it never levitated.
Several lawsuits involving psychiatric instability of practitioners. $3 billion in assets. Offers to
save Los Angeles through TM® for $165 million a year.
Key books: The Science of Being, The Art of Living
A. H. Almaas (A. Hameed Ali)(1944 - ): Kuwaiti founder of the Diamond Approach.
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Is a perennialist who mixes Plato, Sufism, Buddhism, and object relations psychoanalysis
into a psychotherapeutic spiritual theory and practice.
Healing of one’s alienated Essence (soul) by distinguishing it from ego via open-ended
inquiry and plugging of “holes” with connections to the Divine. Soul: both organ and
medium of experience. Goal: liberation of the naturally self-revealing soul.
Healing is a byproduct of expanding one’s “presence” (pure unconstricted sense of self).
Ridhwan School for inner work based in Berkeley and Boulder. Sensate focus, continual selfinvestigation.
Key books: The Inner Journey Home, The Essence with the Elixir of Enlightenment, The Unfolding
Now, Brilliancy.