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Chapter 2
Service to the Nation
Lesson 1
Key Terms
operational commands
specified
strategic
tactical
theater
What You Will Learn to Do
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Explore the purpose of the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD)
Linked Core Abilities
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Do your share as a good citizen in your school, community, country, and
the world
Skills and Knowledge You Will Gain Along the Way
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Examine the mission of the Department of Defense
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Identify the four major responsibilities inherent to DoD’s mission
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Explain civilian control over the military
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Show the relationship between the Joint Chiefs of Staff and the DoD
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Define the key words contained in this lesson
Chapter 2
The Department
of Defense
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Introduction
The executive department responsible for the nation’s defense forces is the Department of Defense (DoD). It was created in 1947, when Congress combined the former Navy and War departments into a National Military Establishment, an
executive department headed by a secretary of defense. This lesson offers you an
in-depth look at the DoD, what it does, and who works for it.
The DoD’s Roots
Nations have historically raised and maintained military forces to defend their borders, protect their citizens, and preserve their government. Military forces imbue a
nation with military power, the ability to influence other nations based on the
implied or explicit threat of military action. Military power is directly related to a
nation’s military strength, and the will of the nation’s government to employ it. Military strength is predicated on the ability to meet and defeat any adversary on any
battlefield, including air, land, and sea. Today, under the direction of the DoD, the
United States enjoys the strongest, most respected military in the world.
In 1789, Congress created the Department of War to administer and conduct military affairs. Congress separated the naval forces from the land forces in 1798, creating the Department of the Navy. The Departments of War and Navy remained for
almost 150 years as the only two military departments; however, the National Security Act of 1947 created the Department of the Air Force and replaced the Department of War with the Department of the Army. This act also created the National
Military Establishment to oversee the three military departments (Army, Navy, and
Air Force; the Marine Corps was included under the Navy). In 1949, Congress
renamed the National Military Establishment the Department of Defense. The seal
for the Department of Defense is shown in Figure 2.1.1.
Mission
The mission of the DoD is to “provide the military forces needed to deter war and
protect the security of the United States.” Inherent in this mission is the responsibility for planning military strategy, maintaining the armed forces, operating the
military bases throughout the world, and defending the country from foreign
threats. The DoD assigns these duties to the military departments.
Figure 2.1.1: The official
seal of the Department of
Defense.
Courtesy of CACI and the US
Army.
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The Department of Defense
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How the DoD Is Organized
The DoD is the organization through which the president exercises civilian control
over the military. The major elements of DoD are covered in the following sections
and are shown in Figure 2.1.2.
Secretary of Defense
The Secretary of Defense, a civilian appointed by the president but subject to Senate approval, is the principal defense policy adviser to the President. Although the
president has final authority and responsibility on all defense matters, the Secretary of Defense is responsible for formulating general defense policy, executing
approved policy, and exercising authority, direction, and control over the DoD. The
annual report to the president and Congress is the premier document issued by the
Secretary of Defense. In addition to fulfilling a statutory requirement, it serves as
an important reference document for many people interested in national defense
issues and programs.
Note
The Secretary of Defense is sixth in the order of presidential succession, following the vice
president (VP), Speaker of the House, President Pro Tempore of the Senate (presiding officer of the Senate in the absence of the VP), Secretary of State, and Secretary of the Treasury. Beginning with the Secretary of State, succession is determined by the order in which
the departments of the president’s cabinet were created.
Deputy Secretary of Defense
The Deputy Secretary of Defense is delegated full authority to act for the Secretary
of Defense and to exercise the powers of the Secretary on any and all matters for
which the Secretary is authorized to act pursuant to law.
Figure 2.1.2: The elements
of the Department of
Defense.
Courtesy of CACI and the US
Army.
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Service to the Nation
Office of the Secretary of Defense
This office is the principal staff element of the Secretary of Defense in the exercise
of policy development, planning, resource management, fiscal, and program evaluation responsibilities. The office of the Secretary of Defense includes Under Secretaries for the following:
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Acquisition and Technology. Responsible for programs such as nuclear, chemical, and biological defense; acquisition reform; advanced technology; environmental security; logistics; space; and ballistic missile defense organization
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Comptroller. Responsible for programs in areas such as contract audit, program
analysis and evaluation, and national performance review activities
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Personnel and Readiness. Responsible for programs such as force management, program integration, and health and reserve affairs
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Policy. Responsible for programs such as international security affairs, special
operations and low-intensity conflict, and strategy and threat reduction
The office of the Secretary of Defense also includes Assistant Secretaries for the
following:
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Command, Control, Communications, and Intelligence
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Legislative and Public Affairs
Other elements of the office are as follows:
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General Counsel
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Inspector General
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Director of Operational Test and Evaluation
The central headquarters for the DoD is at the world’s largest office building, the
Pentagon, located in Washington, D.C.
Joint Chiefs of Staff
The Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) constitute the immediate military staff of the Secretary of Defense and consist of the following general officers (four-star rank) from
the U.S. Armed Forces:
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Chairman (appointed by the president but subject to Senate approval)
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Vice chairman
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Chief of Staff of the Army
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Chief of Naval Operations
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Chief of Staff of the Air Force
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Commandant of the Marine Corps
The collective body of the JCS is headed by the chairman, who sets the agenda and
presides over JCS meetings. Additionally, the chairman is the principal adviser to
the president, the Secretary of Defense, and the National Security Council.
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The Department of Defense
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All JCS members are, by law, military advisers, and they may respond to a
request or voluntarily submit, through the chairman, advice or opinions to the
president, the Secretary of Defense, or the National Security Council. Although
responsibilities as members of the JCS take precedence over the duties as the
Chiefs of the Military Services, these personnel are the senior military officers of
their respective services. As such, they are also responsible for keeping the secretaries of the military departments fully informed on matters considered or acted
upon by the JCS.
The main responsibilities of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, in conjunction with the military departments, are as follows:
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The strategic and tactical direction of the combatant forces
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The operation of the combatant forces under unified commands
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The integration of combatant forces into an efficient team of land, naval, and air
forces
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Research and development
Executive Authority
During World War II, the Joint Chiefs of Staff acted as executive agents in dealing
with theater and area commanders, but the original National Security Act of 1947
saw the Joint Chiefs as planners and advisers, not as commanders of combatant
commands. In spite of this, the 1948 Key West Agreement allowed members of the
Joint Chiefs to serve as executive agents for unified commands, a responsibility
that allowed them to originate direct communication with the combatant command.
Congress abolished this authority in a 1953 amendment to the National Security
Act. Today, the Joint Chiefs have no executive authority to command combatant
forces. The issue of executive authority was clearly resolved by the GoldwaterNichols DoD Reorganization Act of 1986: “The secretaries of the military departments shall assign all forces under their jurisdiction to unified and specified
combatant commands to perform missions assigned to those commands . . . ;” the
chain of command “runs from the president to the Secretary of Defense; and from
the Secretary of Defense to the commander of the combatant command.” The
world is divided into nine geographical areas, each with a Commander-in-Chief
(CINC) assigned. To facilitate mission accomplishment, these commanders have
full operational command and control over all forces assigned to them.
Military Departments
The military departments of the Army, Navy, and Air Force are each headed by a
secretary who does not have cabinet rank and is a civilian. These departments
are responsible for maintaining the readiness of their assigned forces to ensure
the security of the United States and to support the nation’s policies and interests. The basic objectives of the military departments and the U.S. Armed Forces
are as follows:
Key Note Term
strategic – of or relating
to the large-scale or
global planning and
conduct of military
strategy, movements,
and/or operations
essential to the effective conduct of war
tactical – of or pertaining to tactics
theater – a large geographic area (including
its land, sea, and air) in
which active military
operations are coordinated and conducted
specified – to state
explicitly or in detail
operational command –
commands performing
the primary mission of
the service as distinguished from support
commands
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Prevent military actions that threaten the safety of the United States or its allies
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Defend the United States’ territories, waters, and airspace
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Engage in all necessary military operations and other assigned duties
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End hostilities on terms favorable to the United States
Note
The Department of Defense maintains the academies for each of these departments. Can
you name these academies?
The DoD is headed from the top by a unified leadership that exercises direction
through three separate but mutually supportive chains of command:
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The Operational Chain of Command
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The Advisory Chain of Command
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The Administrative Chain of Command
The Operational Chain of Command
The Operational Chain of Command is the exclusive avenue for directing authority
to employ force and move troops, otherwise known as combatant command
authority (COCOM).
The Operational Chain of Command originates with the president of the United
States and runs through the Secretary of Defense to the military generals in charge
of the nine Unified Combatant Commands.
The U.S. Constitution invests the president as Commander-in-Chief with combatant command authority to employ force and move troops. The president’s combatant command authority is tempered only by Congress’ own constitutional
authority to levy taxes and declare war.
Sending troops into harm’s way is a profound responsibility that no president
takes lightly. In addition to the life and death consequences and moral implications of the decision, presidents approach military intervention cautiously
because they must answer to the electorate for their actions. Consequently, military action is typically the method of last resort only after all other nonlethal
options have been exhausted. The different means available to the president to
influence the actions and decisions of foreign governments are collectively known
as the Instruments of National Power and include informational, diplomatic, economic, and military powers.
The president will employ all the Instruments of National Power to protect
American national security interests. The Goldwater/Nichols Act of 1986 requires
the president to present to Congress annually his plan for the national security
of the United States. The published document is called the National Security
Strategy.
Lesson 1
The Department of Defense
The National Security Strategy identifies what is important to the American people
as determined by their single common elected representative—the president. The
National Security Strategy defines what are the national security interests of the
United States and publicly declares the willingness of the president to take action
when they are threatened. The National Security Strategy provides the framework
for determining when the president will put American forces in harm’s way and
under what conditions he will invoke his constitutional authority to employ force
and move troops.
When the president decides to invoke the military Instrument of National Power,
he will plan and direct operations through the Secretary of Defense in charge of the
nine Unified Combatant Commands.
Unity of Command has been a core principle of American military operations since
the founding of our nation. General Washington directed both American and
French naval and ground forces to corner General Cornwallis and decisively defeat
the British at Yorktown in 1781. Unity of Command is the underlying principle supporting the concept behind today’s Unified Combatant Commands.
Today’s concept of a separate Unified Combatant Command to direct all military
forces within a given region or performing the same function emerged directly
from our experience in World War II. During World War II, General Marshall was the
Chief of Staff of the Army, Admiral King was the Chief of Naval Operations, and
General Arnold represented the Army Air Forces, yet each of these Service Chiefs
turned over control of their forces to General Eisenhower who was appointed by
President Roosevelt to command the war in Europe.
The National Security Act of 1947 formalized the ad hoc arrangement that won
World War II and established the Unified Combatant Commands. The Goldwater/
Nichols Act of 1986 clarified lines of authority asserting that the Operational Chain
of Command runs from the president, through the Secretary of Defense, to the
commanders of the Unified Combatant Commands.
At present, there are nine Unified Combatant Commands. The scope of authority
and responsibility assigned to each is determined by the Secretary of Defense in
the Unified Command Plan:
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U.S. Northern Command
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U.S. Southern Command
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U.S. Central Command
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U.S. Pacific Command
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U.S. European Command
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U.S. Joint Forces Command
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U.S. Strategic Command
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U.S. Transportation Command
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U.S. Special Operations Command
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Each Unified Combatant Command is distinguished by its area of resonsibility as
either a geographic or functional command. A Geographic Command is responsible for a geographic region of the globe, for example, United States Pacific Command (USPACOM) is responsible for the region of the earth encompassing the
entire Pacific Basin. A Funcational Command has functional responsibilities that
span the entire globe, for example, United States Transportation Command
(USTRANSCOM) is responsible for the shipment and movement of troops and supplies around the world by air, land, and sea.
Each Unified Combatant Command is headed by a four-star general designated the
commander. The commander is appointed by the Secretary of Defense based on
the recommendation of the chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and approval by
the president.
The commanders of the Unified Combatant Commands are distinguished as the
warfighters. They bear total responsibility for conducting military operations
within their assigned area of responsibility throughout peace, crisis, and war. The
commanders have ambassadorial status and works with other nations to assure
our allies, dissuade military competition, and deter potential adversaries. At the
direction of the president of the United States, the commanders will use their
assigned combatant command authority to employ force and move troops to decisively defeat all enemies across the spectrum of conflict.
The Advisory Chain of Command
The Advisory Chain of Command is designed to advise the President and help him
make decisions in times of national crisis or emergency. The National Security
Council is the primary forum for evaluating crisis and advising the President on all
matters of national security. Established by the National Security Act of 1947, the
National Security Council is composed of the following:
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President
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Vice President
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Secretary of Defense
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Secretary of State
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Director of Central Intelligence
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Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
The National Security Council convenes when necessary to evaluate threats or
potential threats against the United States. The National Security Council considers
using all Instruments of National Power when deciding how to respond to a threat.
If the president wishes to consider a military option, he may call on the chairman
of the Joint Chiefs of Staff to recommend a military course of action.
The chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff is the principal military adviser to the president of the United States. The chairman is nominated by the Secretary of Defense
and serves at the appointment of the president for a period of two years. By virtue of
Lesson 1
The Department of Defense
his position, the chairman is the senior ranking officer in the military, and first
among equals. To assist the chairman with providing sound military advice to the
president, he is assisted by a vice chairman, Joint Staff, and the Joint Chiefs of Staff.
The Joint Chiefs of Staff is comprised of the Service Chiefs, the senior ranking officer from each of the four uniform services. The Joint Chiefs of Staff advise and consult the Chairman on the capabilities and readiness of their respective services. The
complete membership of the Joint Chiefs of Staff is as follows:
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Chairman
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Vice Chairman
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Chief of Staff of the Army
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Chief of Naval Operations
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Chief of Staff of the Air Force
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Commandant of the Marine Corps
If the president decides to take military action, he will work with the Secretary of
Defense and the commanders of the Unified Combatant Commands to plan and
execute the recommended course of action.
The Administrative Chain of Command
The Administrative Chain of Command is charged with the responsibility of organizing, training, and equipping combat forces to provide to the Unified Combatant
Commands. The Administrative Chain of Command begins with the president and
extends through the Secretary of Defense to the three service departments:
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Department of the Army
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Department of the Navy
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Department of the Air Force
The U.S. Marine Corps is part of the Department of the Navy. There are only three
Service Departments, but there are four Uniform Services:
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Army
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Navy
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Air Force
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Marines
Note
The Coast Guard is a uniform service assigned to the Department of Homeland Security.
Similarly, personnel assigned to the Surgeon General’s Office working for the Department
of Public Health and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration also wear uniforms and may report to the military when directed by the president.
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Each service department is headed by a Civilian Service Secretary appointed by
the president. The secretary positions are historic holdovers from when the Army
and Navy were cabinet level positions and reported directly to the president. They
were demoted when the services were consolidated under a single Secretary of
Defense in 1947. The secretary positions remain to assert constitutional separation
of powers and reinforce civilian control over the military. There are three Service
Secretaries:
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Secretary of the Army
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Secretary of the Navy
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Secretary of the Air Force
The Service Chiefs advise and assist the Service Secretaries in organizing, training,
and equipping their respective military services. The Service Chiefs represent the
senior ranking officer from each of the four uniform services. There are four Service
Chiefs:
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Chief of Staff of the Army
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Chief of Naval Operations
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Chief of Staff of the Air Force
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Commandant of the Marine Corps
The Service Chiefs have two jobs. They advise the chairman as members of the
Joint Chiefs of Staff, and they organize, train, and equip their services as the senior
military officers within their respective service departments. When they’re not
advising the chairman, the Service Chiefs exercise their authority to organize, train,
and equip forces through direction of their individual service budgets. The primary
responsibility of the Service Chiefs is to develop effective combat capability and
ensure readiness for deployment by the commanders of the Unified Combatant
Commands.
Lesson 1
The Department of Defense
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Conclusion
In the following lesson, you will learn about the Active Army. You will learn about
the origins of the U.S. Army, and why this is an Active Army.
Lesson Review
1. What is the mission of the DoD?
2. The Secretary of Defense is where in the line of presidential succession?
3. Identify one Under Secretary and the responsibilities for this position.
4. Define the term theater.
Chapter 2 Lesson Review
This lesson introduced you to the organization, background, and missions of the
DoD. You saw a specific example of the constitutional requirement for civilian control of the military with the president, Secretary of Defense, and the secretaries of
the military departments all being civilians. The highest military officers in the DoD
are the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The missions and responsibilities of this department
make it a vital part of the federal government and critical to the nation’s defense.