Download Extent of Deployment and Factors Influencing the Use and

IUG Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences (IJHASS), vol. 1, no. 1, 2016
Research and IT, Islamic University College, Ghana
http://ijhass.org
Identifying and Correcting Common Errors in English
Mr. Abubakar Mohammed Marzuq
Centre of Language and Literacy
University of Applied Management, Germany – Ghana Campus
Tel: +233 264755402. Email: [email protected]
Abstract — This paper is a contribution to efforts at finding a
solution to the falling standards of English Language in Ghana. It
discusses identification and correction of common errors in spoken and
written English in the country. Literature reviewed includes various
theories of Error Analysis propounded by renowned linguists. Using
Corder's Model of Error Analysis, the researcher collects a sample of
errors from multiple sources - Academia, Media, Commerce, and
Industry - for qualitative analysis. Each error is, in detail, analysed,
corrected, and categorized. The study concludes that errors constitute a
great source of learning and that Error Analysis should not be
misconstrued as exhibition of knowledge. Rather, it should be regarded
as a contribution to language proficiency. Based on the data analysis
and conclusion, the researcher makes a number of recommendations.
Chief among these recommendations is that teachers should teach
Grammar in an interactive manner not as abstract rules for
memorization, since errors are violations of grammatical rules.
Index Terms — English as a Second Language, error analysis,
errors, linguistic anarchy, mistakes, Second Language Acquisition,
Target Language.
INTRODUCTION
English is the leading language of international
communication in contemporary society. It is also the
major language of research, science, and technology. In
Ghana, English is the official language, which is also
spoken by millions of the populace in informal settings.
Besides, English is the language of instruction at all levels
of education in the country. This implies that English is
regarded as the mother of all disciplines in the formal
teaching and learning environment.
However, in recent times, there is a downward trend of
English Language proficiency in the country, an issue of
concern to educators, educational planners, and parents.
This anomaly cuts across all sectors of the Ghanaian society
– from the home to the office; from the Legislature to the
Judiciary; from the street to the classroom.
The radio, TV, and newspapers, which are partners in
teaching and learning English, have not lived up to
expectation. To a large extent, these media of mass
communication have become an eyesore to linguistic
Manuscript received: July 5, 2016; revised: July 30, 2016;
accepted: August 15, 2016.
Corresponding author: Abubakar Mohammed Marzuq
accuracy in Ghana. It is disheartening to observe that they
are replete with ungrammatical constructions, semantic
misapplications, syntactic abuses, phonetic inaccuracies, and
orthographical absurdities. While some blame teachers for
the unfortunate trend, others think otherwise. Whatever the
case, teachers have a responsibility to help find a solution to
the worrying trend.
Errors in Language Application
Error Analysis is one of the most dreaded topics in
Language Education. While experts see errors – which are
inevitable – as embarrassing, learners view them as
frustrating. However, theories of Applied Linguistics
establish the usefulness of errors to both the learner and
the teacher. Scholars of Second Language Acquisition
(SLA) believe that errors play essential roles in teaching and
learning. To the teacher, errors constitute some criteria of
measuring learner comprehension, reviewing the course
outline, and adjusting the teaching methodology. To the
learner, errors serve as opportunities of improvement, as
areas of emphasis, and as appetite for success (in exams).
Therefore, it stands to reason that a person’s ignorance is
not determined by the number of errors he or she commits,
but by the number of times he or she fails to learn from the
errors.
Indeed, our concern is not that we err in language use,
but that our errors have reached alarming proportions. Yes!
They have become so common that, if left unchecked, they
could lead to a state of “linguistic anarchy” and logical
deficiency among the youth. Certainly, research is
conclusive on the symbiosis between language and logic.
Theoretical Foundations of Error Analysis
Error Analysis is a kind of linguistic analysis that
focuses on the errors learners make. It consists of a
comparison between the errors made in the Target
Language (TL) and that Target Language itself. For his
enormous empirical scrutiny of errors, Pit Corder could be
regarded as the “Father” of Error Analysis. His article
entitled “The Significance of Learner Errors” resulted in a
paradigm shift in Error Analysis (Corder, 1984). Errors
used to be “flaws” that needed to be eradicated. Corder
presented a completely different point of view. He
contended that those errors are “important in and of
themselves.” For learners themselves, errors are
“indispensable,” since committing errors can constitute a
device the learner uses to learn.
Copyright © 2016 Research and IT, IUCG
Page | 36
IUG Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences (IJHASS), vol. 1, no. 1, 2016
Research and IT, Islamic University College, Ghana
http://ijhass.org
Gass and Selinker (2008) defined errors as “red flags”
that provide evidence of the learner’s knowledge of the
second language. Researchers are interested in errors
because they are believed to contain valuable information
on the strategies that people use to acquire a language
(Richards, 1974; Taylor, 1975; Dulay & Burt, 1974).
Moreover, according to Richards and Sampson (1974,
p.15), “At the level of pragmatic classroom experience,
error analysis will continue to provide one means by which
the teacher assesses learning and teaching and determines
priorities for future effort.” In the view of Corder (1974),
error analysis has two objects: one theoretical and another
applied. The theoretical object serves to “elucidate what
and how a learner learns when he studies a second
language.” And the applied object serves to enable the
learner “to learn more efficiently by exploiting our
knowledge of his dialect for pedagogical purposes.”
The investigation of errors can be at the same time
diagnostic and prognostic. It is diagnostic because it can tell
us the learner's state of the language (Corder, 1967) at a
given point during the learning process and prognostic
because it can tell course organizers to reorient language
learning materials on the basis of the learners' current
problems. Systematically analysing errors made by language
learners makes it possible to determine areas that need
reinforcement in teaching (Corder, 1974).
Models for Error Analysis
Corder (1974) identified a model for error analysis
which included three stages:
(a) Data collection: Recognition of idiosyncrasy.
(b) Description: Accounting for idiosyncratic dialect.
(c) Explanation (the ultimate object of error analysis).
Brown (1994) and Ellis (1995) provided an elaboration
of this model. Ellis (1997) and Hubbard, Jones, and
Thomton, Wheeler (1996) gave practical advice and
provided clear examples of how to identify and analyse
learners’ errors. The initial step requires the selection of a
corpus of language followed by the identification of errors.
The errors are then classified. The next step, after giving a
grammatical analysis of each error, demands an explanation
of the types of errors.
Differences between Errors and Mistakes
Before we examine sources of common errors in the
Ghanaian teaching and learning environment, we need to
make a distinction between a mistake and an error. Corder
(1974) and James (1998) revealed a criterion of this
distinction. It is simply self-correctability. A mistake can be
self-corrected, but an error cannot. Errors are “systematic,”
likely to occur repeatedly and not recognized by the learner.
This implies that only the teacher or researcher would
locate them; the learner wouldn’t (Gass & Selinker, 2008).
That is why we do Error Analysis and not Mistake Analysis.
Sources of Common Errors
Sources of common errors differ from environment to
environment. In Ghana, the following areas constitute
sources of common errors among learners and users of
English:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
The Rule of Concord
Tautology or Verbosity
Misapplication of preposition
Malapropism – misuse of words
Mother Tongue Intrusion
Samples of Errors Analysed
Using Corder’s model of Error Analysis, we have
sampled common errors to share with readers. The errors
sampled are in line with the sources of common errors
stated above.
Error of Concord Involving “Criteria”
The English speaking community in Ghana is often
bombarded with sentences such as:
(a) This is the best criteria.
(b) A better criteria is needed.
(c) What is the criteria of selecting the award
winners?
These and similar constructions in relation to criteria
are seemingly of no bounds in the use of English as a
Second Language (ESL) in the country. They are prevalent
in Academic English, in Journalistic Reportage, in Business
Communication, in Court Proceedings, in Political
Discussion, and in Interpersonal Conversation. Are they
grammatically correct? no!
Justification
Each of the sentences under review violates two
fundamental principles of grammar: Number and Concord.
Number is about plurality and singularity, and Concord
deals with subject-verb or pronoun-antecedent agreement.
There are other varieties of Concord such as Notional and
Proximity Concord, but this analysis is emphatic on the
subject-verb and pronoun-antecedent Concord.
Clarification
The word criteria is plural, but it is misapplied as
singular in all the sentences in question. The singular form
of criteria is criterion, which is defined by Angus (2010) as
“a principle or standard by which something may be judged
or decided.” The dictionary further describes as “a
common mistake to use criteria as if it were a plural.” This
explains that whenever criteria is used as singular, the
principle of Number is violated. This violation
automatically leads to the Error of Concord, in which a
plural subject is “forced” to agree with a singular verb or a
singular subject is “forced” to agree with a plural verb. As
hinted earlier, sometimes the Error of Concord involves
wrong pronouns with wrong antecedents. The antecedent
of a pronoun is the word the pronoun refers to.
Grammatical Analysis
We need to analyze the sentences under review to
establish their grammatical invalidity and to ensure
correction. Let us then restate them one after the other:
Example 1
This is the best criteria.
Copyright © 2016 Research and IT, IUCG
Page | 37
IUG Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences (IJHASS), vol. 1, no. 1, 2016
Research and IT, Islamic University College, Ghana
http://ijhass.org
Grammatical analysis. In this sentence the subject is
the demonstrative pronoun “this” which is singular. The
linking verb is “is”, also singular. The antecedent of the
pronoun is certainly criteria which is plural: automatic
error of pronoun – antecedent concord.
Correction 1
There are two ways of correcting the sentence. We can
replace criteria with criterion to agree with the singular
pronoun and the singular verb as in: This is the best
criterion. Alternatively, we can maintain criteria, but
change “this” to “these” and “is” to “are.” The result will
then be: These are the best criteria.
In this construction, a plural pronoun “these”
accompanied by a plural verb “are” agrees with a plural
antecedent “criteria.” And the Error of Concord is
avoided!
Example 2
A better criteria is needed.
Grammatical analysis. Here we are dealing with a
passive sentence in which criteria is the subject. But
criteria is wrongly preceded by a singular indefinite article
“a” and wrongly followed by a singular linking verb “is.”
Clearly, the rule of subject-verb agreement is disregarded.
Correction 2
Again we have two ways of fixing the problem. We can
strike out “a,” maintain criteria and replace “is” with “are.”
The result will be: Better criteria are needed.
Now we have criteria (plural) agreeing with are (plural).
We can also simply replace criteria with criterion as in: A
better criterion is needed. This way, a singular noun as
subject (criterion) agrees with a singular verb (is).
Example 3
What is the criteria of selecting the award winners?
Grammatical analysis. This is an interrogative
sentence that contains the interrogative pronoun “what” as
subject. It is important to state that “what” can be singular
or plural depending on the context. But in this context the
linking verb “is” indicates that “what” is used as subject in
its singular sense. criteria is, therefore, the antecedent of
the pronoun “what.” So, the result is a singular pronoun
(and a singular verb) with a plural antecedent. That is a clear
case of pronoun – antecedent fracture.
Correction 3
There are two criteria of correcting this grammatical
anomaly. The first criterion is to simply replace “is” with
“are” as in: What are the criteria of selecting the award
winners? In that case an interrogative pronoun in a plural
sense [what] agrees with a plural antecedent (criteria). The
agreement is firmly grounded by the plural linking verb
(are). The second one is to change criteria to criterion as
in: What is the criterion of selecting the award winners.
This way, an interrogative pronoun in a singular sense
(what) agrees with a singular antecedent (criterion) with the
help of a singular linking verb (is).
Tautology – “but Rather”
When the phrase "but rather" is used to indicate
contrast, it becomes a laughable example of tautology.
Examples:
(a) Tungteeya does not like coke, but rather she likes
Fanta. (Error of Tautology)
This error can be corrected in many ways:
(a) Tungteeya does not like coke but Fanta.
(b) Tungteeya does not like coke; she rather likes
Fanta.
(c) Tungteeya likes Fanta but not coke.
(d) Tungteeya does not like coke; rather she likes
Fanta.
Colleague learner, please, do well to avoid tautology,
which is “generally considered to be a fault of style” Angus
(2010). If you are still in doubt about the tautological
relationship between "but" and "rather," you may search
for "Devices of Contrast." With all certainty in humility,
Literary Discourse is convinced that the two words are
listed as devices of application for the effect of contrast
Misapplication of Preposition
Ghanaian English is saturated with sentences such as:
“We must all seek for knowledge,” the elders will discuss
about the issue,” “Teacher Azindoo emphasizes on group
studies,” and Maltiti does not heed to advice.”
Hmmmmmm! I am sorry to state that all these sentences
are grammatically faulty.
Justification
The sentences under review are grammatically offensive
because of the misapplication of the prepositions following
the verbs in them. All the verbs – seek, discuss,
emphasizes, and heed – are non-prepositional verbs. This
implies that they do not require any prepositions in usage.
Therefore, the correct forms of the sentences are as
follows:
(a) We must all seek knowledge.
(b) The elders will discuss the issue.
(c) Teacher Azindoo emphasizes group studies.
(d) Maltiti does not heed advice.
Clarification
It is important to mention that some of the verbs in
question have noun forms. Examples are: discuss (verb)
and discussion (noun), emphasize (verb) and emphasis
(noun), heed (verb) and heed (noun). Please, don’t be
confused by the same spelling of the verb and noun forms
of heed. When the noun forms of these verbs are used, the
appropriate prepositions become mandatory in many cases.
Let us use the same sentences above as illustrations:
(a) Discussion: The elders will hold discussions
about/on the issue.
(b) Emphasis: Teacher Azindoo puts emphasis on
group studies.
(c) Heed: Maltiti does not pay heed to advice or
Maltiti does not take heed of advice.
Copyright © 2016 Research and IT, IUCG
Page | 38
IUG Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences (IJHASS), vol. 1, no. 1, 2016
Research and IT, Islamic University College, Ghana
http://ijhass.org
Similar verbs and their corresponding nouns are:
attend and attendance (at), present and presentation
(on), antagonize and antagonism (between, toward,
against), attack and attack (on), investigate and
investigation (into). For better understanding, we need to
use these verbs and their noun forms in illustrative
sentences:
(a) Sajjad
attended
the
World
Debating
Championship held in Malaysia last year. (verb).
(b) Sajjad was in attendance at the World Debating
Championship in Malaysia last year. (noun).
Note. It is significant to note that the nonprepositional verb “attend” is semantically different from
the propositional verb “attend to.” While “attend” simple
means “being present at,” “attend to” implies “giving help,
care, or service to.” Example in usage: Dr. Tiyumtaba
attends to patients every day.
(a) Kofi presented three topics to his supervisor for
approval. (verb)
(b) Dr. Amin Anta has made an excellent
presentation on the current energy crisis in
Ghana. (noun)
(c) Dr. Cantankerous antagonizes popular lecturers
at Kuluulu College. (verb)
(d) There is antagonism between Dr. Cantankerous
and popular lecturers at Kuluulu College. (noun)
(e) Armed robbers attacked police at Jisonaayili last
night. (verb)
(f) Armed robbers launched a fierce attack on police
at Jisonaayili last night. (noun)
(g) Lawyer Divela has investigated a theft case
against his client very well. (verb)
(h) Lawyer Divela wants to carry out a serious
investigation into a theft case against his client.
(noun)
Malapropism – “collage” and “college”
Words of similar spelling such “collage” and “college”
are sources of confusion in usage, especially in writing. It is
for this reason that we, today, examine the two words
within the context of grammar and usage. The discourse is
to help bring users’ attention to the sources of confusion
and to minimize the tendency of misapplication.
Discussion
The words “collage and “college” are similar in spelling
but different in pronunciation and meaning. Phonetically,
Angus (2010) presents “collage” as /ˈkɒlɑːʒ/ or /kəˈlɑːʒ/.
There are line breaks between “col” and “lage.” “Collage”
means a collection of various things. Examples:
(a) The book of Logic authored by Timtooni is a
collage of aphorisms.
(b) Plagiarism is nothing but a collage of stolen ideas.
(c) Kataali loves a collage of poems on Dagbon
Tradition.
(d) Suhudoo entertains his friends on facebook with a
collage of critical analyses on politics and
governance.
Grammatically, “collage” is a noun, and in Etymology
(origins of words), it emerged in the early 20th Century from
French (Angus, 2010).
Another noun derived from “collage” is “collagist.”
This noun refers to the person or device that does the
collection.
Contrarily, “college” refers to an institution of learning.
Depending on the purpose of establishment, a college
could be a school of university status, a school of
specialized programs, and a school of non-tertiary
education. Examples:
(a) Azinpaga is a professor at the college of
Medicine.
(b) The Registrar of Liberal Arts college at Batangyili
is known for tact and diplomacy.
(c) Divela is an engineering student of Imperial
college.
(d) Zolikugli teaches at Gbewa college.
The phonetic presentation of “college”, according to
Oxford Dictionary of English is: /ˈkɒlɪdʒ/. Similarly, there
are line breaks between “col” and “lege.” In terms of Word
Class, “college” is a noun. Morphologically, MerriamWebster (2015) lists the following derivatives of “college”:
collegial or collegiate (adjective), collegially (adverb),
collegiality (noun), collegian (noun). Collegian refers to a
person – a student or a fresh graduate of a college.
Examples:
(a) Tiyumtaba is a collegian, specializing in Cyber
Journalism.
(b) Tungteeya is a collegian; she has just graduated
from Nursing Training College.
Note. It is instructive to state that “collage” and
“college” have other semantic properties (meanings) that
have not been covered in this discourse.
CONCLUSION
The words under review may appear simple, but in
usage – particularly in writing – they could be very
confusing. Because both of them are standard in English
vocabulary, a spelling-check software may not help prevent
the contextual misapplication of any of them. Indeed, the
two words must constitute a source of vigilance for editors
and proofreaders. But generally, the solution is awareness
and extra-care!!!
Mother Tongue Intrusion – “I want money to eat”
Sometimes, common errors are influenced by transfer
of constructional patterns of local languages to English. An
example of such an error is “I want money to eat” or “Kofi has
eaten too much of money in the construction of his mansion.” We
may want money to buy food to eat. But clearly, in English
“money” does not collocate with “eating.” In other words,
“money” is not eaten in English, as it is the case in many
Ghanaian languages. “Money” is “spent.” Therefore, the
correct expression could be any of the following:
(a) I want money to spend, or
(b) I want to spend money.
Copyright © 2016 Research and IT, IUCG
Page | 39
IUG Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences (IJHASS), vol. 1, no. 1, 2016
Research and IT, Islamic University College, Ghana
http://ijhass.org
In conclusion, we humbly state that error analysis is
not about knowing too much. Not at all! It is rather an
attempt to share with fellow teachers and learners insights
into areas (of language education) that have not been
adequately explored by textbook writers. Indeed, analyses
of these kinds are hardly found in many Grammar
Textbooks, and it is only proper that concerned language
enthusiasts point out such inadequately explored areas as
subjects of discourse for the benefit of all. As a Grammar
Police Officer, the error analyst can be likened to an
ordinary police officer, who is not necessarily holier than
his or her civilian counterpart. That is why we need to be
very cautious when we embark on the controversial
linguistic exercise. This piece of advice is justified in the
following words: “Humans are prone not only to commit
language errors themselves but also to err in their
judgments of those errors committed by others” (James,
2008, p. 204).
RECOMMENDATION
In view of the above analyses, the following
recommendations could be considered by fellow teachers:
Since errors are violations of grammatical rules and
conventions, teachers should teach grammar interactively.
This implies that lessons should not just be meant for
memorization of rules but should be related to common
errors among the learners. This would ensure the studentcentred approach to teaching which enhances
comprehension.
Besides, teachers should be concerned about imparting
knowledge not exhibiting knowledge. This implies that
teachers should try to breakdown the jargons of grammar
and other subjects to simple words that can be understood
by learners. For instance, it is easier to understand “subjectverb agreement” than the grammatical term of “Concord.”
Finally, there is the need for teachers to devise
mechanisms for periodic error collections and analysis with
learners. These exercises would demystify errors among
learners, improve teacher – learner relationship, and
enhance the language proficiency of learners.
Acknowledgement
Thanks and glory be to Almighty Allah who has
granted me strength, patience, and care in the production of
this work.
I am also heavily indebted to Dr. Adam Mahama of
Islamic University College, Ghana (IUCG), for his useful
comments, suggestions, and mentorship.
To all those who have, in diverse ways, contributed to
this discourse, I say “your reward is in the hands of the
Lord.”
Finally, I stand solely responsible for any marginal or
substantial errors, linguistic or factual, which might be
found in this work.
REFERENCES
Angus, S. (2010). Oxford dictionary of English (3rd ed.). Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Brown, D. B. (1994). Principles of language learning and teaching.
(3rd ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall Regents.
Corder, S. P. (1984). The significance of learners' errors. In
J. C. Richards (Ed.), Error analysis: Perspectives on second
language acquisition, (pp. 19-27). London: Longman.
Corder, S. P. (1974). Error analysis. In J. P. B. Allen, & S. P.
Corder (Eds.), Techniques in applied linguistics. London:
Oxford University Press.
Dulay, H., & Burt, M. (1974). You can't learn without
goofing. In J. C. Richards (Ed.), Error analysis. London:
Longman.
Ellis, R. (1995). Understanding second language acquisition.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ellis, R. (1997). SLA research and language teaching. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Gass, S. M., & Selinker, L. (2008). Second language acquisition:
an introductory course. London: Routlege.
Hubbard, P., Jones, H., Thornton, B. & Wheeler, R. (1996).
A training course for TEFL. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
James, C. (2008). Errors in language learning and use. London:
Routledge.
Merriam-Webster. (2015).
Merriam-Webster’s new
collegiate dictionary (11th ed.). New York: MerriamWebster’s Inc.
Richards, J. C. (Ed.). (1974). Error analysis. Perspectives on
second language acquisition. London: Longman.
Richards, J. C., & Sampson, G. P. (1974). The study of learner
English. In J. C. Richards. (Ed.). Error analysis. Perspectives
on second language acquisition, (pp. 3-18). London:
Longman.
Taylor, B. P. (1975). The use of over generalization and
transfer learning strategies by elementary and
intermediate students of ESL. Language Learning, 25,
73-107.
Biography
Mr. Abubakar Mohammed Marzuk is
a lecturer, researcher, and journalist.
Among the schools he attended are
National Film and Television
Institute (NAFTI), Ghana, University
of Ghana, Legon, and Ain Shams
University, Cairo. In popular media,
he has written extensively on
Language and Communication, Politics and Governance,
Religion and Education. Currently, he lectures Functional
English at University of Applied Management (UAM),
Germany – Ghana Campus. Also, he is a candidate of PhD
in English as a Second Language (ESL) with a research
interest in Error Analysis. Besides, he writes for the
columns ‘Literary Discourse’ on Myjoyonline.com and
‘Language Agenda’ on Modernghana.com.
Copyright © 2016 Research and IT, IUCG
Page | 40