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Immune Support for Respiratory Disease Prevention Managing a dairy herd for maximum immune system function consists of two related elements, colostrum feeding and vaccination. The goal of both these management practices is to boost the immune system’s ability to fight disease. The immune system is able to recognize and destroy pathogens through the activity of proteins, called antibodies. Antibodies attach to invading pathogens and alert white blood cells to engulf and digest the invaders. Acquired immunity occurs when the immune system uses the “memory” of a past infection to generate antibodies precisely shaped to bind pathogens and initiate a strong and rapid immune response. I. Immune Support with Colostrum When an animal, such as a calf, is born it has little or no acquired immunity. Feeding colostrum from a vaccinated dam is the best way to protect a calf from infection, because the dam's acquired immunity is transferred to the calf in colostral antibodies1-3. High levels of maternal antibodies in a calf's blood stream protect the calf against disease, including bovine respiratory disease complex (BRDC)4,5. Vaccines approved for use in pregnant heifers administered three to six weeks before calving have been shown to boost antibodies in colostrum 6, and may increase the protective properties of colostrum for calf health. It is critical that calves receive enough colostral antibodies, specifically immunoglobin G (IgG), to protect them from pathogens. When calves are first born antibodies from colostrum are easily absorbed into the blood stream from the gut, but within hours the efficiency of antibody transfer decreases7. To ensure adequate IgG absorption, it is important to feed colostrum within the first few hours of life. Four to six quarts of good quality colostrum, with high IgG content, should be feed within the first 12 hours of life. Calves receive the most benefit when they are fed at least 100g of IgG during their first feeding. Two quarts of good quality colostrum (greater than 50g IgG/L) fulfills this requirement for the first feeding4. However, colostrum varies widely in IgG content. Producers that do not measure colostrum quality, are suggested to feed 90 lb calves at birth four quarts of colostrum by esophageal feeder or three quarts by nipple, followed 8-12 hours later by two and three quarts respectively6,8. Bacterial contamination is another element of colostrum quality. Although colostrum is vital to calf health, colostrum can transmit bacterial and viral pathogens 9,10. It is important that colostrum be collected from healthy mastitis-free dams4. Colostrum should also be handled and stored properly to prevent bacterial overgrowth. Bacterial contamination of colostrum inhibits absorption of antibodies into the blood stream and reduces the immune protection provided by colostrum11. Proper sanitation of teat, milking equipment, and feed equipment is essential to prevent contamination, but since colostrum is not sterile colostrum must be used quickly. Bacterial growth in colostrum is rapid12. Colostrum that will not be fed immediately should be refrigerated or frozen. Colostrum can be refrigerated (33-35⁰F) for up to seven days and frozen (-4⁰F) for up to a year. When thawing frozen colostrum do not allow it to sit at room temperature, instead rapidly thaw frozen colostrum in 140⁰F water to prevent bacterial growth. Be careful to avoid overheating the colostrum, because temperatures higher than 140⁰F will damage antibodies13. BRD CAP Immune Support for Respiratory Disease Prevention 8/2012 1 Pasteurization is a potential way to decrease bacterial contamination in colostrum, but pasteurization is not a commonly recommended practice for several reasons. Antibodies are heat sensitive and improper pasteurization temperatures reduce the immune protection provided by colostrum. Additionally pasteurization can thicken colostrum, making feeding more difficult. However, batch pasteurizers set to lower temperatures (140⁰F ) and longer pasteurization times (60min) have been used successfully to pasteurize colostrum without thickening and loss of antibody function14,15. A recent study found that batch heat treatment of colostrum at 140°F for 60 minutes can be successfully conducted on commercial dairy farms by farm staff to decrease colostrum microbial counts while maintaining colostral IgG concentrations16. Commercial colostrum supplements are an alternative if high quality colostrum is not available. A recent review of colostrum supplements concludes that colostrum supplements can be an effective way to boost immune function in calves17. However, high quality true colostrum remains the preferred initial nutrition for newborn calves. II. Immune Support through Vaccination Vaccines induce acquired immunity by tricking the immune system into generating antibodies against real pathogens. Vaccines contain elements recognized by antibodies that are identical to the pathogen, but do not cause disease. When a vaccinated animal encounters the actual pathogen, the acquired immune response system rapidly acts to prevent infection. Most veterinarians recommend vaccination to protect cattle against viruses and occasionally the bacteria involved in BRD. Commercially available vaccines have been demonstrated to stimulate disease-fighting immune responses, leading to the expectation that appropriately administered vaccines limit the incidence and severity of BRD. However, because BRD is a difficult disease to study, in part due to the involvement of numerous pathogens and environmental stressors, vaccination to reduce the incidence of BRDC is not well-supported by scientific research18,19. Since vaccination has not proven to be entirely preventative against BRD, vaccination should be considered one element in a total management strategy to reduce BRD. Selection of vaccine type and timing of administration are important to the success of a vaccination protocol. There is no single recommended vaccination protocol for dairy herds. Vaccination protocols should be made with the advice of your veterinarian, who will consider the needs of your herd and regional disease pressures in determining which vaccines to administer and the timing. Vaccines can be purchased from your veterinarian or over the counter. When over the counter vaccines are used it is very important to trust that the vaccine has been handled and stored correctly. Some vaccines need to be refrigerated, and if they have been allowed to warm they lose their effectiveness. Always read and understand the enclosed information which provides information on dosage, mode of administration, storage, and safety. There are nasal and parenteral (injection) vaccines for BRD pathogens. Young calves may not produce specific antibodies after parenteral vaccination in the presence of maternal antibodies (passive immunity from colostrum)19. Maternal antibodies from colostrum may interfere with vaccines and inhibit the calf's immune response20 (Figure 1). To overcome this problem, research has recently focused on the use of intranasal vaccination to target the mucosal immune system. Nasal vaccines may be more suitable for young calves that have received passive immunity through colostrum. BRD CAP Immune Support for Respiratory Disease Prevention 8/2012 2 Although intranasal vaccination has proven effective in some studies, they do not always prevent clinical disease21-23. Follow all label directions, as some vaccinations must be repeated, while others are single injections.It is particularly important to remember to give booster vaccinations to calves, given their immature immune system and the possibly suppressive effects of maternal antibodies. Window of susceptibility to infection Active immunity from calf’s immune system Passive immunity from colostrum Figure 1. Development of the immune response in the calf: from conception to puberty24. Most vaccines are one of two varieties: killed or modified-live. Vaccines that contain killed viruses are often in liquid form. Vaccines that contain modified-live viruses often come in a powder that is reconstituted before use. Once reconstituted, modified-live vaccines must be protected from sunlight and extreme temperatures and used within a few hours. Modified-live vaccines usually stimulate a broader immune response than killed vaccines. However, because modified-live vaccines actually cause a mild infection, they can cause abortion in pregnant animals. For this reason modified-live vaccines are not normally recommended for use in pregnant animals. Some modified-live vaccines can be used in pregnant animals if certain conditions are met; if so, these conditions will be indicated on the label included with the vaccine. Because of the risks of using modified-live vaccines in pregnant animals, use these vaccines in pregnant animals only if your veterinarian agrees they are appropriate for your herd. Further reading and internet resources: Health and Immune Function of Dairy Calves. http://www.wcds.ca/proc/2012/Manuscripts/Leslie.pdf Calf notes by Dr. Jim Quigley: English http://www.calfnotes.com Spanish/Español http://www.calfnotes.com/CNnotasterneros.htm Calf facts by Dr. Sam Leadley: English and Spanish/Español http://atticacows.com University of Wisconsin Dairy Calf Clinical Information and Forms including respiratory scoring chart http://www.vetmed.wisc.edu/dms/fapm/fapmtools/calves.htm Dairy Heifer Health, Disease Control, and Vaccinations http://pubs.ext.vt.edu/404/404-284/404-284.htm BRD CAP Immune Support for Respiratory Disease Prevention 8/2012 3 1. Fulton, R.W. et al. Maternally derived humoral immunity to bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) 1a, BVDV1b, BVDV2, 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. bovine herpesvirus-1, parainfluenza-3 virus bovine respiratory syncytial virus, Mannheimia haemolytica and Pasteurella multocida in beef calves, antibody decline by half-life studies and effect on response to vaccination. Vaccine 22, 644650 (2004). Howard, C., Clarke, M. & Brownlie, J. Protection against respiratory infection with bovine virus diarrhoea virus by passively acquired antibody. Veterinary Microbiology 19, 195-203 (1989). Mechor, G., Rousseaux, C., Radostits, O., Babiuk, L. & Petrie, L. Protection of newborn calves against fatal multisystemic infectious bovine rhinotracheitis by feeding colostrum from vaccinated cows. Canadian Journal of Veterinary Research 51, 452 (1987). McGuirk, S.M. & Collins, M. Managing the production, storage, and delivery of colostrum. The Veterinary clinics of North America. Food Animal Practice 20, 593 (2004). Weaver, D.M., Tyler, J.W., VanMetre, D.C., Hostetler, D.E. & Barrington, G.M. Passive transfer of colostral immunoglobulins in calves. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine 14, 569-577 (2000). Godden, S. Colostrum management for dairy calves. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice 24, 19-39 (2008). Besser, T., Garmedia, A., McGuire, T. & Gay, C. Effect of Colostral Immunoglobulin G1 and Immunoglobulin M Concentrations on Immunoglobulin Absorption in Calves. Journal of Dairy Science 68, 2033-2037 (1985). NAHMS. Dairy 2002. Part 1: Reference of dairy health and management in the United States, 2002. (USDA-APHIS Veterinary Services, Ft. Collins, CO, 2002). Steele, M.L. et al. Survey of Ontario bulk tank raw milk for food-borne pathogens. Journal of Food Protection 60, 13411346 (1997). Streeter, R.N., Hoffsis, G., Bech-Nielsen, S., Shulaw, W. & Rings, D. Isolation of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis from colostrum and milk of subclinically infected cows. American Journal of Veterinary Research 56, 1322 (1995). Poulsen, K.P., Hartmann, F.A. & McGuirk, S.M. Bacteria in colostrum: impact on calf health. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine 16(3), 339 (2002). Stewart, S. et al. Preventing bacterial contamination and proliferation during the harvest, storage, and feeding of fresh bovine colostrum. Journal of Dairy Science 88, 2571-2578 (2005). Lang, B. Colostrum for the Dairy Calf. Vol. 2011 (Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Rural Affairs, 2008). McMartin, S. et al. Heat treatment of bovine colostrum. I: Effects of temperature on viscosity and immunoglobulin G level. Journal of Dairy Science 89, 2110-2118 (2006). Godden, S. et al. Heat-treatment of bovine colostrum. II: effects of heating duration on pathogen viability and immunoglobulin G. Journal of Dairy Science 89, 3476-3483 (2006). Donahue, M. et al. Heat treatment of colostrum on commercial dairy farms decreases colostrum microbial counts while maintaining colostrum immunoglobulin G concentrations. Journal of dairy science 95, 2697-2702 (2012). Jones, C. & Heinrichs, J. Colostrum Supplements and Replacer. (eds Chahine, M., Erickson, P. & Kertz, A.) (Penn State Cooperative Extension, 2011). Taylor, J.D., Fulton, R.W., Lehenbauer, T.W., Step, D.L. & Confer, A.W. The epidemiology of bovine respiratory disease: What is the evidence for preventive measures? Canadian Veterinary Journal-Revue Veterinaire Canadienne 51, 13511359 (2010). Lorenz, I. et al. Calf health from birth to weaning. III. housing and management of calf pneumonia. Irish Veterinary Journal 64, 14 (2011). Menanteau-Horta, A., Ames, T., Johnson, D. & Meiske, J. Effect of maternal antibody upon vaccination with infectious bovine rhinotracheitis and bovine virus diarrhea vaccines. Canadian Journal of Comparative Medicine 49, 10 (1985). Ellis, J. et al. Response of calves to challenge exposure with virulent bovine respiratory syncytial virus following intranasal administration of vaccines formulated for parenteral administration. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 230, 233-243 (2007). Ellis, J.A., Gow, S.P. & Goji, N. Response to experimentally induced infection with bovine respiratory syncytial virus following intranasal vaccination of seropositive and seronegative calves. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 236, 991-999 (2010). Xue, W. et al. Immunogenicity of a modified-live virus vaccine against bovine viral diarrhea virus types 1 and 2, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis virus, bovine parainfluenza-3 virus, and bovine respiratory syncytial virus when administered intranasally in young calves. Vaccine 28, 3784-3792 (2010). Chase, C.C.L., Hurley, D.J. & Reber, A.J. Neonatal immune development in the calf and its impact on vaccine response. Veterinary Clinics of North America-Food Animal Practice 24, 87-104 (2008). The “Integrated Program for Reducing Bovine Respiratory Disease Complex (BRDC) in Beef and Dairy Cattle” Coordinated Agricultural Project is supported by Agriculture and Food Research Initiative Competitive Grant no. 2011-68004-30367 from the USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture” BRD CAP Immune Support for Respiratory Disease Prevention 8/2012 4