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WORKBOOK ANSWERS
AQA AS/A-level Psychology 2
Psychology in context:
Approaches in psychology
Biopsychology
Research methods
This Answers book provides guidance on the content and characteristics of effective answers to
the questions in the workbook. It does not provide model answers for each question. These
answers are intended as a guide to give teachers and students feedback.
Where a question calls for a specific response, a detailed answer is provided. For questions that
could elicit a range of answers, a list of the most probable responses is included. Use your
discretion when marking unexpected responses by assessing whether the question has been
answered.
Topic 1
Approaches in psychology
1 a
B
b
i
The behaviourist approach can be described as reductionist because it ignores
social and cognitive factors and reduces explanations of complex human behaviour to simple
biological causes.
ii
The behaviourist approach assumes behaviour is caused by nurture because it
assumes we are a blank slate at birth and learn all behaviour in interaction with the
environment.
iii
One research study that explains behaviour from a behaviourist approach is
Watson and Rayner who showed that a phobia could be learned.
iv
One research study that explains behaviour in terms of ‘nurture’ is Bandura,
Ross and Ross who showed that children could learn aggressive behaviour by observing adult
role models.
v
The behaviourist approach gives a deterministic explanation for behaviour
because it suggests that all our behaviours are determined by our past experiences.
vi
When we introspect we examine our own conscious thoughts and feelings.
AQA AS/A-level Psychology 2
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Psychology in context
Hodder Education
TOPIC 1
2 a
Approaches in psychology
D
b
i
The cognitive approach can be described as reductionist because it ignores
biological factors and reduces explanations of complex human behaviour to mental processes.
ii
Cognitive psychologists study mental processes such as attention, memory and
perception.
iii
One research study that explains behaviour from the cognitive approach is Loftus
and Palmer who studied the reliability of eyewitness memory.
iv
The cognitive approach does not give a deterministic explanation for behaviour
because cognitive psychologists assume humans have the free will to choose their behaviour.
v
A schema is an internal mental representation.
vi
Introspection is a cognitive process because when we introspect we ‘think about’
our own conscious thoughts and feelings.
vii
Cognitive neuroscience uses new techniques to measure brain activity to look at
relationships between mental processes and biological brain activity.
3 a
A and B
b
i
The biological approach can be described as reductionist because it reduces the
explanation for complex human behaviour to simple biological facts ignoring cognitive and
social explanations for behaviour.
ii
The biological approach assumes behaviour is caused by nature because it
assumes that behaviour is innate (inborn), for example caused by genetic inheritance.
iii
One research study that explains behaviour from the biological approach is
Sperry who carried out ‘split-brain studies’ to find out what happens when the two
hemispheres of the brain are disconnected.
iv
The biological approach gives a deterministic explanation for behaviour because
rather than assuming that people have the free will to choose their behaviour, the approach
suggests that behaviour is caused by (determined by) biological factors that we cannot
control.
v
Neurotransmitters are biochemical substances in the brain that carry signals
between brain cells.
4 a
A
b
i
The psychodynamic approach can be described as reductionist because it
reduces explanations of complex human behaviour to unobservable unconscious mental
processes.
ii
The psychodynamic approach assumes behaviour is partially caused by nature
because according to Freud, the id, which is present at birth, contains our biological instincts
and drives.
iii
One research study that explains behaviour from the psychodynamic approach is
by Freud, who carried out the case study of Little Hans and his phobia of horses.
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TOPIC 1
Approaches in psychology
iv
The psychodynamic approach gives a deterministic explanation for behaviour
because it assumes that experience in the first 6 years of life will shape our personality and
behaviour forever.
v
The psychodynamic approach is not scientific because the hypothesis that the
human mind is made up of the id, ego and superego is not falsifiable, it is a theory based on
subjective opinion rather than objective evidence or matters of fact.
5 a
C
b
i
The humanistic approach can be described as unscientific because it is a theory
that human behaviour is based on a hierarchy of human need and that people have a need to
self-actualise. The theory seems to be based on American cultural values rather than
objective evidence or matters of fact.
ii
The humanistic approach assumes behaviour is caused by nurture because
Rogers believed feelings of self-worth develop in early childhood and depend on whether a
child receives unconditional positive regard. According to humanistic theorists, people who are
able to self-actualise are more likely to have received unconditional positive regard from their
parents in childhood.
iii
According to the humanistic approach, the highest level in the hierarchy of
human needs is the need for self-actualisation — the need to fulfil potential.
iv
The humanistic approach suggests that the development of congruence is
dependent on unconditional positive regard and our self-image and ideal self being consistent.
v
According to the humanistic approach, a person will be in a state of congruence if
their ideal self is consistent with their self-image and with what is happening in their life.
6 a
i
Cognitive psychologists believe that behaviour is motivated by conscious mental
processes.
ii
Behaviourists believe that behaviour is learned and can be unlearned.
iii
The psychodynamic perspective assumes that behaviour is motivated by forces
in the unconscious mind.
iv
Humanist psychologists assume that behaviour is motivated by the desire for
self-actualisation and free will.
v
The biological approach suggests that behaviour can be explained by studying
the functions of physiological systems.
b
i
The behaviourist approach assumes that all behaviour is learned, that what has
been learned can be unlearned, abnormal behaviour is learned in the same way as normal
behaviour. Three ways that behaviour is learned are classical conditioning, operant
conditioning and social learning. Behaviour is caused by nurture rather than by nature.
ii
The cognitive approach is based on the assumption that mental processes
control behaviour, that the human mind is like an information processor and that people have
the free will to control how they select, store and think about information.
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TOPIC 1
Approaches in psychology
iii
The physiological approach assumes that there is a direct relationship between
biology and behaviour and that behaviour is influenced by genetics, biochemistry and brain
anatomy. Behaviour is caused by nature rather than by nurture.
c
Genes, biochemistry, hormones, neurotransmitters, brain structures.
d
Classical conditioning; operant conditioning
e
The mind is a hypothetical construct that cannot be objectively measured and mental
processes are essentially private and hidden, and can only be accessed by analysing what
people say.
f
The psychodynamic approach assumes that behaviour is motivated by unconscious
forces, that the human psyche is made up of the id, the ego and the superego, and that the
development of the personality progresses in five psychosexual stages.
g
Self-actualisation is the process of growing and developing as a person in order to reach
one’s full potential.
Exam-style questions: AS
7 a
Example answer:
The learning approach makes three assumptions. First, it assumes that all behaviour is
learned; second, that what has been learned can be unlearned; and third, that
abnormal behaviour is learned in the same way as normal behaviour. Learning
theorists take a behaviourist approach and behaviourists propose that behaviour is
learned by classical conditioning, operant conditioning or social learning. In classical
conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus, such as an unexpected loud noise, triggers a
natural reflex, such as the startle response and fear, but, if another stimulus, e.g.
seeing a spider, occurs at the same time, this may in future elicit the fear response
when a spider is seen. In operant conditioning, behaviour is learned through the
consequences of our actions, and in social learning behaviour is learned by
observation. Learning theorists believe that we are a product of our environment, that
at birth we are a ‘tabula rasa’ or blank slate, our genetic make-up is largely ignored
and our personality, IQ, achievements and behaviour are shaped by the environment
in which we are reared. Behaviourism is at the extreme end of nurture in the nature–
nurture debate.
A top-band mark should be awarded for this answer because the description is
accurate, thorough and coherent and the student demonstrates knowledge and
understanding of the assumptions of learning theory which are expanded and placed
correctly on the nurture side of the nature–nurture debate.
b
Operant conditioning — positive reinforcement of the pigeon’s bell pecking behaviour.
c
Example answer:
Social learning theorists assume that behaviour is learned from the environment
through the process of observational learning. According to social learning theory,
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TOPIC 1
Approaches in psychology
children observe the people around them and these models provide examples of
behaviour to imitate at a later date. According to social learning theory, children are
more likely to attend to and imitate a model they perceive as similar to themselves
and so are more likely to imitate behaviour modelled by people of the same sex. Also,
if a child imitates a model’s behaviour and the consequences are rewarding, the child
is likely to continue performing the behaviour because of reinforcement.
d
Possible suggestions:
One limitation of learning approaches is that they are deterministic because they ignore
conscious reasoning, subjective experience and the idea that humans have the free will to
choose how to behave. Learning approaches assume that we are ‘programmed’ to behave the
way we do because of past experience and people are reduced to collections of programmed
stimulus–response units.
Another limitation is that the learning approaches are reductionist because they ignore the role
of innate and/or physiological individual differences (nature) and focus only on the role of
environmental factors (nurture) as explanations for behaviour.
Exam-style questions: A-level
8 a
B
b
i
According to Rogers the closer our self-image and ideal-self are to each other,
the more congruent we are and the higher our sense of self-worth. People are said to be in a
state of incongruence if their experience, or self-image, does not match their ideal self and so
is denied. For Jemima, her ideal self is ‘attractive, clever and popular’ and her self-image does
not match this.
ii
Jemima could be offered client-centred therapy during which she can gain insight
into her true self and be given empathic unconditional positive regard so that her sense of selfworth increases and she develops a more realistic ideal self.
c
You could include commentary on:

how research by physiological psychologists has increased understanding of human
behaviour, using examples of research to support arguments

how physiological psychologists have developed treatments to help people recover
from mental illness and the advantages of these treatments

the advantages and limitations of the assumptions of the physiological approach
compared to one or more other approaches

the methodological problems that arise when physiological psychologists carry out
research

research by physiological psychologists studied for Paper 1
For a top-band mark you need to use appropriate psychological terminology and demonstrate
clear understanding. You should aim to write about four paragraphs each making a
different point. Your answer must be evaluative rather than descriptive and you should allow a
few minutes to write a plan before you begin writing your answer.
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TOPIC 1
Approaches in psychology
Some example paragraphs:
Physiological psychologists have increased our understanding of the structure and
function of different areas of the brain. One advantage of physiological psychology is
that it takes a scientific approach, and usually uses laboratory experiments to reveal
biological causes of behaviour. This means that physiological research is especially
useful as its hypotheses can be tested to draw valid and reliable conclusions.
Physiological psychologists argue that, as scientists, to understand human behaviour
we should study the physical brain rather than the metaphysical mind. An early
breakthrough in physiological psychology was the split-brain research by Sperry,
showing that the brain structures that support language are in the left hemisphere of
the brain, which explains why damage to the left hemisphere may disrupt the ability
to speak or understand language.
Another advantage of physiological psychology is the use of objective, quantitative
research methods, such as twin and family studies where comparisons of MZ and DZ
twins are used to determine whether or not behaviours are genetically inherited or
environmentally determined. Also, brain scans that show which areas of the brain are
active, along with research into the biochemistry of the brain, have increased our
understanding of the relationship between brain and behaviour. Progress in
physiological psychology has been especially useful because it used to be thought that
damage to the brain could not be repaired, but recent research by Maguire showed
that structures in the brains of adults changed in response to environmental demand,
which provides hope that intense therapy could repair brain damage.
However, physiological psychology is criticised as being reductionist as it reduces
explanations for complex human behaviour to biological facts, ignoring cognitive and
social influences on behaviour. For example, some psychologists would argue that
aggression has a biological cause, stating that testosterone causes male violence, but
this theory ignores the fact that all men have testosterone but only a small sample of
the male population behave violently. It also ignores research by social psychologists
showing that children learn aggressive behaviour by imitating aggressive role models.
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TOPIC 2
Biopsychology
Topic 2
Biopsychology
1 a
b
C
i
The central nervous system consists of the brain and the spinal cord.
ii
The somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system are the two
parts of the peripheral nervous system.
iii
The biology of the fight or flight response is controlled by the sympathetic
nervous system.
iv
Information is carried between brain neurons by biochemical substances called
neurotransmitters.
v
Relay neurons relay information from sensory neurons to motor neurons.
vi
The neurotransmitter serotonin may be involved in mood. Too little serotonin is
thought to be the cause of depression.
2 a
D
b
i
The set of glands that release chemical products into the bloodstream is called
the endocrine system.
ii
Just beneath the hypothalamus sits a pea sized gland called the pituitary gland.
iii
Adrenaline is a hormone that in an emergency acts quickly to prepare the body to
iv
The brain has two hemispheres connected by the corpus callosum.
act.
v
area.
There are two language centres in the brain called Broca’s area and Wernicke’s
vi
A person suffering from motor aphasia can understand language but cannot
produce meaningful language.
3
a
The frontal, the temporal, the occipital and the parietal.
b
i
Spinal cord
ii
involuntary activity
iii
sympathetic
iv
fight or flight
v
afferent
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TOPIC 2
Biopsychology
c
Relay neurons are afferent neurons and they only relay information to the brain, but
motor neurons are efferent neurons and they carry information from the brain to the target.
d
Dopamine — movement, attention and learning; serotonin — mood, sleep, appetite and
aggression; epinephrine — energy and depression.
e
The pituitary gland controls growth and regulates other glands. The adrenal glands
regulate moods, energy level and the ability to cope with stress. The pancreas performs both
digestive and endocrine functions.
f
If visual material appeared in the right visual field, thus left hemisphere, the patient could
describe it in speech and writing, but if visual material appeared to the left visual field, thus
right hemisphere, the patient could not describe it which suggests that language ability is
located in the left hemisphere.
g
Ways to measure brain activity include:

Post-mortem studies in which researchers conduct a study of the brain of an individual
who may have had some sort of illness.

Electroencephalogram (EEG) which records the electrical activity and voltage
fluctuation resulting from ionic current flows in the neurons of the brain.

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) measures the metabolic changes that
take place in an active part of the brain.
h
Circadian rhythms are cycles of behaviour that happen every 24 hours (around a day), for
example sleeping/waking, but ultradian rhythms repeat over a period of less than 24 hours, for
example the stages of sleep.
i
The amount of daylight, social norms, clocks.
Exam-style questions: AS
4 B, C and D
5 The pancreas performs both digestive and endocrine functions and it produces a number of
hormones, including insulin that controls glucose (blood sugar) levels in the body and is
related to metabolism and body weight.
6 Adrenaline has a range of effects on the body:

increases heart rate

increases rate of blood flow and raises blood pressure

diverts blood away from the skin and slows the digestive system

increases blood to brain and skeletal muscle

increases rate of breathing and sweating
7 Example answer
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TOPIC 2
Biopsychology
Neurotransmission is how information is sent between nerve cells (neurons) in the
brain and body. Neurons are only capable of carrying a message in one direction.
Sensory neurons relay information to the brain and motor neurons carry information
from the brain to the body. Interneurons relay information from sensory neurons to
motor neurons. In pre-synaptic processes, information comes to the neuron through
the dendrites from other neurons and on to the cell body (soma) which processes
information and then passes it along the axon. At the end of the axon are structures
called terminal buttons that pass the information on to glands, muscles, or other
neurons. Information between neurons is carried by biochemical substances called
neurotransmitters such as dopamine and serotonin. In the post-synaptic process, when
the neurotransmitter leaves the axon it passes through the synapse and then on to the
dendrite receptor sites where it may, or may not, activate the receptor neuron.
8 The question requires you to demonstrate your knowledge of the physiological reactions that
comprise the fight-or-flight response.
Example answer:
The fight-or-flight response is a chain of rapidly occurring physiological reactions,
originating in the hypothalamus, that mobilise the body’s resources to deal with a
threat. In response to a threat, the sympathetic branch of the nervous system
stimulates the adrenal gland to release adrenaline, noradrenaline and corticosteroids
into the bloodstream. The increase in adrenaline produces the physiological reactions,
such as increased heart rate, respiration and blood pressure known as the ‘fight-orflight’ response. The increase in heart rate results in more blood to the muscles which
helped Jasper run faster than he would normally to escape the bees.
Exam-style questions: A-level
9 Example answer:
The left hemisphere controls the right side of the body and the right visual field. The
right hemisphere controls the left side of the body and the left visual field. The splitbrain procedure is a surgical procedure called a commisurotomy to cut the corpus
callosum which connects the two hemispheres. The participants were people who
suffered from severe epilepsy who had a commisurotomy. Participants were tested
individually. Pictures were presented to the left or right of a screen thus to the left or
right visual field. The participant covered one eye and looked at a fixed point in the
centre of a projection screen. Images were projected to the right or the left of the
screen at a high speed. Below the screen there was a gap so that the participant could
touch and feel objects but not see his or her hands. Each time an image was presented
the participant was asked had they seen the image before, to describe what they could
see, to identify matching object with their left or right hand. Sperry recorded and
analysed the behaviours to see whether the functions of the left and right hemispheres
could be identified.
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TOPIC 2
Biopsychology
This would be awarded a top-band mark. It is clear, accurate and detailed.
10 Answers may suggest the need for informed consent, that harm may be caused if exogenous
pacemakers are manipulated, the right to withdraw if people are isolated in darkness, or that
invasive techniques may be used to study the brain.
11 Endogenous pacemakers are internal biological rhythms. For example, in humans the
suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) appears to control the 24 hour circadian sleep/wake cycle. The
SCN receives sensory input about light levels through the optic nerve and appears to be the
main biological body clock. In contrast to endogenous pacemakers, exogenous zeitgebers are
external factors that regulate the sleep/wake cycle, such as the amount of daylight and/or
alarm clocks. The internal biological pacemakers and external zeitgebers interact to regulate
and affect the normal sleep/wake cycle.
12 The endocrine system comprises a set of glands that release hormones into the bloodstream,
which carries the hormones to all parts of the body. The hypothalamus connects the nervous
and the endocrine systems and the two systems work together to control the body’s activities.
The endocrine system works more slowly than the nervous system, because hormones are
transported in our blood through the circulatory system. Glands in the endocrine system
include the pituitary gland (which controls growth and regulates other glands), the adrenal
glands (which regulate mood, energy levels and the ability to cope with stress) and the
pancreas (which produces hormones including insulin that controls glucose (blood sugar)
levels in the body).
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TOPIC 3
Research methods
Topic 3
Research methods
1 a
i
This is a laboratory experiment. The strength is that high levels of control in a
laboratory experiment allow extraneous variables that might affect the IV or the DV to be
minimised. The researcher can be sure that any changes in the DV are the result of changes
in the IV.
ii
This is a naturalistic observation. The strength is that behaviour can be observed
in its usual setting and there are usually no problems with demand characteristics.
iii
This is a quasi-experiment. The strength is that natural (quasi) experiments allow
psychologists to study the effects of IVs that are impossible or unethical to manipulate.
iv
This study is a field experiment (used self-report techniques). The advantage is
that field experiments allow psychologists to measure how variables affect how people behave
in their everyday lives so the findings may have high external validity.
v
The study used self-report techniques. The advantage is that questionnaires can
be used with large samples of participants and allow research to be replicated to test
reliability.
vi
This used a correlational method. The advantage is correlational analysis allows
researchers to calculate the strength of a relationship between variables and if a correlation is
found, it is possible to make predictions about one variable from the other.
b
C and E
c
In a structured interview all participants are asked the same questions in the same order.
Structured interviews can be replicated and can be used to compare people’s responses. In
unstructured interviews, participants can give as much information as they like and can
discuss anything freely, but they are not replicable and people’s responses cannot be
compared.
d
A case study is an in-depth study of one individual (or a small group), but a content
analysis is a study in which the source of the data is a ‘publication’ such as a newspaper or
magazine.
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TOPIC 4
Scientific processes
Topic 4
Scientific processes
1 a
The Asch study of conformity was a lab experiment — it was unethical because the
participants were deceived because they were not aware that the other participants were
stooges who were giving the incorrect answer.
The Bandura study was a lab experiment — it was unethical because the child participants
were distressed and parental consent was not gained.
b
The Bandura study involved a time-sampled observation — it was unethical because the
child participants were distressed and parental consent was not gained.
The Milgram study of obedience could be described as an observational study — it was
unethical because the participants were not told the true purpose of the study and they were
deceived because they were not aware that the learner was a stooge, and the electric shocks
were not real.
c
The Piliavin study of helping behaviour was a field experiment and it was unethical
because the participants’ behaviour was manipulated without their consent; they were also
deceived because they believed the ‘victim’ really was in need of help.
d
If participants knows what the purpose of the study is, they try to ‘work out’ what is
expected of them and behave accordingly — so their behaviour is ‘demanded’ by the situation.
e
The Bandura study involved children who were about 4–5 years old and was unethical
because parental consent was not gained.
2 a
i
research aim
ii
hypothesis
iii
alternative hypothesis
iv
null hypothesis
v
non-directional hypothesis
vi
the direction
b
i
This is a random sample. The strength is that a random sample removes bias
because every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.
ii
This is an opportunity sample. The strength is that researchers can quickly and
inexpensively acquire a sample.
iii
This is a volunteer sample. The strength is that the participants should have
given their informed consent, will be interested in the research, and may be less likely to
withdraw.
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TOPIC 4
Scientific processes
iv
This is a stratified sample. The strength is that the sample should be free from
bias and representative of the college population.
c
i
No because a biased, all-male sample.
ii
No because a biased, all-female sample.
iii
No because all young and well educated thus a biased sample.
iv
A random sample thus more representative of the adult population who are
registered to vote.
3 a
The advantage is that a pilot study can save time by identifying any flaws in the research
procedures or confusion in the information given to participants or problems with the task
devised. A pilot study is very useful when a questionnaire is to be used, as it can help identify
any misunderstanding of the questions.
b
Student B is correct — the sample was matched on pre-aggressive tendencies.
c
A repeated measures design may increase validity because it controls out any effect of
individual differences as the same participants take part in all conditions.
d
A repeated measures design may lack validity — as order or practice effects can affect
what is being measured.
e
In an independent design each participant only experiences one condition of the IV, so a
different group of participants is needed for each condition — thus more participants.
f
In event sampling the observer records each time a specific behaviour occurs, but in time
sampling the observation period is divided up into sample intervals, e.g. every 2 minutes, and
the observer makes a note of the behaviour occurring at each specified time interval.
4 a
Open question
b
Closed questions are easy to answer, often collect numeric data and the questions are
standardised.
c
Structured because the questions were asked in a set/standardised order.
d
The answer was YES or NO so this is a closed question.
e
Qualitative data
5 a
The Hawthorne effect happens when people are aware that they are being studied they
try harder (or sometimes do not try) which may lead to invalid conclusions.
b
Extraneous variables are any variables that have not been controlled and that may also
have an effect on the IV or DV which reduces the validity of the study.
c
Demand characteristics may be reduced if participants are not told which condition they
are participating in, or are not told the true purpose of the experiment — this is called a singleblind procedure.
d
The observing teacher is required to record pro-social behaviour and he or she may have
biased beliefs about which of the children may engage in this type of behaviour, and whether
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TOPIC 4
Scientific processes
boys or girls are more pro-social. Any possible biased beliefs of the teacher would have less
influence if he or she did not know that the research was investigating gender differences.
e
6 a
C and D
Any two from: objectivity, replicability, testable hypotheses, controls extraneous variables.
b
R. Gross should be Gross, R. — research names are alphabetical by surname.
c
i
Face validity
ii
External validity
iii
Population validity
iv
Ecological validity
v
Construct validity
d
Reliability means the extent to which the way something is measured is consistent — so
that if it is measured in the same way more than once the same result will occur.
e
Internal reliability refers to how consistently a method measures within itself, for example
standardised procedures ensure that every participant is treated in the same way. External
reliability refers to the consistency of measures over time, for instance a personality test
should give the same result if a person is tested more than once.
f
To improve inter-observer reliability the research must establish clear and operationalised
categories of behaviour and all observers must be trained in how to use the system OR use a
time sampling method as then all observers will ‘watch’ the behaviour at the same time.
g
Empirical evidence are data that are collected through direct observation or experiment
— objective facts rather than subjective opinions.
h
Scientific disciplines have one predominant paradigm that almost all scientists agree with,
for example all physicists agree what will cause an atom to split, but in psychology there are
no universal laws of human behaviour and the psychological approaches do not agree with
each other as to what causes human behaviour.
i
The method section includes details of the experimental design and if an experiment the
independent and dependent variables; the target population, how the sample was obtained,
why this sample was chosen, and details, such as age range and gender of the sample; the
materials used, e.g. pictures, word lists, instructions, and the procedure followed, including
detail on the brief, standardised instructions and debriefing.
Exam-style questions: AS
7 a
The scattergraph should show a negative correlation and should have an accurately
labelled x- and y-axis.
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TOPIC 4
Scientific processes
b
It suggests that younger people believe that driving ability gets worse with age but as
people get older their attitude changes and they no longer believe this.
c
For a top-band mark the context of the research must be referred to. Not telling the
participant that the discussion would be observed because research suggests that having an
audience changes the way people behave.
d
The question asks for a discussion so you should make more than one point.
Example advantages:
Rating scales collect numeric data that can be put into rank order, plotted on a
scattergraph, used to make comparisons, and used again thus should be a reliable way
to measure attitudes towards age and driving ability. However, people do not always
answer self-report questions truthfully thus the rating scale may not be a valid way to
measure attitudes towards age and driving ability.
For a top-band mark the context of the research must be referred to.
e
Example answer:
One question that could be asked is ‘Do you think as you get older your driving
ability will get worse? YES/NO This is a suitable question because the closed
question will force each participant to apply the question to him-/herself rather than to
some ‘neutral’ population.
f
For a top-band mark the context of the research must be referred to. Quantitative data
are collected by the rating scale question — rate the extent to which you agree with the
statement ‘the ability to drive is gets worse with age’ (the ratings are between 1 — disagree
and 20 — strongly agree). Qualitative data are collected by the open question ‘why do you
think age affects driving ability?’
g
A volunteer sample is a biased sample because only people who see the poster or
advertisement and who are interested in the research are likely to offer to participate. The
volunteers may be in some way different to people who have not volunteered, and perhaps
have a specific opinion as to whether age affects driving ability.
h
For a top-band mark the context of the research must be referred to.
AQA AS/A-level Psychology 2: Psychology in context
© Molly Marshall 2016
Hodder Education
15
TOPIC 4
Scientific processes
Ethical issues include: informed consent, no deception, e.g. inform the participants they will be
observed, allow the right to withdraw during the discussion, briefing and debriefing.
Exam-style questions: A-level
8 a
The IV is whether while the participant constructs the flat-pack table, he/she is watched
by an audience of 2 people or 20 people.
The DV is the length of time it takes each participant to construct the flat-pack table in minutes
and seconds.
b
For 3 marks the hypothesis should be testable and the operationalised IV and DV should
be clear.
That there is a significant difference in the time (minutes and seconds) it takes participants to
construct a flat pack table when observed by an audience of 2 people or 20 people.
c
For a top-band mark the context of the research must be referred to.
Possible suggestions:
d

Handedness — all participants should either be left-handed or all right-handed to
ensure that manual dexterity does not affect the time it takes to build the flat-pack
table.

Time of day — all participants should undertake the task at more or less the same
time of day to ensure that some are not more tired than others.

The location of the task — even though the size of the audience is different, the task
should take place in same room, to ensure that environmental variables do not affect
the task performance.

Noise — sudden noises can be distraction, the audience is silent — so the
researchers should ensure as far as possible that the procedure is carried out in a
quiet room.
For a top-band mark the context of the research must be referred to.
It removes bias as the researcher cannot select ‘people’ he/she prefers, and in a true random
sample every member of the target population should have the opportunity to participate, but
in this case the sample were all college students thus we can only apply the findings to
suggest that audience size affects college students.
e
For a top-band mark the context of the research must be referred to.
This is a laboratory experiment. The advantage of using a laboratory experiment to find out
whether audience size affects task performance is that high levels of control allow extraneous
variables that might affect the IV or the DV to be minimised so that the researcher can be sure
that any change in the time taken to construct the flat-pack table was because of the size of
the silent audience (2 or 20 people).
f
For a top-band mark the context of the research must be referred to.
Control for extraneous variables, such as participant being left- or right-handed, so that the
only difference between the conditions is the size of the audience.
AQA AS/A-level Psychology 2: Psychology in context
© Molly Marshall 2016
Hodder Education
16
TOPIC 4
Scientific processes
g
A peer is a professional in the same field as the psychologist whose research is being
reviewed and a peer review can help a journal editor decide whether research is good enough
to be published.
AQA AS/A-level Psychology 2: Psychology in context
© Molly Marshall 2016
Hodder Education
17
TOPIC 5
Data handling and analysis
Topic 5
Data handling and analysis
Exam-style questions: AS
Remember: for a top-band mark you must always refer to the context of the research.
1 a
This is an independent design. The participant either IS a computer game player or IS
NOT a computer game player. One advantage of an independent design is that because
different participants are used in each of the conditions participants can be randomly allocated
between the conditions to distribute any individual differences evenly — which should increase
validity.
b
A repeated measures design can be used when participants experience all of the
research conditions, but it cannot be used in this study as the IV, computer game player or
not, is a characteristic of the participant.
c
Primary data — the score of the balls hit was gathered directly from the participants.
d
Possible suggestions:
Objective, allows comparisons, can be analysed statistically, matter of fact rather than opinion,
can be displayed in a graph or chart.
e
f
Possible suggestions:

Control for handedness — ask only right-handed volunteers because handedness
may affect hand-eye coordination.

Control for eyesight — all volunteers to have normal eyesight and not need to wear
glasses.

Control for the number of hours a week spent playing computer games.

Control for the type of computer game played — make sure none of the participants
play tennis or other ‘net games’.
Marks to be awarded as follows:
3 marks for an appropriate directional operationalised hypothesis.
2 marks for a statement with both conditions of the IV and DV lack the clarity or where
only one variable is operationalised.
1 mark for a muddled statement, or where neither the IV nor DV is operationalised.
When served 40 balls, participants who play computer games will score a significantly
higher tennis ball hit rate than participants who do not play computer games.
AQA AS/A-level Psychology 2: Psychology in context
© Molly Marshall 2016
Hodder Education
18
TOPIC 5
Data handling and analysis
g
The higher range of 26 in the ‘does play computer games’ condition suggests that,
although on average these participants hit more balls, there were individual differences and
more variability in the hit rate, than in the ‘does not play computer games condition’ where the
range was 17.
h
The measure of central tendency in this study is the mean. The advantage of this is that
the mean is the true arithmetic midpoint of the scores and takes into account the values of all
the scores.
i
The median tennis ball hit rate score could be calculated.
j
Since the mean score of 24 hits is higher in the ‘does play computer games’ condition
than in the ‘does not play computer games’ condition we can conclude that playing computer
games improves hand-eye coordination, at least as far as playing ball games is concerned.
k
A bar chart to show the difference in the means of each condition.
l
For a top-band mark you must include: a reminder of the aim, and in an independent
design the information about ‘the other condition’.
Example answer:
Thank you for taking part in this study. That was a good ‘ball hit rate’! The aim was
to see whether playing computer games improves hand-eye coordination. Half of the
participants in the study said they did play computer games and half said they did not
play computer games, but all completed the same task as you. Are you happy for your
data to be included in the research? If not, don’t worry, it can be withdrawn. When
the study is completed the data will be published on our webpage at
findmyresults.com/tennisstudy. If you have any questions I will do my best to answer
them, if not thanks for your time.
Exam-style questions: A-level
m This would be an improvement because the SD is a measure of dispersion that is less
easily distorted by an extreme score, and in both the ‘does’ and ‘does not’ play computer
games there is an extremely low score (1 mark awarded). Also the SD takes account of the
distance of each participant’s ball hit score from the mean ball hit score (1 more mark
awarded) instead of just the distance between the highest and the lowest ball hit score. (1
more mark awarded).
AQA AS/A-level Psychology 2: Psychology in context
© Molly Marshall 2016
Hodder Education
19
TOPIC 6
Inferential testing
Topic 6
Inferential testing
1 a
Approximately 68/2 = 34% of the scores
b
34% of 50 = 17 scores
c
i
Type 1; null
ii
Type 2; null
d
He is likely to make a Type 2 error because he is only allowing a 1 in 1000 probability
that the result (difference, correlation, association) is caused by something other than the
factor being tested.
e
Possible suggestions:

The sign test because it is a test of difference suitable for use with related data — and
in this case each participant gave their opinion before and after seeing the video on
farming methods.

The related t-test because it is a test of difference suitable for use with related data
and with data that is ‘at least’ ordinal (the attitude scores were numeric) and where the
data are normally distributed.

The Wilcoxen t-test because it is a test of difference suitable for use with related data
and with data that are ‘at least’ ordinal (the attitude scores were numeric) and where
the data are not known to be normally distributed and in this small sample there may
be extreme scores.
f
The Mann–Whitney U-test should be used because the test is a non-parametric test
suitable for testing the significance of the difference between two conditions when an
independent design has been used and when the level of data collected is ‘at least’ ordinal
and the data are not normally distributed.
g
A related t-test should be used because it is a parametric test which tests the significance
of the difference between two conditions when a repeated measures design has been used
and the level of data collected is ‘at least’ ordinal and the data are normally distributed.
h
The Spearman’s rho (rank order) correlation coefficient should be used because when
correlation between two independent variables is being studied, the Spearman’s test
calculates the correlation coefficient between ranked scores when both sets of scores are ‘at
least’ ordinal data (the verbal fluency scores can be placed in rank order), and the data set is
said to be not normally distributed.
i
The Chi-squared test is appropriate because it is a test of significance of association
which is used when nominal level data (frequency data) have been collected. The confidence
AQA AS/A-level Psychology 2: Psychology in context
© Molly Marshall 2016
Hodder Education
20
TOPIC 6
Inferential testing
levels categorised as high or low were nominal, and so were the exam outcomes which were
categorised as good or weak.
j
It means that there is a less than 1 in 100 (1%) probability that any difference or result is
not caused by the factor being investigated (the IV etc).
k
It means that there is a less than 1 in 1000 probability that any difference or result is not
caused by the factor being investigated (the IV etc).
l
It means that there is only a 90% chance that difference or result is caused by the
variable being investigated.
Exam-style questions: A-level
2
a
Independent design
b
That there is no difference in the marks awarded to students who complete the 1-hour
maths exam at 10 a.m. than the marks awarded to students who sit the same 1-hour maths
exam at 10 p.m.
c
Since the mean of the ‘early’ maths exam score (at 75.5) is more than 10 marks higher
than the mean of the late maths exam score (at 64.2) it suggests that students who sit maths
exams in the morning will do better and that the time of day does influence the ability to solve
maths problems.
d
A measure of dispersion gives us information about how spread out the scores are.
Standard deviation is a measure of dispersion because it measures how the scores are
distributed around the central point (the mean) — the greater the standard deviation the more
spread out the scores are.
e
Since the standard deviation score of 5.1 is greater in the late condition than in the early
condition, this suggests that being tested later did not have a consistent effect on performance
in the maths exam, and that in the late condition there were greater individual differences in
the ability to solve maths problems.
f
1 score out of 10 participants in the late condition — thus 1/10th or 10%.
2 marks would be awarded for this, but only 1 mark is awarded if the answer at 10% is given
but no ‘working’ is shown.
g
About 1%
h
B Mann–Whitney U-test because the data are numeric and ‘at least’ ordinal, and the
design is an independent design, and there are only 10 participants in each condition so the
data may not be normally distributed.
OR
C The unrelated t-test because the data are numeric and ‘at least’ ordinal, and the design
is an independent design. Here it is assumed that the data are normally distributed.
3 marks for either of these suggestions if appropriately justified.
AQA AS/A-level Psychology 2: Psychology in context
© Molly Marshall 2016
Hodder Education
21
TOPIC 6
Inferential testing
i
The null hypothesis should be rejected because there is only a less than 5% probability
that the difference between the early and the late exam results was due to variables other
than the time of day the exam was taken.
3 marks: 1 mark for the correct suggestion, and 2 marks for the correct explanation.
j
Research suggests that the time of day significantly affects outcomes in maths exams,
and students who sat exams in the morning did better than those who took the same maths
exam at 10 p.m. As a result we advise you to revise in the morning rather than the evening,
work on your coursework projects in the morning rather than in the evening, and generally
work on your maths early in the day rather than later.
2 marks for an appropriate suggestion clearly based on the research context and outcome.
k
Possible suggestions:
Yes because all students sat the same maths exam that was standardised and was a
consistent and objective measure of maths ability.
Yes because the maths exam gave a numeric score which is an objective and consistent way
of measuring maths ability, and the same maths exam could be used again to replicate the
study.
l
Individual differences in maths ability, any noise or disturbance in the exam room, how
hard the students tried, the temperature of the exam room, how hungry the students were.
m The results have face validity because a maths exam should be a test of maths ability
and the results have internal validity because all the students took the same exam in the same
environment with the only difference being the time of day the exam was taken. However,
validity will be reduced because as well as time of day, the individual ability of the maths
students will also have affected the exam score.
Note: A weak answer could suggest low ecological validity because maths exams are usually
not taken at 10 p.m.
n
In your answer you should discuss:

Suitability of participants: who might be suitable and who might not be
suitable? You should include information about how familiarity with the English
language could become a confounding variable if not controlled and how the selection
of participants could control for this.

The task: show that you understand what is meant by standardisation. You must
show an appreciation of the fact that, except for time of day, each participant must
have exactly the same task, the same amount of time, and be tested in the same
conditions.

Controls: what factors will you try to control and why will you control these factors?

Ethical issues: what will you do to make sure the study is ethical? Name,
describe and explain at least two ways such as informed consent, right to withdraw,
protection of welfare, confidentiality etc.
AQA AS/A-level Psychology 2: Psychology in context
© Molly Marshall 2016
Hodder Education
22