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Abstract No. 4 MULE DEER, ELK, AND WHITETAILS: RECENT TRENDS AND FUTURE MANAGEMENT IN AN ECOSYSTEM CONTEXT RICHARD J. MACKIE, Professor Emeritus, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717-0346 Absfmct: The past 50 years have been marked by general maeases in diaribution and abundance of elk (Gem elaphus) and white-tailed deer (Odocoilacs virginianus), while mule deer (Odocoileus haionus) populations have k e a s e d or fluauated across much of the West. These trends apparently reflect individual species responses to environmental change in an ecosystem context as well as differential harvest and other wildlife management prauices that influ& niche dimensions for the 3 species. This paper reviews species trends since d e m e n t , the environmental and management factors influencing the trends, and implications for the future in light of increased emphasis on rebuilding and maintaining complete, biologically diverse ecosystems. It suggests that unless management intervenes, elk will continue to inaease their distribution and abundance as they continue to recapture and fa more of their historical niche that remains available in foothills and other prairie border environments. The niche of whitetailed deer a h continues to expand as emphasii on restoration and maintmce of riparian environments combines with agriculture and other land uses to provide favorable habitat in places they could not occur historically. Conversely. mule deer, which came to occupy a greatlyapanded niche in the absence of major predatofi and competing ungulates during the mid20th m, will doubtless become inaeasingly d a e d in diaribution and fewer in number. They continue to shrink from habitats being reclaimed or claisned by elk, whitetaiis, bighorn sheep, and even bison and imtelope in some areas. Rebuilding major predator populations and land management practices that favor elk and white-tailed deer will also work against mule deer under "Ecosystem Management."