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Contents CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I CHAPTER 1: ACTING FUNDAMENTALS 1 VOICE TECHNIQUES 2 Posture 2 Breathing techniques 3 Lungs 4 Intercostal muscles 5 Diaphragm 5 Thorax 6 Trachea 7 Back 7 Pitch 8 Projection 11 Phrasing 12 Tone 13 Accent 13 VOICE APPROACHES Creative speech 15 15 CHAPTER 3: DIRECTING 65 INFLUENTIAL DIRECTORS 65 Georg II, Duke of Saxe-Meiningen (1826-1914) 66 Robert Wilson (Born 1941) 67 Barrie Kosky (Born 1967) 68 DIRECTION PROCESS 69 Vision statement 71 Audience 79 Preparing Script analysis 82 82 Meetings 83 Venue visits 83 Casting 84 Rehearsing 84 Improvisation 87 Blocking 87 Giving notes 88 Performance MOVEMENT TECHNIQUES 17 Facial Expression 19 CHAPTER 4: SCENOGRAPHY 19 ELEMENTS OF DESIGN Posture 69 The director’s vision 90 99 100 Gesture 20 Colour 101 Gait 20 Line 102 Weight 21 Shape 103 Space 21 Space and 3-D form 104 Time 22 Texture 106 Energy 23 Value 107 Proxemics 23 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN 108 24 Balance 109 24 Contrast 109 Butoh 27 Emphasis 110 Zen Zen Zo 30 Harmony 110 Viewpoints 32 Movement 111 MOVEMENT APPROACHES Feldenkrais method® CHAPTER 2: ACTING 35 REPRESENTATIONAL PERFORMANCE APPROACH 35 Konstantin Stanislavski (1863-1938) 36 Michael Chekhov (1891-1955) 37 Group theater 41 Lee Strasberg (1901-1982) 42 PRESENTATIONAL PERFORMANCE APPROACH 47 Acting in Elizabethan drama 48 Biomechanics 50 Acting in physical theatre 53 Lecoq method 54 Suzuki method of actor training 59 AN ECLECTIC APPROACH 61 Pattern 111 Repetition 112 Rhythm 112 Scale/Proportion 113 Unity 114 Variety INFLUENTIAL SCENOGRAPHERS 114 115 Adolphe Appia (1862-1928) 115 Josef Svoboda (1920-2002) 116 DESIGN OPTIONS 117 Curtains 119 Cyclorama 121 Fly scenery 122 Furniture 123 Painted floors 124 iii Drama A12 Book.indb 3 10/11/2015 2:05 pm Contents Split levels 125 Trap doors 126 Trucks 126 SCENOGRAPHY DESIGN PROCESS 129 1. First read 129 2. Creative team discussion 129 3. Initial ideas 130 4. Research and investigation 131 5. Experimentation and drafting 132 6. Final design 135 PROPS 142 Sourcing props 143 2. Toning and blending the acting area 179 3. Lighting the background 181 4. Adding specials 183 5. Lighting the space – contemporary drama 187 LIGHTING TECHNOLOGIES 190 Moving lights 193 Practicals 194 Custom-builds 194 Light sources 195 LIGHTING DESIGN PROCESS 196 1. First read 196 2. Creative team discussion 196 196 DESIGN – A HOLISTIC APPROACH 144 CONSTRUCTION 145 3. Initial ideas CHAPTER 5: SOUND DESIGN 147 4. Research and investigation 196 ELEMENTS OF DESIGN 148 5. Experimentation and drafting 197 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN 151 6. Final design 199 Focus information 201 Cue sheet 204 Script cues 207 Tempo INFLUENTIAL SOUND DESIGNERS 151 152 Jack Foley (1891-1967) 152 Dan Dugan (1943) 154 Dugan speech system 155 Dugan music system 155 DESIGN OPTIONS 156 Dramatic action 156 Mood and atmosphere 156 Sound creation 157 SOUND DESIGN PROCESS 160 1. First read 160 2. Creative team discussion 160 4. Research and investigation 161 5. Experimentation and drafting 162 6. Final design 165 CONTEMPORARY SOUND DESIGN 168 CHAPTER 6: LIGHTING DESIGN 171 ELEMENTS OF DESIGN 172 Colour mixing 172 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN 174 Sculpting the space 174 Textural lighting 174 INFLUENTIAL LIGHTING DESIGNERS 176 Adolphe Appia (1862-1928) 176 Stanley McCandless (1897-1967) 177 DESIGN OPTIONS 178 McCandless lighting theory 178 1. Lighting the acting area 179 LIGHTING AND SCENOGRAPHY 208 CHAPTER 7: COSTUME DESIGN 211 ELEMENTS OF DESIGN 213 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN 214 INFLUENTIAL COSTUME DESIGNERS 215 James Planché (1796-1880) 215 Léon Bakst (1866-1924) 216 DESIGN OPTIONS 217 Ready-made costumes 217 Custom-made 218 Adapting materials 221 Undergarments 221 Shoes 222 Accessories 222 Hair and make-up 222 COSTUME DESIGN PROCESS 225 1. First read 226 2. Creative team discussion 226 3. Initial ideas 226 4. Research and investigation 229 5. Experimentation and drafting 229 6. Final design 231 COSTUME REALISATION 234 Costume fittings 236 Allocation to actors 236 Costume parade 237 CONTEMPORARY DESIGN 237 iv Drama A12 Book.indb 4 10/11/2015 2:05 pm Contents CHAPTER 8: DRAMATURGY 239 Teching 285 DRAMATURGOS240 Calling the show 286 INFLUENTIAL DRAMATURGS 240 Full dress rehearsals 288 241 Call times 288 242 Pre-show announcements 288 290 Bertolt Brecht (1898-1956) Marianne Van Kerkhoven (1946-2013) 244 The run Big-picture thinking 245 Bump-out290 Researching contextual information 245 Investigating theories 246 Amending scripts and texts 246 Sharing information 247 Problem solving 247 DRAMATURGICAL PRACTICES DRAMATURGICAL PROCESSES 248 Existing scripted plays 248 New works 252 CHAPTER 10: SPACES OF PERFORMANCE 291 PLAYING SPACES 293 Elizabethan Renaissance playing space 294 Proscenium arch space 296 End-on stage 297 Other presentational playing spaces 297 Black box 298 SPACES AND CONTEMPORARY AUDIENCES 299 CHAPTER 9: MANAGEMENT 255 Actor-audience relationship 300 RAISING CAPITAL 256 Versatile uses of spaces 301 FIRST IMPRESSIONS 303 Sponsorship257 INTIMATE PERFORMANCE SPACES 305 Philanthropy NON-TRADITIONAL PERFORMANCE SPACES 307 ADAPTED SPACES 310 CHAPTER 11: ARTS MARKETING 315 MARKETING MATERIAL 316 SOURCES OF CAPITAL 257 257 Funding257 Investment257 FUNDING258 In-kind support 259 Crowdfunding261 COPYRIGHT262 Intellectual property rights 262 Performance rights 263 SAFE WORKING PRACTICES 263 STAGE MANAGEMENT 264 REHEARSALS267 Scheduling268 Enabling the performance space 269 Recording blocking 270 Prompting271 Programs316 Advertising320 GRAPHIC DESIGN 322 Elements of design 322 Principles of design 323 IMAGES323 Photo shoot 325 Graphic design process 327 PUBLICITY328 Interviews329 Online video clips 329 Events329 Managing props 272 Making rehearsal reports 272 Dress rehearsals 273 CHAPTER 12: EXISTING DRAMA WORKS 333 PRODUCTION WEEK 275 CONTEXTUAL INFORMATION 334 Reviews329 Production schedule 276 Reading a script 336 Allocation of crew roles 277 Current production contexts 338 Bump-in277 Actor-audience relationship 342 Rigging and focusing 278 DRAMATIC ELEMENTS 345 Spiking the floor 278 Role and character 346 Managing the backstage area 279 Relationships347 Production book 279 Situation348 Prompt copy 280 Movement349 Plotting the show 282 Space and time 350 Safety induction 285 Language and voice 352 v Drama A12 Book.indb 5 10/11/2015 2:05 pm Contents Symbol and metaphor 354 PHOTO ATTRIBUTIONS Mood and atmosphere 356 INDEX431 Dramatic tension 357 CHAPTER 13: NEW WORKS 427 365 STRUCTURE367 Narrative structure 367 Thematic structure 368 Episodic structure 369 PLAYWRITING PROCESS 370 Script-reading 371 Creative development 371 Moved reading 372 Non-professional production 372 DEVISED DRAMA 378 Improvisation378 Anne Bogart – Composition 380 Composition in creating an original work 385 Robert Lepage (Born 1957) 386 ORIGINAL SOLO PRODUCTION 388 CHAPTER 14: REHEARSAL AND PERFORMANCE 395 REHEARSAL PROCESS 395 UNDERSTANDING CONTEXTUAL INFORMATION 398 SECTIONING A SCRIPT 399 WARMING UP 400 IMPROVISATION402 SPATIAL AWARENESS 406 Blocking408 PERFORMANCE REFINEMENT PROCESSES 412 Run-throughs413 Notes414 Dress rehearsal TECHNICAL RUN-THROUGHS 414 415 PERFORMANCE415 Cues416 Curtain call 417 CHAPTER 15: SOCIETY, FORM AND STYLE 419 DRAMA FORMS 420 Tragedy and comedy 421 Ritual421 Mask422 Mime422 Drama with music 422 Puppetry423 Dramatic storytelling 423 Experimental drama 423 Contemporary drama 424 SOCIETIES AND HISTORICAL STYLES 425 vi Drama A12 Book.indb 6 10/11/2015 2:05 pm CHAPTER 1: Acting fundamentals CHAPTER 1 Acting fundamentals KEY CONCEPTS ☛☛ Voice techniques –– Posture –– Breathing techniques –– Voice production –– Articulation –– Pace –– Pause –– Pitch –– Projection –– Phrasing –– Tone –– Accent ☛☛ Voice approaches –– Creative speech ☛☛ Movement –– Facial expression –– Posture –– Gesture –– Gait –– Weight –– Space –– Time –– Energy –– Proxemics ☛☛ Movement approaches –– Feldenkrais method –– Butoh –– Viewpoints –– Zen Zen Zo A ctors are unlike most other professionals in that they don’t rely on external tools or equipment to carry out their trade. Instead the base instrument an actor has is their body. Quite simply when acting an actor uses their own body to: • voice • move. It’s crucial for actors, therefore, to successfully access, control, adapt and manipulate the body for effective and flexible voice and movement. There are fundamental techniques that actors need to master to be able to draw on their body for voicing and movement when they want to, how they want to and for as long as they want to. The ability to do this, contrary to popular belief, does not come naturally. An actor may have some kind of innate artistic talent and show great promise in voicing and movement, but unless they train their body they will never have the range, agility and mastery that they need to take on different characters and roles, in different performance and historical styles, within different contemporary production contexts. Voice One of the dramatic elements: the utilisation of the vocalisation system and vocal techniques to audibly express meaning, create role or character, and influence the other elements of drama. Movement One of the dramatic elements: the utilisation of the body to physically express meaning or take action, create role or character, and influence the other elements of drama. 1 Drama A12 Book.indb 1 10/11/2015 2:05 pm CHAPTER 1: Acting fundamentals VOICE TECHNIQUES A technique is an ability or skill in one area and/or a way of doing a particular procedure. There are specific parts of the voice anatomy and techniques of voicing that an actor needs to develop, access and utilise if they are going to use their voice instrument effectively, safely and appropriately in performance. Mastering the twelve voice techniques is essential for the actor who wants to be heard successfully by the other actors on stage and the listening audience. They need to be able to modulate their voice skillfully if they are going to be credible and believable in their role. Only when an actor can control their voice and make changes when they want to, will they be able to flex to the needs of each production and character’s demands, as well as each and every performance and historical style without vocal strain. Clarity The quality of being easily understandable. Modulation The changing of sound typically through stress, pitching or tonality. Control The ability to regulate, limit, restrain or discipline oneself in a certain way. Twelve of the voice techniques that great actors perfect are: Posture: • Breathing techniques • Voice production • Articulation • Pace • Pause Pitch: • Projection • Phrasing • Tone • Accent • Dynamics Flexibility The ability to physically and mentally adapt, stretch and work well within the needs of differing circumstances. Posture The way in which a human being, including an actor, positions Posture and carries their body is called posture. Considering an actor’s A specific position of the posture is important when in a standing or sitting position, body in which the torso as well as when the body is highly animated such as when and limbs are arranged in a walking, running or crawling. Good posture is where each part certain way. of the body is in alignment with the next. As a whole the body is both connected and free at the same time, whilst appearing relatively straight. The vertebrae in the spine feel fluid and as if they’re floating upwards, whilst the overall skeletal frame is not giving in downwards to gravity. The body has a good balance between being relaxed and being tense, which allows it to feel and appear free, as well as available and ready. Focusing first on posture when exploring voice might seem like an odd starting point. The most important thing an actor can remember about their vocal instrument is that it is the body and the body is the voice. Therefore in order to voice an actor must prepare, access and manage their body. The best starting point for this is to be able to adopt and maintain a neutral body position. 2 Drama A12 Book.indb 2 10/11/2015 2:05 pm CHAPTER 1: Acting fundamentals Neutral body position The neutral body position is the actor’s blank canvas. When characterising or preparing for performance great actors start with a neutral and available body. It is also a good place to start at the beginning of a rehearsal or in a warm-up before performance as it allows the actor to shake off themselves, focus their attention, relax their body, access their breath support system and then take on their character. From a neutral position the actor then accesses, adapts and controls specific body parts in certain ways, allowing them to then vocalise and move safely when building and taking on character. This state is called the Neutral Body Position. Neutral body position In a standing position the spine is aligned without twists, whilst the limbs are unrestricted, loose and straight with freeflowing joints. Activity 1.1: Adopting a neutral body position • Stand with your feet shoulder-width apart. This is with your feet directly under your hips, which are directly under your shoulders. • Your feet should be pointing forward in parallel. Your knees should be pointing forward too. Check that they are by bending your knees slightly; the knees should go forwards over the toes. If they don’t adjust your feet so that they do. • Unlock your knees; this is referred to as ‘soft’ knees. Try going to the other extreme for a moment by pushing your knees caps right back into your legs so the legs become hyperextended. Now bend the knees a little and return to standing so that the knees are ‘soft’. • Imagine there is a thread on top of your head directly over the end of your spine. Imagine this thread is pulling you up slightly to the ceiling and is making your spine erect but still free. You should feel as if there is space between each vertebrae, almost so they seem to float. • Your shoulders are straight or perhaps gently held back slightly but without tension. Your chest is open and not hunched over. • Shake your arms and hands for fifteen seconds vigorously. Now allow them to flop down and hang loosely at your side. • Your neck is soft, long and free. • Your head balances on the top of your spine facing forward. • Your jaw is unlocked and your lips very slightly apart. • Breathe through your mouth. Breathing techniques Breathing is one of the few physiological processes that is both involuntary and voluntary. Whilst most of the time a person breathes automatically, they are also able to consciously alter the way they breathe; how they use the parts of their breath support system to take in air and then release it, as well as how frequently they do this. 3 Drama A12 Book.indb 3 10/11/2015 2:05 pm CHAPTER 2: Acting Sometimes an actor today plays more than one character or role in the same production. This could be because the roles are not on stage often, because the budget doesn’t allow for a large cast, because having actors play multiple characters is part of the creative vision or because of the stylistic conventions being used in the script. In such a situation an actor needs to be diligent about creating two (or more as is appropriate) distinct, unique and clearly defined roles. If they don’t the audience might become confused, as well as the dramatic meaning become unclear. The actor could take an external or presentational performance approach to changing and creating multiple characters, such as by making different movement or voice choices, or they could take an internal representational approach by starting with given circumstances, motivation and beliefs for each role. Above: Peer Metze with Sharda Harrison who plays multiple roles in the same play. The images show that Harrison has made clear, definitive decisions about adapting her movement for each role. PRACTITIONER PROFILE Alison Van Reeken – Actor 62 Drama A12 Ch2.indd 62 10/11/2015 3:18 pm CHAPTER 2: Acting Characterisation There are many other presentational performance approaches and historical styles that actors can utilise when preparing a role or character or performance. For information on three of these (Bertolt Brecht’s Actor Training, Jerzy Grotowski’s Psycho-Physical Training and Rudolf von Laban’s Human Movement Traits) see Drama: A resource for Year 11 ATAR/Year 12 General. 63 Drama A12 Ch2.indd 63 10/11/2015 3:18 pm CHAPTER 4: Scenography Analogous colours are those that are side by side on the wheel. Because they are similar to each other, when a designer uses them they’re likely to create a sense of calmness, relaxation or placidity in the design. Usually a designer has one dominant colour, such as yellow, and two supporting colours, such as yellow-orange and yellow-green. Complementary colours are those found opposite to each other on the spectrum. By using two such colours a scenographer is creating a bold, clear pigment design contrast, evoking a sense of tension within the work. Usually it’s difficult to make this combination work effectively if both colours are used strongly in the design. Sometimes designers might use two sets of complementary colours within the same creation, one from the wheel’s north and south, and one from east and west. Typically such designs work best when only one of the four colours dominates (is more prevalent than) the others. For split-complementary colour usage, instead of using the colour that’s directly opposite on the wheel, the designer uses the two colours on either side. This still creates an apparent sense of contrast, but the tension evoked is not as strong as when using complementary colours. When using a tetrad-colour rectangular combination a designer uses two sets of complimentary pairs. Whilst the opposites do create a sense of tension through their contrast within the design, because the colours of each pair are close (similar) to one of the colours of the other pair, the psychological strain they evoke tends not to be severe. Similar to some of the other combinations, usually a designer has one of the four colours dominate in the design more than the others. Hint Sometimes a contemporary designer creates scenography that is mostly, or even totally, devoid of colour and utilises instead a great deal of white in the design. Even in such a situation the scenographer is choosing not to use saturated colour, which is in itself a colour choice. Internet exploration Have a look at director Peter Brook and designer Sally Jacobs’ famous A midsummer night’s dream that utilised a white empty set at: www.youtube.com/watch?v=1CkN9k6S3Js Line There are different definitions of line that people use. Where a mathematician might say a line is a connection between two points or even a series of points that side by side appear linked, a visual artist is more likely to define line as a path that’s left by a moving 102 Drama A12 Book.indb 102 10/11/2015 2:05 pm CHAPTER 4: Scenography point. Many theatre designers probably have both interpretations in mind when they work with line given the three-dimensionality of their work. The three basic types of lines that scenographers use are actual, contour and implied lines. Actual lines are those that physically exist or are marked on the design in some way, such as the decorative motifs on furniture, each metal rod of a jail cell or etchings on a grave stone. Contour lines are those that deliniate the edge of something within the design, such as the corner line of stairs, the frame of a window or the edge of a floor rug. Even the edges of this book (or the electronic device from which it’s being read) are contour lines. Implied lines are the ones that don’t physically exist, but are imagined by an audience member. This could be the space the viewer fills between two focal points or it could be a line that they assume or imagine continues beyond the design’s line of sight. Designers use variations in line length, width and depth, as well as combinations of linear (straight) and curved lines. Linear lines Curved lines Both examples above are actual lines, with implied properties. Hint Although a line in a design can easily appear finite, with a little imagination it’s possible to visualise it continuing on beyond the creation borders. Designers can use this concept to their advantage if they want to suggest that the playing space, and therefore the fictional world of the play, extends into the wings and beyond the limited area that the audience can see. Internet exploration Find out how visual artists use line at: www.youtube.com/watch?v=BDePyEFT1gQ Shape When a line surrounds or encloses space then it creates a shape, otherwise known as a form. Very simply a shape is a closed line. It’s possible to differentiate one shape from another, as well as from the space around it, usually by its boundary’s line or its different colours. Scenographers use both geometric and organic shapes, as well as those that are actual and those that are implied. Without going into mathematics, a geometric shape is basically one that is uniform in its measurements and appears to be the same even when it’s moved, rotated or reflected. An organic shape is not uniform in its measurement, and it appears to be different when it’s moved, rotated or reflected. 103 Drama A12 Book.indb 103 10/11/2015 2:05 pm CHAPTER 6: Lighting design INFLUENTIAL LIGHTING DESIGNERS T here were several designers early last century who were fundamental in changing the way we utilise, manipulate and create light in the performing arts today. Two of these were Adolphe Appia and Stanley McCandless. Adolphe Appia (1862-1928) Appia was a Swiss theatrical and architectural designer. He developed a new alternative way of lighting the stage in the theatre that opposed the old tradition of using blanket cover from the footlights, wings and above. With the thennew developments in electricity, Appia was able to control multiple changes in lighting from one central point. This basic configuration became the basis for contemporary lighting systems, including the control of such systems. Appia was the first designer to distinguish between diffused light to make visible the scenery, and concentrated light to sculpt form. He believed in the ability of light to be threedimensionally structural, fluid, plastic and ‘motivated’. Through his work he developed the concept of the performance area being a psycho-plastic space. He eliminated old technologies, such as removing the footlights from the front ground-level of the stage and he utilised new, unusual (for the time period) lighting positions. Appia was one of the first true scenographers in that he took a holistic approach to the playing space and to designing for that space. He considered there were four integral parts of then-named scenic design: 1. Painted backgrounds as two-dimensional components 2. Performance space being three-dimensional; that is, depth + width + height = volume 3. Moving actors within the space 4. Lighting in relation to all of the above Psycho-plastic space A concept proposed first by designer Svoboda that theatrical space is elastic in scope and malleable in quality, wherein there needs to be a fusion of every component that enters it including the characters and scenography. He was the first to view the actors also as part of the scenography and therefore a moving, living part of the lighting. Across his lifetime, Appia worked very closely with the composer Richard Wagner, including on many of his seminal Romantic operas. He was inspired by the movement and flow of Wagner’s music and was the first designer to explore the similar flexibility and flow of lighting. For Appia, lighting needs to change in a production just as the actors and the plot change. Whilst a commonly accepted convention today, at the turn of last century this concept was ground breaking. Through lighting he saw the potential to influence and manipulate audience’s responses on both literal and obvious levels, but also for the first time in theatre history on subtextual and subliminal levels. That an audience member could interact with, form a relationship with and be affected by a dramatic production in this way, quickly became fundamental to most Western dramatic styles. 176 Drama A12 Book.indb 176 10/11/2015 2:06 pm CHAPTER 6: Lighting design Similarly to the design of sets, contemporary lighting is not merely a collection of fixed or static states for each change of scene. Appia promoted that a lighting designer needs to create and manipulate light to change and develop in harmony with the unfolding of the plot, development of the characters and shifting in the dramatic action. Stanley McCandless (1897-1967) The famous American lighting designer Stanley McCandless is often thought of as the father of modern lighting design. In the 1930s, after practicing his design concepts in theatrical productions, he published the book A method of lighting the stage. He believed that there were four functions of lighting design. a. Visibility Ensure that the actors in the playing space can be seen adequately by the audience. b. Form This focuses on the composition of the lighting as a three-dimensional creation within the playing space. For example whether the design lights the entire playing area (or large sections of it) seamlessly and evenly, or whether it uses a series of states that work with isolated areas of the geography. Of course it is also the way that people and objects within the playing areas are sculpted (or not). c. Modelling Lighting needs to suggest the time and space of the fictional world of the play. It contributes to the motivation of the characters because it reflects the changing situations the characters are in. Originally modelling was termed naturalism by McCandless, because he believed this function was to literally represent or strive to realistically imitate true life on stage. Over time the term has changed to modelling to allow for a realist approach when representing time and space in naturalistic and realistic drama, and also a non-realist approach when suggesting time and space in presentational drama. d. Mood Finally McCandless believed that theatrical lighting should evoke mood and atmosphere within a drama work, operating on psychological, emotional and other human levels. To ensure that a design delivered on these four functions, McCandless identified essential design components that a designer needs to address. The four of these are: 1. 2. 3. 4. Lighting the acting area Toning and blending the acting area Lighting the background Adding specials These four process steps are explored in detail in the next section. 177 Drama A12 Book.indb 177 10/11/2015 2:06 pm CHAPTER 6: Lighting design and reacting to the actors and the director as they bring it to life within playing space. If a lighting designer merely experimented with what they read in the script, then they’re not going to get a felt-sense about the work, nor a holistic understanding of the production or the director’s conceptual vision. By the end of the experimenting phase designers need to have generated a design statement. This is a phrase, sentence or even sometimes a single word that encapsulates their concept for the lighting design. Below a lighting designer is experimenting with both how to light the space and what colours to use. They’re using a computer program that shows them what the playing space, and the people and scenography within that space, would look like if it was lit in particular ways. The designer has drafted three different potential lighting states. Each state uses different front, side and back fixtures, and each lights only some of the playing areas. The designer then redrafts these exact lighting states and changes only the colour. Felt-sense An inner knowing combined with a physical sense of awareness. Design statement A concise description of the designer’s concept for the production, including their creative intention and sometimes details about their process. State The use of specific lights at specific levels to light a section of the play. 198 Drama A12 Book.indb 198 10/11/2015 2:07 pm CHAPTER 6: Lighting design 6. Final design After experimenting with ideas and drafting (and redrafting) Cue point potential designs, the lighting designer finalises their work. They The place in a drama event that create documentation to enable the correct fixtures to be rigged signals a technical change. in the correct positions with the correct focus in the theatre venue. To do this they create a lighting plan, focus information and a cue sheet. They’re also likely to have the cues written into their script so that they can assist the lighting technician and stage manager in documenting the cue points for the production. Lighting plan This is a type of venue map that outlines the positions of all the fixtures. It is always drawn to scale and includes fixture accessories such as gels, gobos and barn doors. Each fixture is drawn onto the aerial view of the venue with the lighting bars, sound speakers, playing area, entrances/exits and sometimes even the auditorium seating. Major set pieces might also be included such as flats and black curtains. Gel numbers, with a letter abbreviation for the type of gel, are written in front of the relevant fixture symbols. Barn doors are indicated by adding two angled lines in front of the standard symbol. For example: Aerial view An elevated view from above. 10 10 PC with a gel 10 PARcan with a gel 3 x floods lights in a row 10 10 Fresnel with barn doors Profile with a gobo G Summary information about the fixtures, including if gobos are being used, is recorded and/or drawn in a legend on the side or corner of the plan. Similarly gels colours, gobos, barn doors and other relevant information (such as the configuration of certain fixtures) are recorded in a side or corner key. Other information is usually also included, such as scale details, as well as theatre company, venue and designer information. 10 Hint When setting up the lighting rig a venue technician needs to ensure that each fixture has a power supply so that it can operate during performance. The fixtures are connected, through a system of wiring, to a dimmer rack. This is a piece of electrical equipment that enables the flow of electricity to the fixtures. The lighting bars include electricity sockets, also called circuits, each with its own number. Each socket can have one, two or sometimes more lights plugged into it depending on the voltage of each fixture. Obviously if only one light is plugged into a particular socket, then only that fixture is lit when that socket is activated. Similarly if two lights are plugged into the same socket, then both are lit when that socket is activated. 199 Drama A12 Book.indb 199 10/11/2015 2:07 pm CHAPTER 9: Management One of the recent safety developments in Australia has High Risk Work licence been the introduction of national safe work policies in all A five-year certification given to relevant performing arts areas. Anyone who does any kind an individual who has undergone of construction, maintenance or rigging activities is not specific training and is then permitted to work on a dramatic production either on or off deemed competent to work in jobs and situations that are site unless they have a High Risk Work licence. To obtain considered high risk. this qualification a person needs to complete prescribed training through a Registered Training Organisation (an RTO) that covers a range of things including a range of strategies for working safely such as: • • • • construction hazards emergency procedures risk management legal requirements. For more information on safe working practices see Drama: A resource for Year 11 ATAR/Year 12 General. A rigger, who wears a harness correctly, conducts a training course on a vertical platform lift for backstage crew members. Internet exploration To find out more information about safe working practices go to: www.ohsaustralia.com.au www.commerce.wa.gov.au/worksafe/what-high-risk-work-licence STAGE MANAGEMENT T he stage manager is the person who oversees rehearsals, runs the actual show during performance and coordinates a range of tasks, people and materials to do so. They are the liaison between different groups of people and production areas to ensure the rehearsal and performance processes run smoothly and efficiently. The stage manager makes sure the director’s, actors’ and designers’ logistical and functional needs are met, their questions are answered and problems are solved. They don’t necessarily make the creative decisions, but they do work with and around other people’s creative decisions, to keep the rehearsals running on time and on track. They too are likely to have to do some out-of-the-box thinking to address challenges as and when they arise. Such an innovative approach requires them to be creative in their organisation. 264 Drama A12 Book.indb 264 10/11/2015 2:08 pm CHAPTER 9: Management For example an actor might discover they don’t have enough time for ASM their quick costume change so the stage manager liaises with the Assistant stage manager. director or the costume designer to solve the problem. Perhaps they’ll arrange for an ASM to help the actor when changing costumes, or decide which of two solutions suggested by the designer will be easiest to administer. For example, the stage manager might have to choose whether it’s better overall to replace costume buttons right away with spare hooks and eyes, or the following day after new velcro has been purchased. In another case a glass item might need to be smashed on stage so the stage manager is likely to liaise with the actors, director and production manager to find a safe way to do so, to work out at which rehearsals they will practise smashing using the fake glass and in which ones they’ll pretend with using a plastic version. Hint Moveable glass items are almost never used on stage because they are a potential hazard and if accidentally smashed may cause serious injury to cast, crew or even audience members. Glass items that need to be smashed on stage because of the dramatic action are always substituted with another material. Sugar is a popular substitute as it can, after being turned into liquid through heating it, be poured into moulds and set. Once cool, the moulds are removed and the items look like they’re made from glass, when they’re only made from sugar. Such sugar-glass props are extremely delicate and expensive. Therefore usually they are only practised with at the end of rehearsals and a stand-in plastic prop is used until that point in time. Stage managers work with time extremely efficiently and accurately, and as such they are always punctual (in fact, they are usually early). They also make sure that everyone else is on time and if someone’s late, they address the issue promptly and appropriately. They are great at planning and sequencing, and creating various documents to help keep everyone on task and on time. A stage manager needs to balance keeping the other practitioners happy as much as is possible, whilst still making sure all the numerous performance and production goals are achieved. This means that they might be answering another’s questions with a ‘no’ sometimes, or having a difficult conversation to ask why certain things are running late or why they haven’t yet been completed and so on. Because of this balancing act, the stage manager may find themselves in challenging or even conflict situations, and they need to ensure they have exceptional interpersonal skills. This means not only do they have to be highly skilled at communicating and organising, but they also have to have excellent administration competencies. Internet exploration Hear from a stage management team about problem solving at: www.nationaltheatre.org.uk/video/stage-management-problem-solving 265 Drama A12 Book.indb 265 10/11/2015 2:08 pm CHAPTER 10: Spaces of performance Historical style The drama developed by a particular culture at a specific period in time that has a set of characteristics, conventions and, often, delivery techniques unique to that artistic type. Performance style Acting in a certain way that either focuses on imitating life or presenting ideas. Elizabethan Renaissance playing space The late Renaissance period (1562-1642), especially under the rule of Queen Elizabeth I, saw a huge rise in popularity of the public playing house. The result was that the first purposebuilt theatre venues were constructed. These were circular buildings, with a semi-covered stage jutting out, that were open-aired. To work well with the performance conventions and technologies of the day, a playing house had a raised thrust stage with audience on three sides. Behind the stage were entrances/exits leading to the backstage area. Also in the upstage area, on the level above the stage, was a balcony that actors could use to play out some of the scenes. Directly next to the stage was the lower ground pit area, which consisted of natural dirt for its floor, from where the standing room patrons, the poorest commoners referred to as groundlings, would watch the performance. Encircling the pit, and also therefore the three sides of the stage, were several levels of bench seating for the middle and upper classes. Whilst the pit was not covered by a roof, the stage and the levelled bench seating were covered. Because the venue was exposed to the elements, including sunshine and rain, blacking out the space was not possible. Performances were given therefore during the day and theatrical lighting was not used. Many theatres today have thrust stages. In these Thrust stage contemporary venues, the designated playing space literally The designated performance thrusts or protrudes out into the seating area, so that the area is surrounded on three audience are on three sides of the stage. The seating is sides by audience members. usually raked with each row behind being slightly higher than the one in front. Because the audience surrounds the stage and the actors who are performing on it, a thrust stage is most suited to presentational drama. That is, this type of playing space works best where the audience does not have to suspend their disbelief and instead always know that they are watching a performance. The Dolphin Theatre at UWA has a contemporary Elizabethan thrust stage. It is a venue without a roof and with a raised stage. It also has an upstage balcony above the main playing space available for performance. 294 Drama A12 Book.indb 294 10/11/2015 2:08 pm CHAPTER 10: Spaces of performance Where four hundred years ago the patrons would have stood in the pit, the Dolphin instead offers its contemporary audiences chairs to sit on. Whilst there are viewing areas available on either side of the stage both in the pit, as well as in the balcony seating, most usually these areas are not opened for sale. This is because the sightlines from the side areas in this venue are particularly poor, offering audience who were to sit there, distorted views of the dramatic action. Image kindly provided by University Theatres Activity 10.1: Contemporary Elizabethan staging analysis 1. Study the image from a production of a Shakespearean play staged at the 2014 Oregon Shakespeare Festival in the USA. 2. Write a report that compares Oregon’s venue to the original Elizabethan playing house spaces. Be sure to consider not merely the stage, but the entire playing space, the seating area, the relationship of the actor and audience members, the whole venue and the venue aesthetics. Internet exploration Find out about the UK’s Globe Theatre at: www.youtube.com/watch?v=m3VGa6Fp3zI 295 Drama A12 Book.indb 295 10/11/2015 2:08 pm CHAPTER 11: Arts marketing Image courtesy of Blank Space Theatre Activity 11.3 - Choosing an image In 2014 Linden Furnell and Mina Ellen Kaye performed in Dream Academy’s production of the contemporary musical The Last Five Years by Jason Robert Brown. Here are three potential photos that the graphic designer had to choose from when selecting the image for the marketing materials. 1. Write a report that discusses what you see in each photograph. For each one you should discuss what you perceive purely from the photograph about the setting, mood and atmosphere, symbols and metaphor, characters and relationships. 2. Then go to Jason Robert Brown’s website at http:// jasonrobertbrown.com/reviews/the-last-5-years/ and read a review about a (different) production of The Last Five Years. Out of the three images here which one would you choose that best suits the production based on the reviewer’s comments. Make sure you justify your choice using quotes from the review and detailing specifics from the photographs. Image A Images courtesy of Mina Ellen Kaye and Dream Academy Image B Image C 324 Drama A12 Book.indb 324 10/11/2015 2:09 pm CHAPTER 11: Arts marketing Photo shoot The photo shoot itself is crucial to make sure there are ample images for the graphic designer to choose from later on. Shoots can be in a photographic studio or on location. Location shoots require the photographer to not only ensure that the actors are standing and interacting together appropriately for their characters, relationships, the time and space and so on, but that the background and natural light are also appropriate. Studio shoots are set up specifically to use or not use a background. On location A photo or film shoot that occurs in a real non-studio venue or environment, rather than an imitation one. When using a background in the shoot the photographer either fills it with backdrops, furniture, props and so on. Alternatively they shoot in front of a blackscreen. A blackscreen makes the actor in front of it, as well as any objects they hold, really stand out. If the graphic designer plans to change the background and replace it with something else in the editing suite post-shoot, they usually shoot instead in front of a white screen. The image on the left was shot in front of a white screen. Hint If on a location shoot the background is not usable, the photographer can always delete it from the shot later, providing they’re using digital equipment. But if the graphic designer plans not to use background in the first place, then it’s easier for the shoot to occur in a studio where the environment is much more controllable. The graphic designer could then easily add in a background. Changing the background allows the graphic designer to suggest location (time and space), situation, relationships between the characters, qualities of the individual characters and so on. Backgrounds can also affect the mood, atmosphere, dramatic tension and so on. 325 Drama A12 Book.indb 325 10/11/2015 2:09 pm CHAPTER 14: Rehearsal and performance Acting areas When using and communicating about the playing space, it’s helpful to know and refer to the acting areas on stage accurately. Contemporary practitioners normally divide the playing space into nine areas. Each area is referred to by its location from an actor’s (not an audience member’s) perspective: • • • • • • C = centre L = left R = right D = down U = up S = stage U/S S/R U/S C/S U/S S/L C/S S/R C/S C/S S/L D/S S/R D/S C/S D/S S/L For example an aerial view of the stage divided up into nine acting areas might look like this: AUDIENCE Activity 14.3: Spatial analysis 1. Examine the three photographs of the characters in a scene. In each image identify which character has the higher status. You should consider not merely the use of height, but also other aspects of movement such as facial expression, gesture and posture. 2. Write a paragraph detailing your views for each image. Be sure to justify your responses with detailed descriptions. A B C 407 Drama A12 Book.indb 407 10/11/2015 2:10 pm CHAPTER 14: Rehearsal and performance Blocking Blocking is the process of deciding how the actors will use Blocking the playing space during performance. Deciding on where The planning process to and at what point (that is, on what line or action) actors decide on where, when and move, negotiating with each other and the scenography as how characters will move on stage during a performance, as they do so, is important if they’re looking for consistency well as the actual movements across performances. Blocking is a way of organising the themselves. play’s action so that the situations, characters, dramatic tension and so on are working cohesively towards communicating dramatic meaning to the audience. The director works closely with the actors in rehearsal to establish how they use the space; whether they stand, sit, lean or move, in what way they move, where they move to and at which points. By blocking the scene, the actors have a spatial template upon which to build the play. Making blocking choices is also crucial from a design perspective, particularly for lighting design. Actors need to stand in a place where the light is focused so that they can be seen by the audience and allow for the designer’s sculpting of the three-dimensional space to work effectively. Sometimes blocking is very prescribed and detailed in that every movement, no matter how small, is pre-planned in rehearsal. This is a very old-fashioned way of working, which some senior and highly established directors still prefer to use today. This prescriptive approach can also be particularly effective when a scene is highly complicated with a large number of characters on stage at once, or where multiple characters are doing different things at the same time, where there is a stunt or special effect occurring, or where there are moving set pieces. Specified blocking is always fundamental when stage Choreography fighting is being used or for predetermined movement to The sequence, placement and music. In the case of a dance number or a fight sequence, characteristics of predetermined blocking is called choreography. Choreography organises movement. not only when and where the characters move, but it also very specifically determines how the actors move. The how, from a choreographical perspective, is likely to detail the way every limb, muscle and eyeline of the actors moves, as well as the intensity, pace and direction at which they move. Some basic blocking guidelines used by professional practitioners include the following. Back to the audience It’s easy to fall into the trap, especially for student actors, to always face directly (full frontal) or at least side-on (profile) to an audience. Consistent turning to the audience, unless there’s a creative reason to do so, usually creates dull, uninteresting theatre no matter what the style. In naturalism and realism this convention is totally inappropriate because in real life individuals don’t turn their backs on other people unless it’s for a definitive reason; for example, if they’re hiding something, trying to pull status, giving the other person the cold shoulder or needing more personal space. Great professional actors and directors Turning-out A character swivels away from are aware of their audience, without always having to the other characters or the patronise them by turning-out. Purposefully having one’s dramatic action to directly face back to the audience occasionally can be an effective the audience. creative choice, as long as it’s justified. 408 Drama A12 Book.indb 408 10/11/2015 2:10 pm