Download Drama: A Resource for Year 12 ATAR

Contents
CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I
CHAPTER 1: ACTING FUNDAMENTALS
1
VOICE TECHNIQUES
2
Posture
2
Breathing techniques
3
Lungs
4
Intercostal muscles
5
Diaphragm
5
Thorax
6
Trachea 7
Back
7
Pitch
8
Projection 11
Phrasing
12
Tone
13
Accent
13
VOICE APPROACHES
Creative speech
15
15
CHAPTER 3: DIRECTING
65
INFLUENTIAL DIRECTORS
65
Georg II, Duke of Saxe-Meiningen (1826-1914)
66
Robert Wilson (Born 1941)
67
Barrie Kosky (Born 1967)
68
DIRECTION PROCESS
69
Vision statement
71
Audience
79
Preparing
Script analysis
82
82
Meetings
83
Venue visits
83
Casting
84
Rehearsing
84
Improvisation
87
Blocking
87
Giving notes
88
Performance
MOVEMENT TECHNIQUES
17
Facial Expression
19
CHAPTER 4: SCENOGRAPHY
19
ELEMENTS OF DESIGN
Posture
69
The director’s vision
90
99
100
Gesture
20
Colour
101
Gait
20
Line
102
Weight
21
Shape
103
Space
21
Space and 3-D form
104
Time
22
Texture
106
Energy
23
Value 107
Proxemics
23
PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
108
24
Balance
109
24
Contrast
109
Butoh
27
Emphasis
110
Zen Zen Zo 30
Harmony
110
Viewpoints
32
Movement
111
MOVEMENT APPROACHES
Feldenkrais method®
CHAPTER 2: ACTING
35
REPRESENTATIONAL PERFORMANCE APPROACH
35
Konstantin Stanislavski (1863-1938)
36
Michael Chekhov (1891-1955)
37
Group theater
41
Lee Strasberg (1901-1982)
42
PRESENTATIONAL PERFORMANCE APPROACH
47
Acting in Elizabethan drama
48
Biomechanics
50
Acting in physical theatre
53
Lecoq method 54
Suzuki method of actor training
59
AN ECLECTIC APPROACH
61
Pattern 111
Repetition
112
Rhythm
112
Scale/Proportion
113
Unity
114
Variety
INFLUENTIAL SCENOGRAPHERS
114
115
Adolphe Appia (1862-1928)
115
Josef Svoboda (1920-2002)
116
DESIGN OPTIONS 117
Curtains
119
Cyclorama
121
Fly scenery
122
Furniture
123
Painted floors
124
iii
Drama A12 Book.indb 3
10/11/2015 2:05 pm
Contents
Split levels
125
Trap doors
126
Trucks
126
SCENOGRAPHY DESIGN PROCESS
129
1. First read
129
2. Creative team discussion
129
3. Initial ideas
130
4. Research and investigation
131
5. Experimentation and drafting
132
6. Final design
135
PROPS
142
Sourcing props
143
2. Toning and blending the
acting area
179
3. Lighting the background
181
4. Adding specials
183
5. Lighting the space – contemporary drama
187
LIGHTING TECHNOLOGIES
190
Moving lights
193
Practicals
194
Custom-builds
194
Light sources
195
LIGHTING DESIGN PROCESS
196
1. First read
196
2. Creative team discussion
196
196
DESIGN – A HOLISTIC APPROACH
144
CONSTRUCTION
145
3. Initial ideas
CHAPTER 5: SOUND DESIGN
147
4. Research and investigation
196
ELEMENTS OF DESIGN
148
5. Experimentation and drafting
197
PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
151
6. Final design
199
Focus information
201
Cue sheet
204
Script cues
207
Tempo
INFLUENTIAL SOUND DESIGNERS
151
152
Jack Foley (1891-1967)
152
Dan Dugan (1943)
154
Dugan speech system
155
Dugan music system
155
DESIGN OPTIONS
156
Dramatic action
156
Mood and atmosphere
156
Sound creation
157
SOUND DESIGN PROCESS
160
1. First read
160
2. Creative team discussion
160
4. Research and investigation
161
5. Experimentation and drafting
162
6. Final design
165
CONTEMPORARY SOUND DESIGN
168
CHAPTER 6: LIGHTING DESIGN
171
ELEMENTS OF DESIGN
172
Colour mixing
172
PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
174
Sculpting the space
174
Textural lighting
174
INFLUENTIAL LIGHTING DESIGNERS
176
Adolphe Appia (1862-1928)
176
Stanley McCandless (1897-1967)
177
DESIGN OPTIONS
178
McCandless lighting theory
178
1. Lighting the acting area
179
LIGHTING AND SCENOGRAPHY
208
CHAPTER 7: COSTUME DESIGN
211
ELEMENTS OF DESIGN
213
PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
214
INFLUENTIAL COSTUME DESIGNERS
215
James Planché (1796-1880)
215
Léon Bakst (1866-1924)
216
DESIGN OPTIONS
217
Ready-made costumes
217
Custom-made
218
Adapting materials
221
Undergarments
221
Shoes
222
Accessories
222
Hair and make-up
222
COSTUME DESIGN PROCESS
225
1. First read
226
2. Creative team discussion
226
3. Initial ideas
226
4. Research and investigation
229
5. Experimentation and drafting
229
6. Final design
231
COSTUME REALISATION
234
Costume fittings
236
Allocation to actors
236
Costume parade
237
CONTEMPORARY DESIGN
237
iv
Drama A12 Book.indb 4
10/11/2015 2:05 pm
Contents
CHAPTER 8: DRAMATURGY
239
Teching 285
DRAMATURGOS240
Calling the show
286
INFLUENTIAL DRAMATURGS
240
Full dress rehearsals
288
241
Call times
288
242
Pre-show announcements
288
290
Bertolt Brecht (1898-1956)
Marianne Van Kerkhoven (1946-2013)
244
The run
Big-picture thinking
245
Bump-out290
Researching contextual information
245
Investigating theories
246
Amending scripts and texts
246
Sharing information
247
Problem solving
247
DRAMATURGICAL PRACTICES
DRAMATURGICAL PROCESSES
248
Existing scripted plays
248
New works
252
CHAPTER 10: SPACES OF PERFORMANCE
291
PLAYING SPACES
293
Elizabethan Renaissance playing space
294
Proscenium arch space
296
End-on stage
297
Other presentational playing spaces
297
Black box
298
SPACES AND CONTEMPORARY AUDIENCES
299
CHAPTER 9: MANAGEMENT
255
Actor-audience relationship
300
RAISING CAPITAL
256
Versatile uses of spaces
301
FIRST IMPRESSIONS
303
Sponsorship257
INTIMATE PERFORMANCE SPACES
305
Philanthropy NON-TRADITIONAL PERFORMANCE SPACES
307
ADAPTED SPACES
310
CHAPTER 11: ARTS MARKETING
315
MARKETING MATERIAL
316
SOURCES OF CAPITAL
257
257
Funding257
Investment257
FUNDING258
In-kind support
259
Crowdfunding261
COPYRIGHT262
Intellectual property rights
262
Performance rights
263
SAFE WORKING PRACTICES 263
STAGE MANAGEMENT
264
REHEARSALS267
Scheduling268
Enabling the performance space
269
Recording blocking
270
Prompting271
Programs316
Advertising320
GRAPHIC DESIGN
322
Elements of design
322
Principles of design
323
IMAGES323
Photo shoot
325
Graphic design process
327
PUBLICITY328
Interviews329
Online video clips
329
Events329
Managing props
272
Making rehearsal reports
272
Dress rehearsals
273
CHAPTER 12: EXISTING DRAMA WORKS
333
PRODUCTION WEEK
275
CONTEXTUAL INFORMATION
334
Reviews329
Production schedule
276
Reading a script
336
Allocation of crew roles
277
Current production contexts
338
Bump-in277
Actor-audience relationship
342
Rigging and focusing
278
DRAMATIC ELEMENTS
345
Spiking the floor
278
Role and character
346
Managing the backstage area
279
Relationships347
Production book
279
Situation348
Prompt copy
280
Movement349
Plotting the show
282
Space and time
350
Safety induction
285
Language and voice
352
v
Drama A12 Book.indb 5
10/11/2015 2:05 pm
Contents
Symbol and metaphor
354
PHOTO ATTRIBUTIONS
Mood and atmosphere
356
INDEX431
Dramatic tension
357
CHAPTER 13: NEW WORKS
427
365
STRUCTURE367
Narrative structure
367
Thematic structure
368
Episodic structure
369
PLAYWRITING PROCESS
370
Script-reading 371
Creative development 371
Moved reading 372
Non-professional production 372
DEVISED DRAMA
378
Improvisation378
Anne Bogart – Composition
380
Composition in creating an original work
385
Robert Lepage (Born 1957)
386
ORIGINAL SOLO PRODUCTION
388
CHAPTER 14: REHEARSAL AND
PERFORMANCE
395
REHEARSAL PROCESS
395
UNDERSTANDING CONTEXTUAL INFORMATION
398
SECTIONING A SCRIPT
399
WARMING UP
400
IMPROVISATION402
SPATIAL AWARENESS
406
Blocking408
PERFORMANCE REFINEMENT PROCESSES
412
Run-throughs413
Notes414
Dress rehearsal
TECHNICAL RUN-THROUGHS
414
415
PERFORMANCE415
Cues416
Curtain call
417
CHAPTER 15: SOCIETY, FORM AND STYLE
419
DRAMA FORMS
420
Tragedy and comedy
421
Ritual421
Mask422
Mime422
Drama with music
422
Puppetry423
Dramatic storytelling
423
Experimental drama
423
Contemporary drama
424
SOCIETIES AND HISTORICAL STYLES 425
vi
Drama A12 Book.indb 6
10/11/2015 2:05 pm
CHAPTER 1: Acting fundamentals
CHAPTER 1
Acting fundamentals
KEY CONCEPTS
☛☛ Voice techniques
–– Posture
–– Breathing techniques
–– Voice production
–– Articulation
–– Pace
–– Pause
–– Pitch
–– Projection
–– Phrasing
–– Tone
–– Accent
☛☛ Voice approaches
–– Creative speech
☛☛ Movement
–– Facial expression
–– Posture
–– Gesture
–– Gait
–– Weight
–– Space
–– Time
–– Energy
–– Proxemics
☛☛ Movement approaches
–– Feldenkrais method
–– Butoh
–– Viewpoints
–– Zen Zen Zo
A
ctors are unlike most other professionals in that they don’t rely on external tools or
equipment to carry out their trade. Instead the base instrument an actor has is their
body. Quite simply when acting an actor uses their own body to:
• voice
• move.
It’s crucial for actors, therefore, to successfully access, control,
adapt and manipulate the body for effective and flexible voice
and movement. There are fundamental techniques that actors
need to master to be able to draw on their body for voicing and
movement when they want to, how they want to and for as long
as they want to. The ability to do this, contrary to popular belief,
does not come naturally. An actor may have some kind of innate
artistic talent and show great promise in voicing and movement,
but unless they train their body they will never have the range,
agility and mastery that they need to take on different characters
and roles, in different performance and historical styles, within
different contemporary production contexts.
Voice
One of the dramatic elements:
the utilisation of the vocalisation
system and vocal techniques to
audibly express meaning, create
role or character, and influence
the other elements of drama.
Movement
One of the dramatic elements:
the utilisation of the body to
physically express meaning
or take action, create role or
character, and influence the other
elements of drama.
1
Drama A12 Book.indb 1
10/11/2015 2:05 pm
CHAPTER 1: Acting fundamentals
VOICE TECHNIQUES
A
technique is an ability or skill in one area and/or a way of
doing a particular procedure. There are specific parts of the
voice anatomy and techniques of voicing that an actor needs to
develop, access and utilise if they are going to use their voice
instrument effectively, safely and appropriately in performance.
Mastering the twelve voice techniques is essential for the
actor who wants to be heard successfully by the other actors
on stage and the listening audience. They need to be able to
modulate their voice skillfully if they are going to be credible
and believable in their role. Only when an actor can control their
voice and make changes when they want to, will they be able to
flex to the needs of each production and character’s demands,
as well as each and every performance and historical style
without vocal strain.
Clarity
The quality of being easily
understandable.
Modulation
The changing of sound
typically through stress,
pitching or tonality.
Control
The ability to regulate, limit,
restrain or discipline oneself
in a certain way.
Twelve of the voice techniques that great actors perfect are:
Posture:
• Breathing techniques
• Voice production
• Articulation
• Pace
• Pause
Pitch:
• Projection
• Phrasing
• Tone
• Accent
• Dynamics
Flexibility
The ability to physically and
mentally adapt, stretch and
work well within the needs
of differing circumstances.
Posture
The way in which a human being, including an actor, positions
Posture
and carries their body is called posture. Considering an actor’s
A specific position of the
posture is important when in a standing or sitting position,
body in which the torso
as well as when the body is highly animated such as when
and limbs are arranged in a
walking, running or crawling. Good posture is where each part
certain way.
of the body is in alignment with the next. As a whole the body
is both connected and free at the same time, whilst appearing
relatively straight. The vertebrae in the spine feel fluid and as if
they’re floating upwards, whilst the overall skeletal frame is not giving in downwards to
gravity. The body has a good balance between being relaxed and being tense, which
allows it to feel and appear free, as well as available and ready.
Focusing first on posture when exploring voice might seem like an odd starting point. The
most important thing an actor can remember about their vocal instrument is that it is the
body and the body is the voice. Therefore in order to voice an actor must prepare, access
and manage their body. The best starting point for this is to be able to adopt and maintain
a neutral body position.
2
Drama A12 Book.indb 2
10/11/2015 2:05 pm
CHAPTER 1: Acting fundamentals
Neutral body position
The neutral body position is the actor’s blank canvas. When
characterising or preparing for performance great actors start with
a neutral and available body. It is also a good place to start at the
beginning of a rehearsal or in a warm-up before performance as
it allows the actor to shake off themselves, focus their attention,
relax their body, access their breath support system and then
take on their character. From a neutral position the actor then
accesses, adapts and controls specific body parts in certain ways,
allowing them to then vocalise and move safely when building and
taking on character. This state is called the Neutral Body Position.
Neutral body position
In a standing position the spine
is aligned without twists, whilst
the limbs are unrestricted,
loose and straight with freeflowing joints.
Activity 1.1: Adopting a neutral body position
• Stand with your feet shoulder-width apart. This is with your feet directly under
your hips, which are directly under your shoulders.
• Your feet should be pointing forward in parallel. Your knees should be pointing
forward too. Check that they are by bending your knees slightly; the knees
should go forwards over the toes. If they don’t adjust your feet so that they do.
• Unlock your knees; this is referred to as ‘soft’ knees. Try going to the other
extreme for a moment by pushing your knees caps right back into your legs
so the legs become hyperextended. Now bend the knees a little and return to
standing so that the knees are ‘soft’.
• Imagine there is a thread on top of your head directly over the end of your
spine. Imagine this thread is pulling you up slightly to the ceiling and is making
your spine erect but still free. You should feel as if there is space between
each vertebrae, almost so they seem to float.
• Your shoulders are straight or perhaps gently held back slightly but without
tension. Your chest is open and not hunched over.
• Shake your arms and hands for fifteen seconds vigorously. Now allow them to
flop down and hang loosely at your side.
• Your neck is soft, long and free.
• Your head balances on the top of your spine facing forward.
• Your jaw is unlocked and your lips very slightly apart.
• Breathe through your mouth.
Breathing techniques
Breathing is one of the few physiological processes that is both involuntary and voluntary.
Whilst most of the time a person breathes automatically, they are also able to consciously
alter the way they breathe; how they use the parts of their breath support system to take
in air and then release it, as well as how frequently they do this.
3
Drama A12 Book.indb 3
10/11/2015 2:05 pm
CHAPTER 2: Acting
Sometimes an actor today plays more than one character or role in the same production.
This could be because the roles are not on stage often, because the budget doesn’t allow
for a large cast, because having actors play multiple characters is part of the creative
vision or because of the stylistic conventions being used in the script. In such a situation
an actor needs to be diligent about creating two (or more as is appropriate) distinct,
unique and clearly defined roles. If they don’t the audience might become confused,
as well as the dramatic meaning become unclear. The actor could take an external or
presentational performance approach to changing and creating multiple characters,
such as by making different movement or voice choices, or they could take an internal
representational approach by starting with given circumstances, motivation and beliefs
for each role.
Above: Peer Metze with Sharda Harrison who plays multiple roles in the same play.
The images show that Harrison has made clear, definitive decisions about adapting her
movement for each role.
PRACTITIONER PROFILE
Alison Van Reeken – Actor
62
Drama A12 Ch2.indd 62
10/11/2015 3:18 pm
CHAPTER 2: Acting
Characterisation
There are many other presentational
performance approaches and historical styles
that actors can utilise when preparing a role or
character or performance.
For information on three of these (Bertolt
Brecht’s Actor Training, Jerzy Grotowski’s
Psycho-Physical Training and Rudolf von
Laban’s Human Movement Traits) see Drama:
A resource for Year 11 ATAR/Year 12 General.
63
Drama A12 Ch2.indd 63
10/11/2015 3:18 pm
CHAPTER 4: Scenography
Analogous colours are those that are side by side on the wheel.
Because they are similar to each other, when a designer uses them
they’re likely to create a sense of calmness, relaxation or placidity
in the design. Usually a designer has one dominant colour, such
as yellow, and two supporting colours, such as yellow-orange and
yellow-green.
Complementary colours are those found opposite
to each other on the spectrum. By using two
such colours a scenographer is creating a bold,
clear pigment design contrast, evoking a sense of
tension within the work. Usually it’s difficult to make this combination work
effectively if both colours are used strongly in the design. Sometimes
designers might use two sets of complementary colours within the same
creation, one from the wheel’s north and south, and one from east and
west. Typically such designs work best when only one of the four colours
dominates (is more prevalent than) the others.
For split-complementary colour usage, instead
of using the colour that’s directly opposite on the wheel, the
designer uses the two colours on either side. This still creates
an apparent sense of contrast, but the tension evoked is not as
strong as when using complementary colours.
When using a tetrad-colour rectangular combination
a designer uses two sets of complimentary pairs.
Whilst the opposites do create a sense of tension
through their contrast within the design, because the
colours of each pair are close (similar) to one of the
colours of the other pair, the psychological strain they evoke tends not to
be severe. Similar to some of the other combinations, usually a designer
has one of the four colours dominate in the design more than the others.
Hint
Sometimes a contemporary designer creates
scenography that is mostly, or even totally, devoid
of colour and utilises instead a great deal of
white in the design. Even in such a situation the
scenographer is choosing not to use saturated
colour, which is in itself a colour choice.
Internet exploration
Have a look at director Peter Brook and designer
Sally Jacobs’ famous A midsummer night’s dream
that utilised a white empty set at:
www.youtube.com/watch?v=1CkN9k6S3Js
Line
There are different definitions of line that people use. Where a mathematician might say
a line is a connection between two points or even a series of points that side by side
appear linked, a visual artist is more likely to define line as a path that’s left by a moving
102
Drama A12 Book.indb 102
10/11/2015 2:05 pm
CHAPTER 4: Scenography
point. Many theatre designers probably have both interpretations in mind when they work
with line given the three-dimensionality of their work.
The three basic types of lines that scenographers use are actual, contour and implied
lines. Actual lines are those that physically exist or are marked on the design in some
way, such as the decorative motifs on furniture, each metal rod of a jail cell or etchings
on a grave stone. Contour lines are those that deliniate the edge of something within the
design, such as the corner line of stairs, the frame of a window or the edge of a floor
rug. Even the edges of this book (or the electronic device from which it’s being read) are
contour lines. Implied lines are the ones that don’t physically exist, but are imagined by an
audience member. This could be the space the viewer fills between two focal points or it
could be a line that they assume or imagine continues beyond the design’s line of sight.
Designers use variations in line length, width and depth, as well as combinations of linear
(straight) and curved lines.
Linear lines
Curved lines
Both examples above are actual lines, with implied properties.
Hint
Although a line in a design can easily appear finite, with a little
imagination it’s possible to visualise it continuing on beyond
the creation borders. Designers can use this concept to their
advantage if they want to suggest that the playing space, and
therefore the fictional world of the play, extends into the wings
and beyond the limited area that the audience can see.
Internet exploration
Find out how visual artists use line at:
www.youtube.com/watch?v=BDePyEFT1gQ
Shape
When a line surrounds or encloses space then it creates a
shape, otherwise known as a form. Very simply a shape is
a closed line. It’s possible to differentiate one shape from
another, as well as from the space around it, usually by its
boundary’s line or its different colours.
Scenographers use both geometric and organic shapes,
as well as those that are actual and those that are implied.
Without going into mathematics, a geometric shape
is basically one that is uniform in its measurements and appears to be the same
even when it’s moved, rotated or reflected. An organic shape is not uniform in its
measurement, and it appears to be different when it’s moved, rotated or reflected.
103
Drama A12 Book.indb 103
10/11/2015 2:05 pm
CHAPTER 6: Lighting design
INFLUENTIAL LIGHTING DESIGNERS
T
here were several designers early last century who were fundamental in changing the
way we utilise, manipulate and create light in the performing arts today. Two of these
were Adolphe Appia and Stanley McCandless.
Adolphe Appia (1862-1928)
Appia was a Swiss theatrical and architectural designer.
He developed a new alternative way of lighting the stage in
the theatre that opposed the old tradition of using blanket
cover from the footlights, wings and above. With the thennew developments in electricity, Appia was able to control
multiple changes in lighting from one central point. This
basic configuration became the basis for contemporary
lighting systems, including the control of such systems.
Appia was the first designer to distinguish between diffused
light to make visible the scenery, and concentrated light to
sculpt form. He believed in the ability of light to be threedimensionally structural, fluid, plastic and ‘motivated’. Through his work he developed
the concept of the performance area being a psycho-plastic space. He eliminated old
technologies, such as removing the footlights from the front ground-level of the stage and
he utilised new, unusual (for the time period) lighting positions.
Appia was one of the first true scenographers in that
he took a holistic approach to the playing space and to
designing for that space. He considered there were four
integral parts of then-named scenic design:
1. Painted backgrounds as two-dimensional components
2. Performance space being three-dimensional; that is,
depth + width + height = volume
3. Moving actors within the space
4. Lighting in relation to all of the above
Psycho-plastic space
A concept proposed first by
designer Svoboda that theatrical
space is elastic in scope and
malleable in quality, wherein there
needs to be a fusion of every
component that enters it including
the characters and scenography.
He was the first to view the actors also as part of the scenography and therefore a
moving, living part of the lighting.
Across his lifetime, Appia worked very closely with the composer Richard Wagner,
including on many of his seminal Romantic operas. He was inspired by the movement
and flow of Wagner’s music and was the first designer to explore the similar flexibility and
flow of lighting. For Appia, lighting needs to change in a production just as the actors and
the plot change. Whilst a commonly accepted convention today, at the turn of last century
this concept was ground breaking. Through lighting he saw the potential to influence and
manipulate audience’s responses on both literal and obvious levels, but also for the first
time in theatre history on subtextual and subliminal levels. That an audience member
could interact with, form a relationship with and be affected by a dramatic production in
this way, quickly became fundamental to most Western dramatic styles.
176
Drama A12 Book.indb 176
10/11/2015 2:06 pm
CHAPTER 6: Lighting design
Similarly to the design of sets, contemporary lighting is not merely a collection of fixed or
static states for each change of scene. Appia promoted that a lighting designer needs to
create and manipulate light to change and develop in harmony with the unfolding of the
plot, development of the characters and shifting in the dramatic action.
Stanley McCandless (1897-1967)
The famous American lighting designer Stanley McCandless is often thought of as the
father of modern lighting design. In the 1930s, after practicing his design concepts in
theatrical productions, he published the book A method of lighting the stage. He believed
that there were four functions of lighting design.
a. Visibility
Ensure that the actors in the playing space can be seen adequately by the audience.
b. Form
This focuses on the composition of the lighting as a three-dimensional creation within the
playing space. For example whether the design lights the entire playing area (or large
sections of it) seamlessly and evenly, or whether it uses a series of states that work with
isolated areas of the geography. Of course it is also the way that people and objects
within the playing areas are sculpted (or not).
c. Modelling
Lighting needs to suggest the time and space of the fictional world of the play. It
contributes to the motivation of the characters because it reflects the changing situations
the characters are in. Originally modelling was termed naturalism by McCandless,
because he believed this function was to literally represent or strive to realistically imitate
true life on stage. Over time the term has changed to modelling to allow for a realist
approach when representing time and space in naturalistic and realistic drama, and also
a non-realist approach when suggesting time and space in presentational drama.
d. Mood
Finally McCandless believed that theatrical lighting should evoke mood and atmosphere
within a drama work, operating on psychological, emotional and other human levels.
To ensure that a design delivered on these four functions, McCandless identified essential
design components that a designer needs to address. The four of these are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Lighting the acting area
Toning and blending the acting area
Lighting the background
Adding specials
These four process steps are explored in detail in the next section.
177
Drama A12 Book.indb 177
10/11/2015 2:06 pm
CHAPTER 6: Lighting design
and reacting to the actors and the director as they bring it to life
within playing space. If a lighting designer merely experimented
with what they read in the script, then they’re not going to get
a felt-sense about the work, nor a holistic understanding of the
production or the director’s conceptual vision.
By the end of the experimenting phase designers need to have
generated a design statement. This is a phrase, sentence or
even sometimes a single word that encapsulates their concept
for the lighting design.
Below a lighting designer is experimenting with both how to light
the space and what colours to use. They’re using a computer
program that shows them what the playing space, and the
people and scenography within that space, would look like if
it was lit in particular ways. The designer has drafted three
different potential lighting states. Each state uses different front,
side and back fixtures, and each lights only some of the playing
areas. The designer then redrafts these exact lighting states
and changes only the colour.
Felt-sense
An inner knowing combined
with a physical sense of
awareness.
Design statement
A concise description of
the designer’s concept for
the production, including
their creative intention and
sometimes details about
their process.
State
The use of specific lights
at specific levels to light a
section of the play.
198
Drama A12 Book.indb 198
10/11/2015 2:07 pm
CHAPTER 6: Lighting design
6. Final design
After experimenting with ideas and drafting (and redrafting)
Cue point
potential designs, the lighting designer finalises their work. They
The place in a drama event that
create documentation to enable the correct fixtures to be rigged
signals a technical change.
in the correct positions with the correct focus in the theatre venue.
To do this they create a lighting plan, focus information and a
cue sheet. They’re also likely to have the cues written into their script so that they can
assist the lighting technician and stage manager in documenting the cue points for the
production.
Lighting plan
This is a type of venue map that outlines the positions of all the fixtures. It is always drawn
to scale and includes fixture accessories such as gels, gobos and barn doors. Each fixture
is drawn onto the aerial view of the venue with the lighting bars, sound speakers, playing
area, entrances/exits and sometimes even the auditorium seating. Major set pieces might
also be included such as flats and black curtains. Gel numbers, with a letter abbreviation
for the type of gel, are written in front of the relevant fixture symbols. Barn doors are
indicated by adding two angled lines in front of the standard symbol. For example:
Aerial view
An elevated view from above.
10
10
PC with a gel
10
PARcan with a gel
3 x floods lights in a row
10
10
Fresnel with barn doors
Profile with a gobo
G
Summary information about the fixtures, including if gobos are being used, is recorded
and/or drawn in a legend on the side or corner of the plan. Similarly gels colours, gobos,
barn doors and other relevant information (such as the configuration of certain fixtures) are
recorded in a side or corner key. Other information is usually also included, such as scale
details, as well as theatre company, venue and designer information.
10
Hint
When setting up the lighting rig a venue technician needs to ensure that each fixture has a power supply so that
it can operate during performance. The fixtures are connected, through a system of wiring, to a dimmer rack.
This is a piece of electrical equipment that enables the flow of electricity to the fixtures.
The lighting bars include electricity sockets, also called circuits, each with its own number. Each socket can
have one, two or sometimes more lights plugged into it depending on the voltage of each fixture. Obviously
if only one light is plugged into a particular socket, then only that fixture is lit when that socket is activated.
Similarly if two lights are plugged into the same socket, then both are lit when that socket is activated.
199
Drama A12 Book.indb 199
10/11/2015 2:07 pm
CHAPTER 9: Management
One of the recent safety developments in Australia has
High Risk Work licence
been the introduction of national safe work policies in all
A five-year certification given to
relevant performing arts areas. Anyone who does any kind
an individual who has undergone
of construction, maintenance or rigging activities is not
specific training and is then
permitted to work on a dramatic production either on or off
deemed competent to work
in jobs and situations that are
site unless they have a High Risk Work licence. To obtain
considered high risk.
this qualification a person needs to complete prescribed
training through a Registered Training Organisation (an
RTO) that covers a range of things including a range of
strategies for working safely such as:
•
•
•
•
construction hazards
emergency procedures
risk management
legal requirements.
For more information on safe working
practices see Drama: A resource for Year
11 ATAR/Year 12 General.
A rigger, who wears a harness correctly,
conducts a training course on a vertical platform
lift for backstage crew members.
Internet exploration
To find out more information about safe working practices go to:
www.ohsaustralia.com.au
www.commerce.wa.gov.au/worksafe/what-high-risk-work-licence
STAGE MANAGEMENT
T
he stage manager is the person who oversees rehearsals, runs the actual show
during performance and coordinates a range of tasks, people and materials to do
so. They are the liaison between different groups of people and production areas to
ensure the rehearsal and performance processes run smoothly and efficiently. The stage
manager makes sure the director’s, actors’ and designers’ logistical and functional needs
are met, their questions are answered and problems are solved. They don’t necessarily
make the creative decisions, but they do work with and around other people’s creative
decisions, to keep the rehearsals running on time and on track. They too are likely to
have to do some out-of-the-box thinking to address challenges as and when they arise.
Such an innovative approach requires them to be creative in their organisation.
264
Drama A12 Book.indb 264
10/11/2015 2:08 pm
CHAPTER 9: Management
For example an actor might discover they don’t have enough time for
ASM
their quick costume change so the stage manager liaises with the
Assistant stage manager.
director or the costume designer to solve the problem. Perhaps they’ll
arrange for an ASM to help the actor when changing costumes, or
decide which of two solutions suggested by the designer will be easiest
to administer. For example, the stage manager might have to choose whether it’s
better overall to replace costume buttons right away with spare hooks and eyes, or the
following day after new velcro has been purchased. In another case a glass item might
need to be smashed on stage so the stage manager is likely to liaise with the actors,
director and production manager to find a safe way to do so, to work out at which
rehearsals they will practise smashing using the fake glass and in which ones they’ll
pretend with using a plastic version.
Hint
Moveable glass items are almost never used on stage because they are a potential
hazard and if accidentally smashed may cause serious injury to cast, crew or even
audience members. Glass items that need to be smashed on stage because of the
dramatic action are always substituted with another material. Sugar is a popular
substitute as it can, after being turned into liquid through heating it, be poured into
moulds and set. Once cool, the moulds are removed and the items look like they’re
made from glass, when they’re only made from sugar. Such sugar-glass props are
extremely delicate and expensive. Therefore usually they are only practised with at
the end of rehearsals and a stand-in plastic prop is used until that point in time.
Stage managers work with time extremely efficiently and accurately, and as such they
are always punctual (in fact, they are usually early). They also make sure that everyone
else is on time and if someone’s late, they address the issue promptly and appropriately.
They are great at planning and sequencing, and creating various documents to help keep
everyone on task and on time.
A stage manager needs to balance keeping the other practitioners happy as much as
is possible, whilst still making sure all the numerous performance and production goals
are achieved. This means that they might be answering another’s questions with a ‘no’
sometimes, or having a difficult conversation to ask why certain things are running late or
why they haven’t yet been completed and so on. Because of this balancing act, the stage
manager may find themselves in challenging or even conflict situations, and they need
to ensure they have exceptional interpersonal skills. This means not only do they have to
be highly skilled at communicating and organising, but they also have to have excellent
administration competencies.
Internet exploration
Hear from a stage management team about problem solving at:
www.nationaltheatre.org.uk/video/stage-management-problem-solving
265
Drama A12 Book.indb 265
10/11/2015 2:08 pm
CHAPTER 10: Spaces of performance
Historical style
The drama developed by a particular culture at a specific period
in time that has a set of characteristics, conventions and, often,
delivery techniques unique to that artistic type.
Performance style
Acting in a certain way that
either focuses on imitating life or
presenting ideas.
Elizabethan Renaissance playing space
The late Renaissance period (1562-1642),
especially under the rule of Queen Elizabeth I,
saw a huge rise in popularity of the public playing
house. The result was that the first purposebuilt theatre venues were constructed. These
were circular buildings, with a semi-covered
stage jutting out, that were open-aired. To work
well with the performance conventions and
technologies of the day, a playing house had a
raised thrust stage with audience on three sides.
Behind the stage were entrances/exits leading
to the backstage area. Also in the upstage area,
on the level above the stage, was a balcony that
actors could use to play out some of the scenes.
Directly next to the stage was the lower ground
pit area, which consisted of natural dirt for its
floor, from where the standing room patrons, the
poorest commoners referred to as groundlings,
would watch the performance. Encircling the pit,
and also therefore the three sides of the stage,
were several levels of bench seating for the
middle and upper classes. Whilst the pit was not covered by a roof, the stage and the
levelled bench seating were covered. Because the venue was exposed to the elements,
including sunshine and rain, blacking out the space was not possible. Performances
were given therefore during the day and theatrical lighting was not used.
Many theatres today have thrust stages. In these
Thrust stage
contemporary venues, the designated playing space literally
The designated performance
thrusts or protrudes out into the seating area, so that the
area is surrounded on three
audience are on three sides of the stage. The seating is
sides by audience members.
usually raked with each row behind being slightly higher
than the one in front. Because the audience surrounds the
stage and the actors who are performing on it, a thrust stage
is most suited to presentational drama. That is, this type of playing space works best
where the audience does not have to suspend their disbelief and instead always know
that they are watching a performance.
The Dolphin Theatre at UWA has a contemporary Elizabethan thrust stage. It is a venue
without a roof and with a raised stage. It also has an upstage balcony above the main
playing space available for performance.
294
Drama A12 Book.indb 294
10/11/2015 2:08 pm
CHAPTER 10: Spaces of performance
Where four hundred years ago the patrons
would have stood in the pit, the Dolphin
instead offers its contemporary audiences
chairs to sit on. Whilst there are viewing areas
available on either side of the stage both
in the pit, as well as in the balcony seating,
most usually these areas are not opened
for sale. This is because the sightlines from
the side areas in this venue are particularly
poor, offering audience who were to sit there,
distorted views of the dramatic action.
Image kindly provided by
University Theatres
Activity 10.1: Contemporary Elizabethan staging analysis
1. Study the image from a production of a Shakespearean play staged at the
2014 Oregon Shakespeare Festival in the USA.
2. Write a report that compares Oregon’s venue to the original Elizabethan
playing house spaces. Be sure to consider not merely the stage, but the entire
playing space, the seating area, the relationship of
the actor and audience members, the whole venue
and the venue aesthetics.
Internet exploration
Find out about the UK’s Globe Theatre at:
www.youtube.com/watch?v=m3VGa6Fp3zI
295
Drama A12 Book.indb 295
10/11/2015 2:08 pm
CHAPTER 11: Arts marketing
Image courtesy of Blank Space Theatre
Activity 11.3 - Choosing an image
In 2014 Linden Furnell and Mina Ellen Kaye performed in
Dream Academy’s production of the contemporary musical
The Last Five Years by Jason Robert Brown. Here are three
potential photos that the graphic designer had to choose from
when selecting the image for the marketing materials.
1. Write a report that discusses what you see in each
photograph. For each one you should discuss what
you perceive purely from the photograph about the
setting, mood and atmosphere, symbols and metaphor,
characters and relationships.
2. Then go to Jason Robert Brown’s website at http://
jasonrobertbrown.com/reviews/the-last-5-years/
and read a review about a (different) production of The
Last Five Years. Out of the three images here which one
would you choose that best suits the
production based on the reviewer’s
comments. Make sure you justify
your choice using quotes from the
review and detailing specifics from the
photographs.
Image A
Images courtesy of Mina Ellen Kaye
and Dream Academy
Image B
Image C
324
Drama A12 Book.indb 324
10/11/2015 2:09 pm
CHAPTER 11: Arts marketing
Photo shoot
The photo shoot itself is crucial to make sure there are ample
images for the graphic designer to choose from later on. Shoots can
be in a photographic studio or on location. Location shoots require
the photographer to not only ensure that the actors are standing and
interacting together appropriately for their characters, relationships,
the time and space and so on, but that the background and natural
light are also appropriate. Studio shoots are set up specifically to use
or not use a background.
On location
A photo or film shoot that
occurs in a real non-studio
venue or environment,
rather than an imitation one.
When using a background in the shoot the
photographer either fills it with backdrops, furniture,
props and so on. Alternatively they shoot in front
of a blackscreen. A blackscreen makes the actor
in front of it, as well as any objects they hold, really
stand out. If the graphic designer plans to change
the background and replace it with something else
in the editing suite post-shoot, they usually shoot
instead in front of a white screen.
The image on the left was shot in
front of a white screen.
Hint
If on a location shoot the background is not usable, the photographer
can always delete it from the shot later, providing they’re using digital
equipment. But if the graphic designer plans not to use background in
the first place, then it’s easier for the shoot to occur in a studio where the
environment is much more controllable.
The graphic designer could then easily add in a background.
Changing the background allows the graphic designer to suggest
location (time and space), situation, relationships between the
characters, qualities of the individual characters and so on.
Backgrounds can also affect the mood, atmosphere, dramatic
tension and so on.
325
Drama A12 Book.indb 325
10/11/2015 2:09 pm
CHAPTER 14: Rehearsal and performance
Acting areas
When using and communicating about the playing space, it’s helpful to know and refer
to the acting areas on stage accurately. Contemporary practitioners normally divide the
playing space into nine areas. Each area is referred to by its location from an actor’s (not
an audience member’s) perspective:
•
•
•
•
•
•
C = centre
L = left
R = right
D = down
U = up
S = stage
U/S S/R
U/S C/S
U/S S/L
C/S S/R
C/S
C/S S/L
D/S S/R
D/S C/S
D/S S/L
For example an aerial view of the stage divided up
into nine acting areas might look like this:
AUDIENCE
Activity 14.3: Spatial analysis
1. Examine the three photographs of the characters in a scene. In each image
identify which character has the higher status. You should consider not
merely the use of height, but also other aspects of movement such as facial
expression, gesture and posture.
2. Write a paragraph detailing your views for each image. Be sure to justify your
responses with detailed descriptions.
A
B
C
407
Drama A12 Book.indb 407
10/11/2015 2:10 pm
CHAPTER 14: Rehearsal and performance
Blocking
Blocking is the process of deciding how the actors will use
Blocking
the playing space during performance. Deciding on where
The planning process to
and at what point (that is, on what line or action) actors
decide on where, when and
move, negotiating with each other and the scenography as
how characters will move on
stage during a performance, as
they do so, is important if they’re looking for consistency
well as the actual movements
across performances. Blocking is a way of organising the
themselves.
play’s action so that the situations, characters, dramatic
tension and so on are working cohesively towards
communicating dramatic meaning to the audience. The
director works closely with the actors in rehearsal to establish how they use the space;
whether they stand, sit, lean or move, in what way they move, where they move to and
at which points. By blocking the scene, the actors have a spatial template upon which
to build the play. Making blocking choices is also crucial from a design perspective,
particularly for lighting design. Actors need to stand in a place where the light is
focused so that they can be seen by the audience and allow for the designer’s sculpting
of the three-dimensional space to work effectively.
Sometimes blocking is very prescribed and detailed in that every movement, no matter
how small, is pre-planned in rehearsal. This is a very old-fashioned way of working, which
some senior and highly established directors still prefer to use today. This prescriptive
approach can also be particularly effective when a scene is highly complicated with a
large number of characters on stage at once, or where multiple characters are doing
different things at the same time, where there is a stunt or special effect occurring, or
where there are moving set pieces.
Specified blocking is always fundamental when stage
Choreography
fighting is being used or for predetermined movement to
The sequence, placement and
music. In the case of a dance number or a fight sequence,
characteristics of predetermined
blocking is called choreography. Choreography organises
movement.
not only when and where the characters move, but it also
very specifically determines how the actors move. The how,
from a choreographical perspective, is likely to detail the
way every limb, muscle and eyeline of the actors moves, as well as the intensity, pace
and direction at which they move.
Some basic blocking guidelines used by professional practitioners include the following.
Back to the audience
It’s easy to fall into the trap, especially for student actors, to always face directly (full
frontal) or at least side-on (profile) to an audience. Consistent turning to the audience,
unless there’s a creative reason to do so, usually creates dull, uninteresting theatre no
matter what the style. In naturalism and realism this convention is totally inappropriate
because in real life individuals don’t turn their backs on other people unless it’s for a
definitive reason; for example, if they’re hiding something, trying to pull status, giving
the other person the cold shoulder or needing more
personal space. Great professional actors and directors
Turning-out
A character swivels away from
are aware of their audience, without always having to
the other characters or the
patronise them by turning-out. Purposefully having one’s
dramatic action to directly face
back to the audience occasionally can be an effective
the audience.
creative choice, as long as it’s justified.
408
Drama A12 Book.indb 408
10/11/2015 2:10 pm