Download National Geographic Geography Handbook

T
he story of the United States begins with
geography—the study of the earth in all of its
variety. Geography describes the earth’s land,
water, and plant and animal life. It is the study of
places and the complex relationships between
people and their environments.
The United States is a land of startling physical
differences. Within the borders of the United States
is a rich variety of landscapes—dense forests, hot
deserts, rolling grasslands, and snow-capped mountains. It is also a nation of diverse groups of people.
With a total land area of 3,537,441 square miles
(9,161,930 sq. km)—the United States is the world’s
fourth largest country in size. Only Russia, Canada,
and China are larger. Because of its size and diversity, the United States has offered people from
Europe, Africa, Asia, and other parts of the Americas
many opportunities. Today more than 287 million
people make the United States their home.
Makapuu Point, Hawaii
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Mount Hood, Oregon
Geography Handbook
Globes
Types of Maps
Photographs from space show the earth in its true
form—a great ball spinning around the sun. The most
accurate way to depict the earth is as a globe, or a round
form. A globe gives a true picture of the earth’s relative
size and the shape of its landmasses and bodies of
water. Globes are proportionally correct, thus showing
the true distances and directions between places.
This text uses many different kinds of maps to help
you see the connection between geography and the
history of the United States.
A map is a flat drawing of the earth’s surface.
People use maps to locate places, plot routes, and
judge distances. Maps can also display useful information about the nation’s peoples, such as political
boundaries, population densities, or even voting
results by city and state.
What advantages does a map have over a globe?
Unlike a globe, a map allows you to see all areas of the
world at the same time. Maps also show much more
detail and can be folded and more easily carried.
Maps that show a wide range
of general information about a particular area are called
general-purpose maps. Two of the most common general-purpose maps are physical maps and political maps.
Physical maps show the location and the shape, or
topography, of the earth’s physical features. Political
maps show the boundaries between different countries.
Special-Purpose Maps Special-purpose maps, also
called thematic maps, show information on specific
topics, such as climate, land use, or vegetation. Human
activities, such as exploration routes, territorial expansion, or battle sites, also appear on special-purpose
maps. Colors and map key symbols are very important
on these maps.
LANDSAT and GIS Maps LANDSAT
maps are made from photos taken from
satellites in space. LANDSAT images
allow scientists to study whole mountain
ranges, oceans, and geographic regions
and to track changes to the earth’s environment. Graphic information systems
(GIS) use computer software to combine
and display a wide range of information
about an area. Data can include satellite
photos, rainfall amounts, or the location
of houses. Layers of data can be switched
on and off for different purposes.
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Special-purpose map
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Maps
General-Purpose Maps
LANDSAT map
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Winkel Tripel Projection
Maps include several important tools to help
you interpret the information contained on a particular map. Learning to use these map tools will
help you read the symbolic language of maps
more easily.
Compass Rose
A compass rose is a marker that indicates
directions. The four cardinal directions—north, south, east, and
west—are usually indicated with arrows or points of a star.
Sometimes a compass rose may indicate only one direction,
because the other directions can be determined in relation to the
one given. The compass rose on this map indicates all four cardinal
directions.
Key Cartographers use a variety of symbols to represent map
information. Because these symbols are graphic and commonly
used, most maps can be read and understood by people around
the world. To be sure that the symbols are clear, however, every
map contains a key—a list that explains what the symbols represent. This key shows symbols used for a battle map in this text.
It indicates troop movements, supply lines, and U.S. bases.
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Geography Handbook
120°W 60°W
60°N
A R C T IC
TROPIC OF CANCER
EQUATOR
0°
0°
60°E
120°E
CIRCLE
30°N
N
TROPIC OF CAPRICOR
30°S
C LE
60°S ANTARCTIC CIR
▼
Maps, however, do have
their limitations. As you can imagine, drawing a round object on a flat surface is very difficult. Cartographers, or mapmakers, have
drawn many projections, or kinds of maps.
Each map projection is a different way of
showing the round earth on a flat map.
Different map projections include the Winkel
Tripel, Robinson, Goode’s Interrupted EqualArea, and Mercator projections. It is impossible to accurately represent the round earth on
a flat surface without distorting some part of
the earth. Thus, map projections typically distort distance, direction, shape, or area.
MERIDIAN OF GREENWICH (LONDON)
Map Projections
Most general reference maps use the Winkel Tripel projection.
Adopted by the National Geographic Society in 1998, this projection provides a better balance between the size and shape of land
areas as they are shown on the map.
Geography Handbook
Robinson Projection
120°W
ARCTIC CIRCLE
60°W
0°
60°E
Goode’s Interrupted Equal-Area Projection
120°E
ARCTIC CIRCLE
60°N
60°N
EQUATOR
TROPIC OF CAPRICORN
30°S
60°S
ANTARCTIC CIRCLE
EQUATOR
0°
TROPIC OF CAPRICORN
30°S
60°S
ANTARCTIC
CIRCLE
The Robinson projection has minor distortions. The sizes
and shapes near the eastern and western edges of the map
are accurate, and the outlines of the continents appear
much as they do on the globe. The shapes of the polar
areas, however, are somewhat flat.
An interrupted projection looks something like a globe
that has been cut apart and laid flat. Goode’s Interrupted
Equal-Area projection shows the true size and shape of
the earth’s landmasses, but distances are distorted.
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Mercator Projection
90°E
120°E
150°E
180°
150°W
120°W
90°W
60°W
30°W
0°
30°E
60°E
Relative Location
Cities and Capitals
Cities are symbolized by
a solid circle. Sometimes the relative sizes of cities
are shown with circles of different sizes. Capitals are
represented by a star within a circle.
ARCTIC CIRCLE
60°N
30°N
0°
TROPIC OF CANCER
EQUATOR
TROPIC OF CAPRICORN
30°S
60°S
ANTARCTIC CIRCLE
Boundary Lines
On political maps of large
areas, boundary lines highlight the borders between
different countries, states, or counties.
MERIDIAN OF GREENWICH (LONDON)
Relative location is the location of one place in relation to another, while absolute
location indicates the exact position of a place on the
earth’s surface. On this map, the relative location of
where the Vietnam War took place is given in relation
to the rest of Asia.
Scale Bar
Every map is a representation of a part
of the earth. The scale bar shows the relationship
between map measurements and actual distance.
Scale can be measured with a ruler to calculate actual
distances in standard or metric measurements. On
this map, 5⁄ 8 inch represents 150 miles (241 km).
▼
0°
TROPIC OF CANCER
▼
TROPIC OF CANCER
MERIDIAN OF GREENWICH (LONDON)
30°N
30°N
The Mercator projection increasingly distorts size and distance
as it moves away from the Equator. However, Mercator projections accurately show true directions and the shapes of the
landmasses.
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To understand how our world is connected, some geographers have broken down
the study of geography into five themes. The Five Themes of Geography are (1) location, (2) place, (3) human/environment interaction, (4) movement, and (5) regions.
Six Essential Elements
Recently, as suggested in the Geography Skills for Life, geographers have broken
down the study of geography into Six Essential Elements. Being aware of these elements will help you sort out what you are learning about geography.
The World in Spatial Terms
Geographers
first look at where a place is located.
Location serves as a starting point by asking, “Where is it?” Knowing the location of
places helps you develop an awareness of
the world around you. For example, the surrender of Confederate General Robert E. Lee
took place at Appomattox Courthouse,
located in Virginia.
Place and Regions
Place has a special meaning in
geography. It means more than where an area is
located. It also describes what features a place
includes. These features may be physical characteristics, such as landforms, climate, and plant or animal
life. They may also be human characteristics, including language and way of life. For example, the
English settlement of Jamestown was located in a
swampy area with mosquitoes and high humidity.
This made the way of life difficult for the new settlers.
To help them organize their study, geographers
often group places into regions. Regions are united
by one or more common characteristics. The original thirteen colonies, for instance, were divided
into three regions—New England Colonies, Middle
Colonies, and Southern Colonies.
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Geography Handbook
Geography Handbook
Physical Systems When studying places and
regions, geographers analyze the ways in which
physical systems—such as hurricanes, volcanoes,
and glaciers—shape the earth’s surface. They also
look at communities of plants and animals that
depend upon one another and their surroundings
for survival. Glaciers are an example of a physical
system. Near the end of the Ice Age, glaciers melted,
raising ocean levels and covering a land bridge that
once connected Asia and North America.
Human Systems Geographers also examine an
area’s human systems, or how people have shaped
our world. They look at how boundary lines are
determined and analyze why people settle in certain
places and not in others. A key theme in geography
is the continual movement of people, ideas, and
goods. An example of such movement occurred
in the 1820s, when Stephen F. Austin organized a group of Americans to settle in the
Mexican territory of Texas.
Environment and Society
The Uses of Geography
“How does the relationship between people and their natural surroundings
influence the way people live?” This is one of the
questions that the geographic element of environment and society answers. This element also shows
how people use the environment and how their
actions affect it. One example was when some people in the South established large plantations to take
advantage of the warm climate and fertile soil.
Knowledge of geography helps people understand the relationships
between people, places, and environment over
time. Understanding geography and knowing how
to use the tools and technology available to study it
prepares you for life in our modern society. Early
European explorers, for example, relied on their
knowledge of geography to discover lands never
seen before by Europeans.
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Volcano Mountain peak
Strait
Sound
Island
Valley
Cape
Ocean
Cliff
Isthmus
Bay
As you read about the history of
the United States, you will
encounter the terms listed
below. Many of the terms are
pictured in the diagram.
Harbor
Gulf
Delta
Peninsula
st
Seacoa
absolute location exact location of a place on the earth
described by global coordinates
basin area of land drained by a given river and its branches;
area of land surrounded by lands of higher elevations
gulf part of a large body of water that extends into a
shoreline, generally larger and more deeply indented
than a bay
bay part of a large body of water that extends into a shoreline,
generally smaller than a gulf
harbor a sheltered place along a shoreline where ships can
anchor safely
canyon deep and narrow valley with steep walls
cape point of land that extends into a river, lake, or ocean
highland elevated land area such as a hill, mountain,
or plateau
channel wide strait or waterway between two landmasses that
lie close to each other; deep part of a river or other waterway
hill elevated land with sloping sides and rounded summit;
generally smaller than a mountain
cliff steep, high wall of rock, earth, or ice
island land area, smaller than a continent, completely
surrounded by water
continent one of the seven large landmasses on the earth
cultural feature characteristic that humans have created in a
place, such as language, religion, housing, and settlement
pattern
isthmus narrow stretch of land connecting two larger
land areas
delta flat, low-lying land built up from soil carried downstream
by a river and deposited at its mouth
latitude distance north or south of the Equator, measured in
degrees
divide stretch of high land that separates river systems
longitude distance east or west of the Prime Meridian,
measured in degrees
downstream direction in which a river or stream flows from its
source to its mouth
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glacier large, thick body of slowly moving ice
lake a large inland body of water
lowland land, usually level, at a low elevation
elevation height of land above sea level
map drawing of the earth shown on a flat surface
Equator imaginary line that runs around the earth halfway
between the North and South Poles; used as the starting
point to measure degrees of north and south latitude
meridian one of many lines on the global grid running from the
North Pole to the South Pole; used to measure degrees of
longitude
Geography Handbook
Geography Handbook
Mountain range
Glacier
Source of
river
Channel
Highland
Lake
Plateau
Hills
Canyon
Mouth of river
River
Desert
Upstream
Downstream
Plain
Lowland
Basin
Tributary
mesa broad, flat-topped landform with steep sides; smaller than
a plateau
mountain land with steep sides that rises sharply (1,000 feet or
more) from surrounding land; generally larger and more
rugged than a hill
mountain peak pointed top of a mountain
mountain range a series of connected mountains
mouth (of a river) place where a stream or river flows into a
larger body of water
ocean one of the four major bodies of salt water that surround
the continents
ocean current stream of either cold or warm water that moves
in a definite direction through an ocean
parallel one of many lines on the global grid that circle the earth
north or south of the Equator; used to measure degrees of
latitude
peninsula body of land jutting into a lake or ocean, surrounded
on three sides by water
physical feature characteristic of a place occurring naturally,
such as a landform, body of water, climate pattern, or
resource
plain area of level land, usually at a low elevation and often
covered with grasses
plateau large area of flat or rolling land at a high elevation,
about 300–3,000 feet high
Prime Meridian line of the global grid running from the
North Pole to the South Pole at Greenwich, England;
starting point for measuring degrees of east and west
longitude
relief changes in elevation over a given area of land
river large natural stream of water that runs through the land
sea large body of water completely or partly surrounded
by land
seacoast land lying next to a sea or ocean
sea level position on land level with surface of nearby ocean
or sea
sound body of water between a coastline and one or more
islands off the coast
source (of a river) place where a river or stream begins, often in
highlands
strait narrow stretch of water joining two larger bodies of
water
tributary small river or stream that flows into a larger river or
stream; a branch of the river
upstream direction opposite the flow of a river; toward the
source of a river or stream
valley area of low land between hills or mountains
volcano mountain created as ash or liquid rock erupts from
inside the earth
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