Download buddhist ethics and international relations - J

BUDDHIST
ETHICS
INTERNATIONAL
AND
RELATIONS
J. M. Kitagawa
This article
was written
R. H. L. Slater
of Harvard
for International
Relations.
Church
Peace
Union
Dr. Shoson
University
critique,
Conference
Professor
would
ant
place
made
at the
Dr. Slater
The
present
last minute,
rightly
context,
with
in
and
writer,
because
that
to a whole,
Slater's
Ethics
conference
of the
philosophy
agreed
make
rich,
sense,
asked
a few
Buddhist
discussion
varied
years
includes
must
context
of
the
for our understanding
the expense
Buddhism-(1)
of oversimplification,
of the historical
of the present-day
Buddhism,
Dr.
Miyamoto's
remarks.
be seen in its total
of religious
history
behind
historical
aspect which he excluded from his paper. I am inclined
essential
the
on this import-
to take
sketchy
ethics
to
the
of Hawaii.
on Mahayana
to the
was
at the
write
of his commitment
authority
hundred
that a very brief reexamination
to
West held at the University
who
can only
states
originally
contribution
twenty-five
Dr.
of Buddhist
had
by Professor
of Buddhist
at the
professor
a recognized
a valuable
paper
25, 1959.
who
East
the
September
the task
being
It belongs
and practice,
total
not undertake
on
Implications
he presented
visiting
1958-59,
on Philosophy
question.
context:
which
Miyamoto,
Miyamoto,
have
The
at Princeton,
of Chicago,
could
as a commentary
entitled
thought
it.
The
context,
the
to f eel, however,
context of Buddhism is
ethos of Buddhism.
At
I wish to depict three historic stages of
Early Buddhism, (2) Buddhism under King Asoka, and (3)
Modern Buddhism.
(1) Early Buddhism: Some of the contemporary Buddhist philosophers
accept the view that Buddhism is a way of life following from the acceptance of a certain set of propositions
the facts of existence
pertaining
which
to the
-777-
life
are
considered
and destiny
to represent
of man in the
BUDDHIST ETHICS AND INTERNATIONAL
universe.
body
But, as E. J. Thomas
of doctrine
but with
reminds
the
RELATIONS (J. M. Kitagawa)
us,
formation
Buddhism
of a
began
society
(2)
not with
bound
by
a
certain
(1)
rules.
The
groups
of ascetics
Buddhist
dharma
principles
practices.
Early
realized
and
time
to Brahman
supported
the
against
but more
could
the
The
Enlightenment,
alone
Affirmation
orthodoxy,
From the beginning,
of
of the
Brahman
the
the
cosmic
Dharma
and
that
Dharma
was
was
and
on the importance
fessor Bahm rightly observes that
to the goal,
and
of meditation
Pachow
ably
argues
the experience
the middle
but is, in a fundamental
Professor
inquiry.
explanation
and insight (Panna) abhinna), and both in turn are prerequisites
(vimutti, tanha-kkhya)
1
of
was Go-
of moral discipline. According to early
Buddhism, right conduct (sila) is the prerequisite
ing liberation
reHence
the Samgha
the universe but the salvation of finite beings. Equally important
tama's insistence
fully
integrally
path of deliverance.
Gotama was not a metaphysical
was
religious
Buddhism was conducive to philosophical
However, what concerned
ritua-
metaphysico.
external
the Dharma,
and
message
that
Buddha,
eternal
Buddhists
Gotama's
by observing
the
of the
the cosmic,
against
burden
and other
character
social order.
hollowness
provided
in the
community
unique
fundamentally
believed
which
the
empirical
not be apprehended
Buddhists
by Gotama's
the Buddhist
to obliterate
Brahmanism.
to the Samgha,
the Threefold
tend
not only
of
Dharma
between
According
revolted
the
lated
in India
samgha.
of Buddha's
social
that
similarities
sanctioned
Buddhism
lism
external
sense,
that
the
all the
(samadhi)
for attain-
of Nirvana. Pro-
way is not merely a way
(2)
goal
itself.
cardinal
moral
principles
of
(3)
early
Buddhism
dhist
ethics
example,
were
taken
from
was the context
early
Buddhism
had
in
Brahmanism.
which
moral
no political
What
was
discipline
or social
novel
was
philosophy.
in
placed.
We
BudFor
learn
(1) Thomas, Edward J., The History of Buddhist Thought, New York: Barnes
& Noble, (Second Edition), 1951, p. 14.
(2) Bahm, A. J., Philosophy of the Buddha, New York: Harper & Brothers, 1958,
p. 78.
(3) Paschow, W., A Comparative Study of the Pratimoksa, Santiniketan: The
Sino-Indian Cultural Society, 1955.
-776-
(3) BUDDHIST ETHICS AND INTERNATIONAL
from
the
Pall
legitimate
ghtful
existence
protection,
Arahats
and
Mahaparinibbana
among
that
Sutta
of a secular
defence,
them,
and
so that
may
ma did not advocate
a new
Buddhist
concerned
munity
and
them
the
from
with
the
political
shall
be
fully
relationship
granted
provided
for
between
he defined
the
rithe
the realm,
It is evident
theory;
the
as the
may enter
socio-political
and
for
so long
from a distance
that
Gota-
he was pri-
the Buddhist
relationship
Com-
between
of the samgha.
(2) Buddhism under King Asoka:
and the socio-poltical
took
live at peace
proper
realm,
the perspective
Gotama
community:
support
Arahats
therein
marily
that
political
the Arahats
RELATIONS (J. M. Kitagawa)
The relationship
order underwent
reign of Asoka. He recognized
between the Samgha
a radical transformation
under the
the universal message in the Dharma, but the
Dharma he advocated was a kind of applied Buddhist ethics, applicable to
all men, Buddhist as well as non-Buddhist.
maharata
time
the
(Ministers
in its history,
seekers
of the
had
and believers
Under Asoka's leadership
His appointment
Dharma) implied that Buddhism, for the first
to shoulder
the responsibility
but a complex
society,
the Buddhist
community,
of guiding
nation
at least, into a world-wide
community,
nations outside India. Likewise, the Buddha
an unknown
Indian ascetic;
and
here
in its broad sense, became in effect the total nation
potentially
of the Dharma-
not only
civilization.
using
and
the
could
embracing
was no longer
term
develop,
peoples and
portrayed
he came to be viewed as a deified
as
spiritual
monarch (atideva, devadeva or devatideva), who was represented on this earth
by a Cakravartin
example,
(an ideal universal
monarch).
Later
Buddhist rulers, for
King Tissa in Ceylon, the Sui Emperor Wen
Ti in China,
and
Prince Shotoku in Japan, were greatly influenced by Asoka's vision of what
Buddhism ought to be. It is our contention
cannot be understood
that the Buddhist political ethics
without taking into account this
Asokan turn.
Buddhism from the period of Asoka was no longer a narrow
liberation;
it became the bearer of a civilization,
an admixture
of Buddhism and Hindu
dhist missionary
work a peaceful
civilization.
conquest
-775-
through
which
path of
was in essence
Asoka called the BudDharma.
We read in
BUDDHIST ETHICS AND INTERNATIONAL
the Rock Edict (XIII):
And such a conquest
Beloved of the Gods (Asoka)
in the territories
bordering
Two factors
has
been
achieved
not only here in his own
his domain
planted, it was accompanied
and the Brahrnanic
RELATIONS (J. M. Kitagawa)
Wherever
(4)
by the
domain
but also
Buddhism was trans-
by the art of writing, technology,
commerce,
concept of the divine king.
influenced
the development
of Buddhist
socio-political
ethics in Southeast Asia and the Far East. The first was the cultural pattern
of
juxtaposition
and insularity,
of
plural belongingness.
For example,
side from time immemorial,
sionary work both Indian
insularity
and the second was the religious pattern
and without
India and China existed side by
but with the exception
and
Chinese
cultures
mutual intercourse
China had any clear principle
of the Buddhist
developed
mis-
with relative
between them. Neither India nor
in dealing
with foreign
powers,
except
in
trade, although each had elaborate procedures in dealing with its own satellite nations and peoples. In other words, international
relations
in the mo-
dern sense of the word was not a real issue in Asia until the modern period.
The
ing's
religious
phrase,
pattern
developed
Buddhism,
existed
Buddhism
co-existed
with
Nat worship.
systems,
igious
side
instance,
ethical
in
plural
in
all
by side with
Corollary
to
communal
domain of Shinto, individual
terms,
and
spiritual
understandable
to this
which
matters
that
of
to use Professor
Asia.
For
Confucianism
in Tibet
with
for
and
and
the
delegated
China
in
Japan
Taoism,
of the multivalue
had to bear
whole
national
Rock-
in
the Bon Cult, and in Burma
society
cults
were
and social ethics were
were
example,
was the development
no one religion
responsibilities
Japan
belongingness,
parts
with Shinto,
according
and
of
solely
and
ethical
not fully applied to all the political and international
culture.
regarded
defined
to Buddhism.
in such a context Buddhist
the
relFor
as the
in Confucian
It is readily
principles
were
problems.
(3) Modern Buddhism: Few words are needed to emphasize the importance of the impact of the West on Asian religions and cultures. A
far-reaching
effect of
of the West-was
modernity
-the
driving force behind the advance
felt in the field of education,
-774-
which
divided
Asians
(5)
BUDDHIST ETHICS AND INTERNATIONAL
into
two categories,
education
called
the
the
modern
elite
lectuals
who
of their
and
they
the ethos
religions
became
not
Buddhist
ancestral
way of
less sensitive
were
nations,
life,
what
their
1920's and 1930's many
they
had
to their
return
continued
to produce
hitherto
leaving
to
the
recognized,
in the
and
spurned.
Recognizing
peoples,
some
tenacity
Asian
religions.
religions,
intelIn
so
they instilled
religions.
nations
gained
Thet:
was
political
repeated
Painfully
existence-was
something
Asian intel-
strength
the traditional
in Burma
of U Kyaw
the
to traditional
Asian
happened
suddenly
own
to
into traditional
War II, many
In the words
had
Westernized
who
education
converts
simply
modernity
World
In the
independence,
which
themselves
leaders
pride-even
Burmese
in the
for political
situation,
countries.
short,
a Westernized
did
its
with
is what Coomaraswamy
culture.
to those
struggle
of
After
In this
from
Buddhism
story
for relating
lectuals
from
had had
ancestral
the need
literacy
intellectuals
it. This
civilization.
a long
of the
onal
and
young
without
was uprooted
of modern
To make
of
of people
of
culture
challenge
doing,
mass
separation
indigenous
midst
a minority
and the
RELATIONS (J. M. Kitagawa)
tangible
and
independence.
in many
aware
other
that their
nati-
manifestly
debatable,
the
traditional
to justify
their
(4)
future
The
as a separate
new
Welfare
ethos
state;
entity.
They
of Buddhism
the
driving
found
is clearly
force
behind
what
they
seen
in
the
in begetting
a secular
science
and
in
Buddhism.
ideal
of
a Buddhist
the
resurgence
combined
force of Buddhism
and
modernity.
-us is whether
or not Buddhism
and
modernity
dernity,
needed
of Buddhism
is a
The crucial question before
are compatible,
for mo.
secular
arts,
has
also
inciden-
(5)
tally promoted a secular interpretation
of state and law.
Today, Buddhism faces a tension between
and practical
parochialism
in Southeast
Asia and
(or nationalism).
the Far
(4) U Kyaw Thet, Continuity
1958, p. 118.
its theoretical
universalism
The so-called Buddhist nations
East confront
seemingly
insurmountable
in Burma, The Atlantic, Vol. 201, No. 3 February,
(5) Hocking. William Ernest, The Coning World Civilization,
& Brothers, 1956, p. 4.
-773-
New York:
Harper
BUDDHIST ETHICS AND INTERNATIONAL
series
of problems.
Among
per adaptation,
of their
integration
of
the
and
orders
other
vention
of
various
for
and the
dhist
principles
physical,
the
sake
of
and
First,
cultural
of
the preservation,
heritage
art
economic,
of
or
of democracy
practices
of cultural
Fourth,
borrowing
cultural
Third,
an emergence
based
upon
a careful
Fifth,
pro-
the continued
social,
living
(6)
through
Second,
political,
the
authoritarianism
development
consequences
are:
priceless
a resurgence
munism,
and
them
RELATIONS (J. M. Kitagawa)
the
pre-
of
com-
indigenous
study
Bud-
of the processs
the recognition
that
life
values rather than economic motives or military expediency should guide
the practice of obtaining collective security through collective responsibility.
Sixth, the emancipation of both customary and statutory law from the
life of the people, in which social relationships are governed by the tra(6)
ditional
principle
a convinced
of conciliation.
Buddhist,
tial and worthless,
backward
who
bring
Understandably,
knows
that
to the hard
and war-ravaged
country
things
many
of this
and tedious
the
energy
task
and
people
orld
ask:
Can
are insubstan-
of developing
a still
perseverance
the
job
(7)
will require?
What
political
actually
independence,
at the time
before
share
frustrates
when
the
the
however,
war.
which
and
is divided
in Asia i s the
struggled
so hard
were
no longer
politically,
Buddhist
destines
internally
Doctrinally,
new nations
they
nation-states
Therefore,
interests
of f iliatons.
the
of
the
can make
to achieve,
as important
nations
so-called
by different
Buddhists
fact that
religious,
a good
was won
as they
are
Bandung
their
were
compelled
Front,
cultural
which,
and
case for their
to
ethnic
views
on
(8)
world
peace
trinal
and
There
and universal
ethical
principles
is no question
brotherhood.
in practice
that
modern
But, how
is a serious
Buddhism
to implement
these
doc-
problem.
is keenly
aware
of
the
(6) Gard, Richard A., Ideological Problems in Southeast Asia, Philosophy East
and West, Vol. II, No. 4, January 1953, pp. 306-307.
(7) U Kyaw Thet, op. cit., pp. 119-120.
(8) Cf. Miyamoto, Shoson, Freedom, Independence
and Peace in Buddhism,
Philosophy East and West, Vol. I, No. 4. January
1952, pp. 30-40, and Ibid.,
Vol. II, No. 3, October 1952, pp. 208-225.
-772-
(7) BUDDHIST ETHICS AND INTERNATIONAL
need to reconstruct
RELATIONS
and restate the philosophical
Buddhism so that they become meaningful
trated by Professor
Embracing
Slater's
references
Love, and Dependent
dhists, Professor
metanoetics.
and ethical
principles
of
to our time, as eloquently illus-
to the
Buddha
Origination.
Among
Ha jime Tan abe has recently
He is attempting
J. M. Kitagawa)
character,
World-
the Japanese
advocated
a
Bud-
philosophy
of
to develop a philosohical system, taking into
account the Eastern and Western
philosophical insights, but is securely gro-
unded in the Buddhist tradition.
According
cend noetics is to go through
experience
Therefore,
It is
the
of Hegel
neither/nor:
for the
a metanoia in the
death and resurrection
of conversion:
synthesis
of one's
to him, the only way to trans-
radical
sake
true
dialectic
nor
the
is neither
either/or
a thoroughgoing
sin)
by
of Love
the
as well
ethical
negativity
mercy
and Mercy.
the
of the
of
Our
of our
the
of
(9)
of
the
who
sin
speculative
of Kierkegaard.
immediacy
Absolute,
repentence
as
earnestness
(the repentance
also negates
means
the
Himself
forgiveness
and negation of it by the grace of the Absolute.
Following
Tanabe's
philosophy,
Professor
Buddhist concept of duhkha-samudaya
With penitent
problem
heart
Takeuchi
(the cause and origin
he who is suffering
of his propensity
concentrates
negativity
thinking
of Buddha.
of suffering):
So, contrary
is chiefly concerned
on the
rejoicing
to the
human
he understands
(Non-Self), which is now in his inner-
most self, turns out to be affirmative
compassion
and
the historic
his mind
to evil, which is also common
mind in general. And then with gratitude
how this thoroughgoing
interprets
(Non-Self) by means of the grace and
to philosophical
thinking,
with the relation of negativity
religious
and Absolute
(10)
Negativity.
Important
dhist
live
ethics
Pratitya-samutpada
though
are,
these
in the modern
the
theory
philosophical
efforts
world.
leads
alone
in this way
and religious
are
At the occasion
not
to nirvana.
ref ormulation
sufficient'
of the Buddha
for
of Bud-
Buddhists
Jayanti,
held
to
in
(9) Takeucki, Yoshinori,
Buddhism and Existentialism,
Religion and Culture
-Essays in Honor of Paul Tillich, Ed. by Walter Leibrecht, New York: Harper
& Brothers, 1959, p. 301.
(10) Ibid., pp. 306-307.
-771-
BUDDHIST ETHICS AND INTERNATIONAL
Tokyo in 1959, Professor
RELATIONS (J. M. Kitagawa)
Gen jun Sasaki forcefully
(8)
stated:
Universalism formulates a strong point for Buddhist expansion on the
theoretical side, as well as a weak point on the practical side. The theoretical
side of Universalism has been in the midst of the great stream of the social
development. It did not fall down from heaven to the earth as a superworldly
system, but was born in a long historical process. We cannot draw an
artificial, line between a worldly life and a superworldly one. Although Buddhism has theoretically dealt with the practical subject of human beings, nevertheless, practically it has taken little notice of the knowledge to approach the
(11)
social life and to reveal itself in the history of human beings.
Apologists
of Buddhism,
of course, can defend
to numerous social philanthropic
and educational
the Buddhists historically
and in the
Buddhists
whether
ask, however,
which might contribute
of the universe
States,
supreme
supplies
were
the
by
Some of the
Buddhist
insights
problems as the moral order
albeit
be pointed
out that
from
an important
one,
is not a unique
reminds
in extent
they
of the
that
out
Buddhist
regard
state.
Welfare
even though
these
nations
(In all fairness,
religious
of will:
goals.
demand
Buddhism
in Buddhism,
the
as in norms
itself,
to carry
often
problem
us
of the Buddhist
Buddhism
incentive
and
universal
West without being fully
even in the, so-called
citizens,
Hocking
from the
not derived
religio-ethical
from
department,
definition
world.
uniquely
Many of the platforms
nation-states,
loyalty
Professor
are
to such fundamental
terms.
for example,
Also, modern
contemporary
there
have been borrowed
in Buddhist
Buddhism
activities undertaken
or social justice. All, too often, the notions of liberty, jus-
tice, and welfare
digested
its case by pointing
as
a
it must
however.)
community
it speaks
is
by
not primarily
(12)
to the man-within-the-nation
standpoint,
cannot
be exaggerated.
siastically
but to the
a far-reaching
supported
significance
That
by the
these
rulers
man-wihin-the-world.
of various
movements
have
and governments
From
pan-Buddhist
been
thus
this
movements
far
of the Buddhist
enthunations
(11) Sasaki, Genjun, The Role of Buddhism in Modern Civilization-Foundation
of Social Activities,
Tokyo: The Association of the Buddha Jayanti, 1959.
(12) Hocking, op. cit., p. 47.
-770-
(9) BUDDHIST ETHICS AND INTERNATIONAL
reflects the religious mood and political
RELATIONS (J. M. Kitagawa)
situation
this trend continue, however, these Buddhist
become paralyzed
nation-states
vements
various
develop as genuine religious movenents
psychological
fraternity
they
which are essential
interests
for
of the
pan-Buddhist
of a world-wide
will foster
Shouldd
movements may
with the
If, on the other hand,
we all hope and pray they may,
national
ecumenical
by their close entanglements
themselves.
of Asia today.
a moral
just and
mo-
scale, as
unity
and a
peaceful
inter-
relations.
Dukkham lokassa nasetum
Samatthata
sukham katum tatha mama
sada hotu samsare sarato sato.
Pancavassasahassani
dippatu jinasasanam
Palayantu
dhamena sakalam
mahipala
pajam.
To destroy the world's ills and to bestow Happiness on it,
May I always possess ability as long as I journey
in Samsara.
May the message of the Buddha flourish for five thousand
years,
May the world's rulers govern all peoples righteously.
(By D. C. Vijyavardhana)
-769-