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Basic Sociological Concepts Sociology Sociology is the Systematic study of human behavior • Implies that social behavior is regular and patterned • Takes place between individuals, small groups, large organizations, and societies Sociological Imagination • Ability to see the relationship between individual experiences and social influences • Emphasizes connection between personal troubles and structural issues • Relies on micro-and macro-level approaches to understanding social world • Microsociology: Examines the patterns of individual’s social interaction in specific settings • Macrosociology: Examines large-scale patterns and processes that characterize society as a whole Importance of Sociology • • • • • Helps make informed decisions Aids in understanding diversity Shapes social and public policies and practices Develops critical thinking Expands career opportunities Origins of Sociological Theory • Theories are developed to understand human behavior • Theory: Set of statements that explains why a phenomenon occurs • Produce knowledge, guide research, analyze the findings, and offer solutions for social problems • • • • • • • • Important Sociological Theorists: Auguste Comte Harriet Martineau Émile Durkheim Karl Marx Max Weber Jane Addams W.E.B. Du Bois Contemporary Sociological Theories Functionalism • Views society as a system of codependent parts that work together to ensure survival • Society as a social system • Composed of institutions having structures connected to each other, within which behavior occurs • Functions - Contribute to a society’s stability and survival • Dysfunctions: Have a negative impact on a society • Manifest functions: Intended and recognized purposes and activities • Latent functions: Unintended and unrecognized purposes and activities Contemporary Sociological Theories Conflict Theory • Examines how and why groups disagree, struggle over power, and compete for scarce resources • Sources of conflict • Racial discrimination • Economic inequality • Sources of economic inequality - Race, ethnicity, gender, age, and sexual orientation • Social inequality • Involves tension between the haves and the have-nots Contemporary Sociological Theories Feminist Theory • Examine women’s social, economic, and political inequality • Maintain that women suffer injustice because of their gender • Stress upon freeing women from oppressive expectations and constraints, roles, and behavior • Focusing on gender • Emphasized by feminist scholars as an important research variable on micro and macro levels Contemporary Sociological Theories Symbolic Interactionism • Examines individual’s everyday behavior through the communication of: • Knowledge, ideas, beliefs, and attitudes • Focuses on process and keeping the person as the center of analysis • Micro-level perspective • Constructing meaning • Individuals’ actions are based on social interaction • Symbolic interaction • Involves influencing people by communicating through symbols • Words, gestures, or pictures • Requires symbols to have shared meanings, or agreed-on definitions Sources of Knowledge • Tradition - Passed down from generation to generation • Authority - Socially accepted source of information • Research methods: Organized and systematic procedures to gain knowledge about a particular topic Importance of Sociological Research • Challenges overgeneralization • Exposes myth • Helps explain people’s behavior • Influences social policies • Sharpens critical thinking skills that affect daily living Scientific Method Body of objective and systematic techniques for: • Investigating phenomena • Acquiring knowledge • Testing hypotheses and theories Elements of the Scientific Methods • Concept: Abstract idea, mental image, or general notion that represents some aspect of the world • Vary among individuals and cultures • Variable: Changes in value or magnitude under different conditions • • • • • Used by scientists to measure concepts Includes attitudes, behaviors, or traits Independent: Has an effect on the dependent variable Dependent: Outcome that is affected by the independent variable Control: Constant and unchanged • Hypothesis: Statement of the expected relationship between multiple variables Important to Research • Deductive reasoning: Begins with a theory, prediction, or general principle that is tested through data collection • Inductive reasoning: Begins with specific observation followed by: • Data collection • Conclusion about patterns or irregularities • Formulation of hypotheses that lead to theory construction • Reliability: Consistency with which the same measure produces similar results repeatedly • Validity: Degree to which a measure is accurate and measures what it claims to measure • Causation: Relationship in which one variable is the direct consequence of another • Difficult to prove • Correlation: Relationship between two or more variables Steps in the Scientific Method 1. Choose a topic to study 2. Summarize the related research 3. Formulate a hypothesis or ask a research question 4. Describe the data collection methods 5. Collect the data 6. Present the finding 7. Analyze and explain the results Data Collection Methods Surveys Data collection through questionnaires, interviews, or a combination • Sample selection Random sample - Preferred because the results can be generalized to a larger population • Questionnaire: Series of written questions that ask for information • Close-ended questions • Open-ended questions • Interview: Researcher asks respondents a series of questions directly • Structured • Unstructured Data Collection Methods Field Observation • • • • Involves observing people in their natural surroundings Converts the recorded data into quantitative summaries Examines complex communication patterns Measures the frequency of acts or note the duration of a particular behavior • Participatory---Researchers interact with the people they are studying • Non-participatory---Researchers study phenomena without being part of the situation • Short-time---Observing for a few weeks or months • Ethnographies---Require a significant amount of time in the field Basic Principles of Ethical Sociological Research • Do no harm by causing participants physical, psychological, or emotional pain • Obtain the participants informed consent to be in a study • Protect the participants privacy, anonymity, and confidentiality • Avoid exploiting research assistants for personal gain • Use the highest methodological standards and be accurate • Describe the limitations and shortcomings of the research in the published reports • Identify the sponsors of the research • Acknowledge the contributions of research assistants for their participation