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Taught by Dr. Sng Bee Bee • Singapore Bible College Files in many languages for free download at BibleStudyDownloads.org Research Ethics DR SNG BEE BEE RESEARCH ETHICS Source: Gray, D.E. (2009), Doing Research in the Real World (2nd ed.). London: Sage Research Ethics – moral principles guiding research; science of morality Conducting research in a responsible and morally defensible way Ethics – guides moral choices, behaviour and relationships of people Ethical Codes of Practice Source: Gray, D.E. (2009), Doing Research in the Real World (2nd ed.). London: Sage 1. The voluntary consent of the participants is absolutely essential. 2. The study should be such as to yield fruitful results for the good of society. 3. The study should be so designed and based on the knowledge of the problem and the results should justify the way the study is carried out. Ethical Codes of Practice Source: Gray, D.E. (2009), Doing Research in the Real World (2nd ed.). London: Sage 4. The study should be conducted so as to avoid all unnecessary physical and mental suffering and injury. 5. Proper preparations should be made and adequate facilities provided to protect the participants against any possibilities of injury, disability or death 6. During the course of the study, the participants or researcher should be at liberty to stop the experiment should any harm occur. The Focus of Ethics Source: Gray, D.E. (2009), Doing Research in the Real World (2nd ed.). London: Sage Research involving vulnerable groups, for example, children and young people, those with learning disabilities or special needs or people in an unequal or dependent relationship. Research involving sensitive topics, for example, sexual or illegal activities, or people’s experience of abuse or violence. Research where subjects can only be accessed via a gatekeeper (e.g. authorities which protect the people), e.g. certain ethnic or cultural groups. The Focus of Ethics Source: Gray, D.E. (2009), Doing Research in the Real World (2nd ed.). London: Sage Research involving an element of deception such as covert observation used without the participants’ full or informed consent. Research involving access to confidential records or information. Research that leads to stress, anxiety or humiliation amongst target groups. Research involving intrusive strategies that people would not normally meet in their everyday lives – example, the administration of drug or getting people to do something physically strenuous. Case Study: Example of Ethically Contentious Practice A Checklist of Ethical Issues Source: Gray, D.E. (2009), Doing Research in the Real World (2nd ed.). London: Sage One of the most infamous experiments to raise important ethical questions was that conducted by Milgram (1974) which explored the process of obedience to authority. In this case, an ‘experimenter’ oversaw an experiment in which 2 participants are informed that they are part of a study into the effects of punishment on memory retention. 1 participant took the part of the ‘learner’ with the other, taking on the role of the ‘teacher’. The teacher was the actual research participant, but the ‘experimenter’ and ‘learner’ were, in fact, both undercover researchers. Case Study: Example of Ethically Contentious Practice A Checklist of Ethical Issues Source: Gray, D.E. (2009), Doing Research in the Real World (2nd ed.). London: Sage The ‘learner’ was taken to a separate room and hooked up to electrodes. The teacher then asked the learner a series of questions. Each time the learner got a question wrong, the teacher (research participant) was asked to administer an electric shock. Although, in practice, the equipment was fake and no shocks were administered, the teacher was asked to increase the voltage with each wrong answer. As the voltage increased, the learner started to grunt, then ask to be released, scream and then eventually went ominously silent. Approximately, 60% of participants punished the learner to the point where they ‘passed out’. Milgram believed he was demonstrating the extent to which people will conform to authority when asked to perform a task, no matter how distasteful. Discussion Questions Was Milgram experiment justified? Think about this in terms of the duties of researchers, human rights, outcomes and understandings of vulnerability and autonomy. What Critics have to say Critics have condemned the experiment on a whole range of counts, including doing psychological harm to participants, using deception and ignoring the need for informed consent. According to Cassell (1982) what was unethical about Milgram’s study was that he exposed the participants to ‘unasked for self-knowledge’. Ethical Principles Source: Gray, D.E. (2009), Doing Research in the Real World (2nd ed.). London: Sage Avoid harm to participants Ensure informed consent of participants Respect the privacy of participants Avoid the use of deception Ensuring Informed Consent Source: Gray, D.E. (2009), Doing Research in the Real World (2nd ed.). London: Sage √ The aims of the research √ Who will be undertaking it √ Who is being asked to participate √ What kind of information is being sought √ How much of the participants’ time is required √ The participation in the study is voluntary √ That responding to all questions is voluntary √ Who will have access to the data once it is collected √ How anonymity of the participants will be preserved √ Who should it be returned to and by when Communicating with Participants Source: Gray, D.E. (2009), Doing Research in the Real World (2nd ed.). London: Sage A brief description of the project, in a form and language that the participants can understand. The use of the study and any potential benefits to participants (including benefits to the participants) The obligations and commitments of the participants during the study, especially, their time commitments. The right of participants to withdraw from the study without having to give a reason An assurance of confidentiality of all identifiable information and data. Contact details for participants in case of complaint or concerns about the study. A Checklist of Ethical Issues Source: Gray, D.E. (2009), Doing Research in the Real World (2nd ed.). London: Sage Ethical Issue Privacy Promises and reciprocity Risk Assessment Confidentiality Description The right not to participate. The right to be contacted at reasonable times and to withdraw at any time. What do participants gain from cooperating with the research? Keep promises, such as giving participants a copy of the research. In what ways will the research put people under psychological stress, legal liabilities, ostracism by peers or others? Will there be political repercussions? How will you deal with these risks? What constitutes the kinds of reasonable promises of confidentiality that can be honoured in practice? Do not make promises that cannot be kept. A Checklist of Ethical Issues Source: Gray, D.E. (2009), Doing Research in the Real World (2nd ed.). London: Sage Ethical Issue Informed Consent Data access and ownership Researcher mental health Description What kind of formal consent is necessary and how will it be obtained? Who will have access to the data and who owns it? Make sure that is specified in any research contract. Advice Who will the researcher use as a confidante or counsellor on issues of ethics during the research? How will the researcher be affected by conducting the research? What will the researcher see or hear that may require debriefing or counselling? 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