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Taught by Dr. Sng Bee Bee • Singapore Bible College
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Research Ethics
DR SNG BEE BEE
RESEARCH ETHICS
Source: Gray, D.E. (2009), Doing Research in the Real World (2nd ed.). London: Sage
Research Ethics – moral principles guiding research; science of
morality
Conducting research in a responsible and morally defensible way
Ethics – guides moral choices, behaviour and relationships of
people
Ethical Codes of Practice
Source: Gray, D.E. (2009), Doing Research in the Real World (2nd ed.). London: Sage
1. The voluntary consent of the participants is
absolutely essential.
2. The study should be such as to yield fruitful
results for the good of society.
3. The study should be so designed and based on
the knowledge of the problem and the results
should justify the way the study is carried out.
Ethical Codes of Practice
Source: Gray, D.E. (2009), Doing Research in the Real World (2nd ed.). London: Sage
4. The study should be conducted so as to avoid all
unnecessary physical and mental suffering and injury.
5. Proper preparations should be made and adequate
facilities provided to protect the participants against
any possibilities of injury, disability or death
6. During the course of the study, the participants or researcher
should be at liberty to stop the experiment should any harm
occur.
The Focus of Ethics
Source: Gray, D.E. (2009), Doing Research in the Real World (2nd ed.). London: Sage
Research involving vulnerable groups, for example, children
and young people, those with learning disabilities or special
needs or people in an unequal or dependent relationship.
Research involving sensitive topics, for example, sexual or
illegal activities, or people’s experience of abuse or violence.
Research where subjects can only be accessed via a
gatekeeper (e.g. authorities which protect the people), e.g.
certain ethnic or cultural groups.
The Focus of Ethics
Source: Gray, D.E. (2009), Doing Research in the Real World (2nd ed.). London: Sage
Research involving an element of deception such as covert observation
used without the participants’ full or informed consent.
Research involving access to confidential records or information.
Research that leads to stress, anxiety or humiliation amongst target
groups.
Research involving intrusive strategies that people would not normally
meet in their everyday lives – example, the administration of drug or
getting people to do something physically strenuous.
Case Study: Example of Ethically Contentious Practice
A Checklist of Ethical Issues
Source: Gray, D.E. (2009), Doing Research in the Real World (2nd ed.). London: Sage
One of the most infamous experiments to raise important ethical questions was
that conducted by Milgram (1974) which explored the process of obedience to
authority. In this case, an ‘experimenter’ oversaw an experiment in which 2
participants are informed that they are part of a study into the effects of
punishment on memory retention. 1 participant took the part of the ‘learner’ with
the other, taking on the role of the ‘teacher’. The teacher was the actual
research participant, but the ‘experimenter’ and ‘learner’ were, in fact, both
undercover researchers.
Case Study: Example of Ethically Contentious Practice
A Checklist of Ethical Issues
Source: Gray, D.E. (2009), Doing Research in the Real World (2nd ed.). London: Sage
The ‘learner’ was taken to a separate room and hooked up to electrodes. The teacher
then asked the learner a series of questions. Each time the learner got a question
wrong, the teacher (research participant) was asked to administer an electric shock.
Although, in practice, the equipment was fake and no shocks were administered, the
teacher was asked to increase the voltage with each wrong answer. As the voltage
increased, the learner started to grunt, then ask to be released, scream and then
eventually went ominously silent. Approximately, 60% of participants punished the
learner to the point where they ‘passed out’. Milgram believed he was demonstrating
the extent to which people will conform to authority when asked to perform a task, no
matter how distasteful.
Discussion Questions
Was Milgram experiment justified? Think about this in terms of
the duties of researchers, human rights, outcomes and
understandings of vulnerability and autonomy.
What Critics have to say
Critics have condemned the experiment on a whole range of
counts, including doing psychological harm to participants,
using deception and ignoring the need for informed consent.
According to Cassell (1982) what was unethical about
Milgram’s study was that he exposed the participants to
‘unasked for self-knowledge’.
Ethical Principles
Source: Gray, D.E. (2009), Doing Research in the Real World (2nd ed.). London: Sage
Avoid harm to participants
Ensure informed consent of participants
Respect the privacy of participants
Avoid the use of deception
Ensuring Informed Consent
Source: Gray, D.E. (2009), Doing Research in the Real World (2nd ed.). London: Sage
√ The aims of the research
√ Who will be undertaking it
√ Who is being asked to participate
√ What kind of information is being sought
√ How much of the participants’ time is required
√ The participation in the study is voluntary
√ That responding to all questions is voluntary
√ Who will have access to the data once it is collected
√ How anonymity of the participants will be preserved
√ Who should it be returned to and by when
Communicating with Participants
Source: Gray, D.E. (2009), Doing Research in the Real World (2nd ed.). London: Sage
 A brief description of the project, in a form and language that the
participants can understand.
The use of the study and any potential benefits to participants (including
benefits to the participants)
The obligations and commitments of the participants during the study,
especially, their time commitments.
The right of participants to withdraw from the study without having to
give a reason
An assurance of confidentiality of all identifiable information and data.
Contact details for participants in case of complaint or concerns about
the study.
A Checklist of Ethical Issues
Source: Gray, D.E. (2009), Doing Research in the Real World (2nd ed.). London: Sage
Ethical Issue
Privacy
Promises and
reciprocity
Risk
Assessment
Confidentiality
Description
The right not to participate. The right to be contacted at
reasonable times and to withdraw at any time.
What do participants gain from cooperating with the research?
Keep promises, such as giving participants a copy of the
research.
In what ways will the research put people under psychological
stress, legal liabilities, ostracism by peers or others? Will there
be political repercussions? How will you deal with these risks?
What constitutes the kinds of reasonable promises of
confidentiality that can be honoured in practice? Do not make
promises that cannot be kept.
A Checklist of Ethical Issues
Source: Gray, D.E. (2009), Doing Research in the Real World (2nd ed.). London: Sage
Ethical Issue
Informed
Consent
Data access
and
ownership
Researcher
mental health
Description
What kind of formal consent is necessary and how will it
be obtained?
Who will have access to the data and who owns it?
Make sure that is specified in any research contract.
Advice
Who will the researcher use as a confidante or
counsellor on issues of ethics during the research?
How will the researcher be affected by conducting the
research? What will the researcher see or hear that may
require debriefing or counselling?
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